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A Short Course On Synchronous
A Short Course On Synchronous
Fundamentals of
synchronous machines
Synchronous Machines
• Example of a rotating electric machine
• DC field winding on the rotor, AC armature
winding on the stator
• May function as a generator (MECHANICAL
Æ ELECTRICAL) or a motor (ELECTRICAL
Æ MECHANICAL)
• Origin of name: syn = equal, chronos =
time
Synchronous Machines
ROTATION
• FIELD WINDING
• ARMATURE WINDING
Synchronous Machines
The concept of air gap flux
STATOR
ROTOR
Synchronous Machines
• The inductance of the stator winding
depends on the rotor position
• Energy is stored in the inductance
• As the rotor moves, there is a change in the
energy stored
• Either energy is extracted from the magnetic
field (and becomes mechanical energy – that
is, its is a motor)
• Or energy is stored in the magnetic field and
eventually flows into the electrical circuit that
powers the stator – this is a generator
Synchronous Machines
The basic relationships are
ENERGY = (1/2) ( L I 2 )
q
The basic expression for the voltage in the
stator (armature) is
v = r i + dλ/dt
Where v is the stator voltage, r is the stator
resistance, and λ is the flux linkage to the
field produced by the field winding
Synchronous Machines
jx
SEND RECEIVE
Vsend
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Vinternal
Vterminal
Example
A synchronous generator stator
reactance is 190 ohms, and the internal
voltage (open circuit) generated is 35
kV line to line. The machine is
connected to a three phase bus whose
voltage magnitude is 35 kV line-line.
Find the maximum possible output
power of this synchronous generator
Synchronous Machines
Example
Work on a per phase basis
35 kV line-line = 20.2 kV l-n
Max P occurs when torque angle is 90
degrees
P = (20.2K)(20.2K)(sin(90))/190
= 2.1 MW per phase = 6.3 MW three phase
Vsend
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Example
If the phase angle is limited to 45 degrees, find
the generator power output
Vsend
TORQUE ANGLE
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Example
P = 6.3 sin(45) = 4.6 MW
Vsend
TORQUE ANGLE
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Losses
Rotor: resistance; iron parts moving in a magnetic
field causing currents to be generated in the rotor
body; resistance of connections to the rotor (slip
rings)
Stator: resistance; magnetic losses (e.g., hysteresis)
Mechanical: windage; friction at bearings, friction at
slip rings
Stray load losses: due to nonuniform current
distribution
• Cooling
• Damping
Power factor
Power factor is the cosine between
voltage and current in a sinusoidal
AC circuit.
Vsend = E
Vsend
Angle between
sending volts and
GENERATOR current
NOTATION
Power factor
Vsend = E
MOTOR
NOTATION
Power factor
MOTOR Vt = E + jIax
GENERATOR Vt = E - jIax
Power factor
E
MOTOR
NOTATION Voltage drop in reactance
Successively smaller and
smaller torque angle
The machine torque angle is made smaller and
smaller by reducing the electrical load (P)
Vt = E + jIax
Vt Current in the circuit
E
MOTOR
NOTATION Voltage drop in reactance
Successively smaller and
smaller torque angle
The machine torque angle is made smaller and
smaller by reducing the electrical load (P)
Vt = E + jIax
Vt = E + jIax
Current
in the Vt
circuit
MOTOR
E
NOTATION Voltage drop in reactance
Successively greater field
excitation
Increasing the field excitation causes E to
increase
Vt = E + jIax
Current
in the Vt
circuit
MOTOR
E
NOTATION Voltage drop in reactance
Successively greater field
excitation
Increasing the field excitation causes E to
increase
Vt = E + jIax
Current
in the Vt
circuit
MOTOR
E
NOTATION Voltage drop in reactance
The foregoing indicates that as the machine
(1) approaches zero power operation – the
borderline between generator and motor
operation, the active power to/from the
machine goes to zero and (2) as the machine
becomes overexcited, the power factor
becomes cos(90) = 0.
V jIax
E
Synchronous condenser
operation
Nearly zero active power flow, Power factor correction,
nearly zero power factor, nearly reactive power support,
perpendicular Ia and Vt, current voltage support,
leads terminal voltage acting as reactive power can be
a motor, it acts as a capacitor varied by varying
excitation, low loss, no
‘resonance problems’ of
Ia conventional fixed
capacitors, potentially a
large source of reactive
power
jIax
Vt
E
Examples
A synchronous generator is rated 100 MVA.
The machine is intended to be operated at
rated power at torque angle = 37 degrees.
