22 Bar Element 2 p> xO FytAo=0 Fp-Ao=0 Figure 22-1, (a) A 1 2 : tg-m two-node bar element, orks showing internal stress ——— a rand noda} dof. laa Pyt AB Bet 0 and up. (b) Equilibrium, a! 2 equations, stress-strain % Fe ryeag oH eg lation, strain- Jima ” displacement relation, and nodal forces Fy @ » and Fy, Obviously, for this element, equilibrium requires F, = Fy. The matrix equation in Eqs. 2.21 is abbreviated as (kl{d} = -(r} (2.22) whore [ke] ie called the clomons stiffness matrix. For the prevent two-node bar element with only axial displacements at nodes, [k] is the 2 by 2 matrix in Eq. 2.2-1. Vector (r) in Eq, 2.2-2 has a negative sign because we will use {r} to mean loads associated with ele~ ‘ment deformation that are apptied by an element zo structure nodes to which the element will be connected. Thus forces -(r} = |F, F,|7 are applied ro the element. Note that AE/L can be regarded as k, the stiffness of a linear spring. A bar and « spring have the same behavior under axial load and are represented by the same stiffness matrix. In the stiffness matrix of Eq. 2.2-1, we see an instance of the following general rule. A-column of (k] is the vector of loads that must be applied to an element at its nodes to maintain a deformation state in which the corresponding nodal d.o,f. has unit value while all other nodal dof. are zero. For example, let u = O and up = 1 in Bq. 2.2-1, so that the multiplication (k}{a) pro- duces the second column of {k]. Thus, Lath f}-2b} a which comesponds to Fig. 2.2-1a when © = u,/L. Ul Heat Conduction. Let a uniform bar have cross-sectional area A, thermal conductivity &, and insulation that prevents heat transfer across its lateral surface (Fig. 2.2-2). According to the Fourier heat conduction equation, the rate of axial heat flow, g, is aT ee (2.2-4) where T is temperature relative to an arbitrarily chosen reference temperature (0 °C, per- haps) ST units for g are W (watts), The negative sign indicates that the direction of heat flow is opposite to the temperature gradient dT/dx. Here dT/dx is independent of x because the bar is uniform and its lateral surface is insulated. Specifically, d7/dx = (= T/L.2 (ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS AND COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES. Figure 2.2-2. Nodal heat flow in a uniform bar of cross-sectional area A whose lateral surface is perfectly insulated, Flows are shown for T, > Owith 7, = Oand for T, = 0 with 7, >0. In formulating the element we adopt the convention that heat flow q at ends of the bar is positive when heat flows out of the element, and thus positive when heat flows into struc- ture nodes to which the element will be connected. This sign convention is analogous to that used with {r) in Eq, 2.2-2, We relate nodal temperatures to nodal heat flows by equa- tions shown in Fig, 2.2-2, In matrix form, the equations in Fig. 2.2-2 are [ AKL ava dtd fe} =- 2.25) “Ak AK/L||T, % in which the square matrix is the element conductivity matrix, analogous to the stiffness matrix of structural mechanics. In analogy to the argument associated with Eq. 2.2-3, a column of a conductivity matrix can be regarded as the vector of nodal heat flows associ- ated with unit value of the corresponding nodal temperature and zero values of all other nodal temperatures (relative to the reference temperature). Equation 2.2-5 is also applicable to a flat sheet of material whose opposite surfaces have different but uniform temperatures. Then L represents the sheet thickness. IFA = 1 in Eq, 22-4, q can be interpreted as heat flow per unit area (see Eq. 2.2-9). Structure Equations. Consider a structure built of two uniform elastic bars attached end. to end, as shown in Fig. 2.2-3a. Only axial displacements are allowed. Stiffnesses of the respective elements are k and kp. The structure stiffness equation is yO Tim) fF why Rythy Why |yuep= Foy or USD} = (R} 22-6) o - & fle) ly {K] is called either the structure stiffness matrix or the global stiffness matrix. This partic- ular (K] is easily obtained by applying the general rule stated above Eq. 2.2-3. Thus, as shown in latter portions of Fig. 2.2-3, we activate each dof. in tum, giving unit value to the activated d.o.f. while other d.o.f. are zero, and calculate the nodal forces required for static equilibrium, For each d.o.f activated, we array nodal forces in a column, ordered by d.o.£ mimber, with negative sign if directed opposite to nodal displacement. Each such array is a column of [K].22 Bar Element 2B 1 @ 2 © 3 2 3 % ie % @ © 1 gies L ———. —— % on te © @ Figure 2.2.3. (a) Structure formed by two bar elements. (b,c,d) Nodal forces associated ‘with unit displacement of ezch d.o. in turn. ‘An altemative way to obtain [K] is as follows. Imagine thatthe two elements in Fig, 2.2-3a are not yet connected but are provided with numbered ends: 1 and 2 for element 1, and? and 3 for element 2, Separately, when expanded to “structure size,” stiffness matrices for elements 1 and 2can be written My ty Hy my Ma Uy a) 00 0 mk ky 0] and | 0 ky -ky e227 0 00 [0 -ky he Element 1 Element 2 where appended column headings 1, up, and us indicate d.o.f. activated to generate matrix columns. Added zeros in the matrix for (say) element 1 can be explained as follows. The row of zeros indicates that because element 1 is not connected to node 3, displacement of any node cannot cause element 1 to produce a force at node 3. The column of zeros indicates that displacement 1 does not strain element 1, so element 1 applies no force to any node: Clearly, addition of the two matrices in Eq. 2.2-7 produces [K] of Eq. 2.2-6. In general, one can imagine a physical space, initially empty except for numbered nodes in their proper positions, that becomes a structure as elements are added, Simultaneously the structure stiffness matrix (K] becomes populated by addition of stiffness coefficients from elements. This process of building a structure matrix [K] from constituent element matrices [kt] is called assembly. Support conditions, more generally called boundary conditions, are discussed in Section 2.7. For now we note only that if, for example, the left end of the structure in Fig. 2.2-3a is attached to a rigid support, then u, = 0, and the structure stiffness matrix that relates the remaining “active” do. uw, and u is, [ky thy ky] fu, F; ithe Ka) fun] _ [Fo aay why | Lus} Fa from which uw and us can be determined when loads F, and F, on structure nodes 2 and 3 are prescribed. As with other stiffness matrices, columns of {K] in Eq. 2.2-8 can be obtained by activating d.o.f. in turn and calculating nodal loads required to maintain equilibrium,