The armature resistance is 0.1%, and the
reactance is 85%. The terminal voltage is
rated 34.5 kV. Find the machine internal
percent excitation and terminal pf when the
machine operates at 100 MW. Estimate the
armature I2R losses.
Examples
| Vt || E | sin(δ )
P=
x
(1)(| E | sin(37 o )
=
0.85
= 1.41
Examples
E = 1.41 /37o
Ia
Vt = 1.00 /0o
RPM = 120*60 / 6
= 1200
Examples
At | I a |= 0.75
1.0− | E f |= −1.5 | 0.75 |
| E f |= 2.125
Examples
Vt = E + jI a x
1∠0 =| E f | ∠0 + jI a (1.5)
[1.0− | E f | ∠0 = 1.5 | I a | ∠(90 + 90 )
o o
At | I a |= 1.00
1.0− | E f |= −1.5 | 1.00 |
| E f |= 2.50
Synchronous machine
models
• Saturation and the
magnetization curve
• Park’s transformation
• Transient and subtransient
reactances, formulas for
calculation
• Machine transients
Saturation and the magnetization
curve
c
R
AI
f’ f’’
FIELD EXCITATION
SHORT CIRCUIT ARMATURE CURRENT
OPEN CIRCUIT TERMINAL VOLTAGE
NE
RATED Ia
LI
AP
G
c
R
AI
f’ f’’
FIELD EXCITATION
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE =
SLOPE OF AIR GAP LINE
SHORT CIRCUIT RATRIO = Of’/Of’’
Saturation and the magnetization
curve
• Saturation occurs because of the alignment
of magnetic domains. When most of the
domains align, the material saturates and no
little further magnetization can occur
• Saturation is mainly a property of iron -- it
does not manifest itself over a practical
range of fluxes in air, plastic, or other non-
ferrous materials
• The effect of saturation is to lower the
synchronous reactance (to a ‘saturated
value’)
Saturation and the magnetization
curve
• Saturation may limit the performance of
machines because of high air gap line
voltage drop
• Saturation is often accompanied by
hysteresis which results in losses in
AC machines
• Saturation is not present in
superconducting machines
Transients and the dq
transformation
rF
ia
iF LF a
vF
ra
rD
L aa
L bb ib va
iD LD rb
v D =0
b
rQ
rn Lc c
vb
iQ LQ Ln rc
v Q =0 vn ic
c
rG
vc
iG LG n
v G =0
in
Transients and the dq
rF
transformation
ia
iF LF a
vF
ra
rD
L aa
L bb ib va
iD LD rb
v D =0
b
rQ
rn Lc c
vb
iQ LQ Ln rc
v Q =0 vn ic
c
rG
vc
iG LG n
v G =0
in
v = − ri − λ
Transients and the dq
transformation
d-axis THE VOLTAGE EQUATION AS
THE BASIC IDEA IS TO WRITE
ROTATION
q-axis
v = − ri − λ
Transients and the dq
transformation
v = − ri − λ
λ
va ra 0 0 0 0 0 0 ia a
v 0
rb 0 0 0 0 0 ib λb
b
vc 0 0 rc 0 0 0 0 i c λc
− v = − 0
0 0 rF 0 0 0 i F − λF +
F
− v D 0 0 0 0 rD 0 0 i D λ D
− v 0
0 0 0 0 rG 0 iG λ
G G
− v Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 rQ i Q λ
Q
Transients and the dq
transformation
1 1 1
2 2
π
2
π
PARK’S TRANSFORMATION
P= cos θ cos(θ − ) cos(θ +
3 3
2 2 2 )
3
sin θ sin(θ − 2π 3 ) sin(θ + 2π 3 )
θ = ωR t + δ + π 2 BY APPLYING PARK’S
TRANSFORMATION, THE TIME
VARYING INDUCTANCES
BECOME CONSTANTS
Transients and the dq
transformation
v0 r + 3rn 0 0 0 0 0 0 i0
v 0 r ω( LAQ + A q ) 0 0 ωLAQ ωLAQ id
d
vq 0 − ω( LAD + A d ) r − ωLAD − ωLAD 0 0 iq
− v = − 0 0 0 rF 0 0 0 iF
F
− vD 0 0 0 0 rD 0 0 iD
− v 0 0 0 0 0 rG 0 iG
G
− vQ 0 0 0 0 0 0 rQ iQ
L0 + 3Ln 0 0 0 0 0 0 i0
0 LAD + A d 0 LAD LAD 0 0 i
d
0 0 LAQ + A q 0 0 LAQ LAQ iq
−
1
⋅ 0 LAD 0 LAD + A F LAD 0 0 i
ωB F
0 LAD 0 LAD LAD + A D 0 0 iD
0 0 LAQ 0 0 LAQ + A G LAQ iG
0 0 LAQ 0 0 LAQ LAQ + A Q iQ
Machine reactances
rF LF ra La
iF rD id
vF iD
+ LAD
vd
LD
+
ωψq
d-axis equivalent circuit
Machine reactances
rG LG ra La
iG rQ iq
iQ
LAQ
vq
LQ
+
ωψd
q-axis equivalent circuit
Machine reactances
• These equivalent circuit parameters are
traditionally obtained by a combination of
manufacturers’ design specifications and
actual tests
• IEEE has a series of standardized tests for
large generators that yield several time
constants and equivalent circuit inductances
• Aging and saturation are not well accounted
• Change in operating point is not well
accounted
Machine transient and subtransient
reactances
Subtransient direct axis LD L2AD + LF L2AD − 2L3AD
inductance L "
d Ld −
LF LD − L2AD
Transient direct axis L2AD
inductance L '
d Ld −
LF
Subtransient open
circuit time constant in τ "
do
LD LF − L2AD
the direct axis ω B rD LF
Transient open circuit
time constant in the τ '
do
LF
direct axis ω B rF
Subtransient short
circuit time constant in τ "
d
L"d "
τ do
the direct axis Ld
'
iq iara
ia
Vt
id
Ea’ jiqxq SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
jidxd PHASOR DIAGRAM
iq iara
POWER ia
FACTOR
Vt ANGLE
TORQUE
ANGLE
id
Ea’ jiqxq SYNCHRONOUS
jiqxq ji x GENERATOR
PHASOR DIAGRAM
jiaxq d d
idxq
iq iara
POWER ia
FACTOR
Vt ANGLE
TORQUE
ANGLE
id
Machine transient and subtransient
reactances
Measurements
Estimator
System
Estimated
z x̂ states
H
EXAMPLE 1
Assume that it is desired to estimate two states (variables)
Three measurements are obtained, which form the following
equations
x1 + x2 = 3.1 1 1 3.1
2 x1 − x2 = 0.2 In matrix form: 2 − 1 x1 = 0.2
x2
x1 − 3 x2 = −4.8 1 − 3 − 4.8
ˆx = ( H T H ) −1 H T z = H + z
T T
J = r r = ( z − Hxˆ ) ( z − Hxˆ )
1 1 3.1 − 0.03
1.098
r = Hx − z = 2 − 1
ˆ − 0.2 = 0.224
1.972
1 − 3 − 4.8 − 0.018
− 0.03
⇒ J = [− 0.03 0.224 − 0.018] 0.224 = 0.0514
− 0.018
WHY ARE ESTIMATORS NEEDED?
In power systems the state variables are
typically the voltage magnitudes and the relative
phase angles at the nodes of the system.
An estimator may:
• reduce the amount of noise in the measurements
• detect and smooth out small errors in readings
• detect and reject measurements with gross errors
• fill in missing measurements
• estimate states that otherwise are difficult to
measure
EXAMPLE 2
V1 R1
Assume we have a network
V2 R2
configuration as in the figure on the left.
V3
Assume that measurements are
available for V1, V2, and V3. Find a
R3
relationship for V3 that has the following
form: V3 = aV1 + bV2 + c
Available measurements This is clearly an estimation
V1 V2 V3 problem with three unknowns (a,
7.1 0 3.1 b, c), and four measurements.
8.3 3.2 2.3 Therefore it is an overdetermined
10.4 5.1 1.4
0 9.1 4.0
estimation problem.
40 MW
BUS 1 BUS 2
M12 20 MW M32
60 MW
50 MW
90 MW
M13
30 MW BUS 3
Given:
X12 = 0.2 p.u.
X13 = 0.4 p.u.
X23 = 0.1 p.u.
System base: 100 MVA
EXAMPLE 3
SOLUTION
40 MW
BUS 1 BUS 2
M12 20 MW M32 Let bus 1 be the reference bus
60 MW
50 MW
90 MW
ϑ1 = 0
−5 0 0 .2
ϑ
In matrix form, 0 − 2.5 2 = 0.3
ϑ
− 10 10 3 − 0.6
ϑˆ2 − 0.0438
⇒ = rad
ϑ3
ˆ − 0 .1048
APPLICATION OF STATE ESTIMATION
TO SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
• Need to know the operating parameters of generators to
→ perform studies
→ study behavior of the system at various operating levels
→ perform postmortem analysis
• Meet requirements for machine testing (e.g. NERC)
• To reestablish machine parameters after a repair
• Fault identification / signature analysis
• Incipient event identification
APPLICATION OF STATE ESTIMATION
TO SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Problems:
Generator parameters change with operating point, aging
Cannot measure parameters while generator is committed
Cannot afford to decommit unit in order to measure its
parameters
Solution:
Use available terminal measurements, knowledge of the
model of the generator, and state estimation, to approximate
the required parameters
d axis ϑ q axis
ib ic
direction of
rotation iQ
iG iD
ia iF ia
iF iG
iD iQ
b axis ic ib c axis
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR MODEL
rF
ia
vF iF LF a
rD ra
Laa ib
iD Lbb r va
vD=0 LD
b
b
rQ
rn Lcc
vb
vQ=0
iQ LQ Ln vn rc
ic
c
rG
vc
iG LG n
vG=0
in
1 1 1
2 2 2
P = 2 cos ϑ cos(ϑ − 2π ) cos(ϑ + 2π )
3 3 3
sin ϑ sin(ϑ − 2π ) sin(ϑ + 2π )
3 3
Resulting model:
v0 dq 3 x1 i0 dq 3 x1 i0 dq 3 x1
v = −[R7 x 7 ]i − [L7 x 7 ]i
FDGQ 4 x1 FDGQ 4 x1 FDGQ 4 x1
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR MODEL
v0 r + 3rn 0 0 0 0 0 0 i0
v 0 r ω( LAQ + A q ) 0 0 ωLAQ ωLAQ id
d
vq 0 − ω( LAD + A d ) r − ωLAD − ωLAD 0 0 iq
− v = − 0 0 0 rF 0 0 0 i F
F
−
Dv 0 0 0 0 rD 0 0 iD
− vG 0 0 0 0 0 rG 0 iG
− v
Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 rQ iQ
L0 + 3Ln 0 0 0 0 0 0 i0
0 LAD + A d 0 LAD LAD 0 0 i
d
0 0 LAQ + A q 0 0 LAQ LAQ iq
−
1
0 LAD 0 LAD + A F LAD 0 0 i
ωB F
0 LAD 0 LAD LAD + A D 0 0 iD
0 0 LAQ 0 0 LAQ + A G LAQ iG
0 0 L AQ 0 0 L AQ L AQ + A iQ
Q
MODEL DISCUSSION
After the development of the model it is necessary to
carefully examine the available information about the
system, find out what is known in the model, what is
unknown and needs to be calculated or assumed, and what
is desired to be estimated.
For the synchronous generator case,
Measured/Known Unknown
line-to-line terminal voltages damper currents
line currents current derivatives
field voltage (for an exciter with brushes)
field current (for an exciter with brushes)
Machine instrumentation
Session topics:
The DFR
sends the
measured
signals to a
central pc
station
through a
modem
DIGITAL FAULT RECORDERS (DFRs)
Typical specifications:
Analog channels: 8, 16, 24, or 32
Digital channels: 16, 32, 48, or 64
Sample rate: 24-192 samples/min
Operating voltage: 48VDC, 125VDC, 250VDC, 120VAC
CALCULATION OF TORQUE ANGLE
The torque angle δ is defined as the angle between the
machine emf E and the terminal voltage V as shown in the
phasor diagram
δ V jxqIa
φ rIa
Ia
CALCULATION OF TORQUE ANGLE
The torque angle can be calculated in
different ways depending on what information
is available
Two ways to calculate the torque angle will be
shown:
1. Using line to line voltages and line currents
(stator frame of reference)
2. Using voltages and currents in the rotor frame of
reference (0dq quantities)
CALCULATION OF TORQUE ANGLE
IN THE STATOR REFERENCE FRAME
Known quantities:
Line to line voltages (vab, vbc, vca)
Line currents (ia, ib, ic)
Procedure:
1. Calculate phase voltages 2. Calculate three phase active
1
va = (vab − vca )
and reactive power
3 P = vabia − vbc ic
1
vb = (−vab + vbc ) Q = (vabic + vbc ia + vca ib ) 3
3
1
vc = (−vbc + vca )
3
3. Calculate the power factor
Q
φ = tan −1
P
CALCULATION OF TORQUE ANGLE
IN THE STATOR REFERENCE FRAME
4. Calculate the voltage angle for each phase
For a balanced 3-phase system,
va = vm cos θ
vb = vm cos(θ − 120)
vc = vm cos(θ + 120)
For phase a, use phases b and c
1 3
vb = vm cos θ cos120 + vm sin θ sin 120 = − vm cos θ + vm sin θ
2 2
1 3
vc = vm cos θ cos120 − vm sin θ sin 120 = − vm cos θ − vm sin θ
2 2
Procedure:
1. Calculate the active and reactive power
P = vd id + vq iq
Q = vq id − vd iq