viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xx

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 AREA OF STUDY 2
1.2.1 The Geographical Area of Study 2
1.2.2 History of Kanchipuram 5
1.2.3 Architectural Developments in Kanchipuram 6
1.2.4 History of Pallava Architecture 6
1.2.5 Temples in Kanchipuram 8
1.2.6 History of Sandstone Monuments 9
1.2.7 Conservation of Sandstone Monuments in
Kanchipuram 9
1.3 MOTIVATION OF THE STUDY 13
1.3.1 Pervious Works on the Area of Study 13
1.3.2 Focus of the Study 13
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 17
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 17
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 17
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS 18

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

 ix

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 20
2.1 INTRODUCTION 20
2.2 CONSERVATION OF MONUMENTS 21
2.2.1 Conservation of Monuments - International 21
2.2.2 Conservation of Monuments - National 22
2.3 Conservation of Stone Monuments 24
2.3.1 Mechanisms of Stone Decay 24
2.3.2 Conservation of Stone Monuments
- International 26
2.3.3 Conservation of Stone Monuments
- National 32
2.3.3.1 Stone monuments in India 32
2.3.3.1.1 Igneous stones 33
2.3.3.1.2 Sedimentary stones 33
2.3.3.1.3 Metamorphic stones 33
2.3.3.2 Weathering of stone monuments
in India 36
2.3.3.3 Research works done on stone
conservation in India 37
2.4 BOOKS REVIEW 42
2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS DRAWN
FOR THE PRESENT STUDY FROM THE
LITERATURE REVIEW 44

3 METHODOLOGY 47
3.1 METHODOLOGY ADOPTED FOR THE STUDY 47
3 .2 METHODOLOGY ADOPTED FOR DECAY
MAPPING OF THE MONUMENTS 49
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
 x

3.2.1 Decay Mapping - Stage I 49

3.2.2 Decay Mapping - Stage II 57

4 CHARACTERIZATION OF SANDSTONE 59
4.1 INTRODUCTION 59
4.2 LIMITATION IN COLLECTING A NUMBER
OF SAMPLES 60
4.2.1 Photographs of the Samples Collected
from the Temples 60
4.3 CHARACTERIZATION OF SANDSTONE
USED IN THE TEMPLES 61
4.3.1 Megascopic Analysis 62
4.3.2 Petrological Analysis 62
4.3.2.1 Preparation of thin sections 62
4.3.2.2 Microphotographs of the
sandstone samples 63
4.3.3 Interpretation of the Petrological Analysis 64
4.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 64
4.4.1 Interpretation of the Chemical Analysis 65
4.5 SUMMARY 66

5 INVESTIGATION OF THE PRESENT STATUS OF

THE DETERIORATION OF SANDSTONE
MONUMENTS BY DECAY MAPPING 67
5.1 INTRODUCTION 67
5.2 DOCUMENTATION OF THE TEMPLES 68
5.3 DECAY MAPPING OF SANDSTONE
MONUMENTS 73
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
 xi

5.3.1 Decay Mapping - The Matengeswara

Temple - Monument-I 86
5.3.2 Decay Mapping - The Mukteswara
Temple - Monument-II 86
5.3.3 Decay Mapping - The Piravataneswara
Temple - Monument-III 86
5.4 FINDINGS FROM THE DECAY MAPPING 102
5.5 CONSERVATION MEASURES TO BE
TAKEN FOR THE MONUMENTS 104
5.6 SUMMARY 107

6 INVESTIGATION TO PROCURE FRESH

SANDSTONE FOR CONSERVATION AND
RESTORATION WORKS 109
6.1 INTRODUCTION 109
6.2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL
LOCATIONS TO OBTAIN COMPATIBLE
SANDSTONE IN TAMILNADU 110
6.2.1 Sandstone Exposures in Tamilnadu 110
6.2.2 Geology of Kanchipuram District 110
6.2.2.1 Lithological data of Kanchipuram
district 112
6.2.2.2 Collection of fresh sandstone
samples 112
6.3 CHARACTERIZATION OF FRESH
SANDSTONE 117
6.3.1 Megascopic Analysis 117
 xii

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

6.3.1.1 Photographs of the sandstone

samples collected from the
wells/field 117
6.3.2 Petrological Analysis 119
6.3.2.1 Preparation of thin sections 119
6.3.2.2 Interpretation of the petrological
analysis 121
6.3.3 Chemical Analysis 121
6.3.3.1 Interpretation of the chemical
analysis 122
6.4 COMPATIBILITY OF FRESH SANDSTONE 123

7 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 124

7.1 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 124
7.1.1 Characterization of Sandstone used
in the Temples 124
7.1.2 Weathering of Sandstone 124
7.1.3 Conservation of Monuments 125
7.1.4 Geographical Locations to Procure Fresh
Sandstone for Conservation Works 125
7.2 CONCLUSIONS 126
7.2.1 Effectiveness of the Methodology 126
7.2.2 The Significant and Peculiar form of
Decay found on Temples in Tamilnadu 127
7.2.3 Status of Structural Stability of the
Monuments 128
7.2.4 Identification of Geographical Locations to
obtain Compatible Sandstone 128
 xiii

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

7.2.5 Procurement of Material for Construction

of the Monuments 128
7.3 FURTHER RESEARCH 129

APPENDIX 130

REFERENCES 133

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 140

VITAE 141
 xiv

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 Architectural Style of the Pallavas 7

2.1 Types of stone used in Indian monuments 35
3.1 Methodology adopted for the study 47
3.2 Physical disintegration 51
3.3 Salt attack 52
3.4 Bio-deterioration 54
3.5 Human intervention 55
3.6 Level of decay 56
4.1 Chemical analysis 65
6.1 Stratigraphic succession of geological formations
for Kanchipuram district 111
6.2 Litholgoical report of Kanchipuram district 113
6.3 Geographical sites identified from where fresh sandstone
samples were obtained in Kanchipuram taluk 116
6.4 Chemical analysis 122
7.1 Geographical locations to procure fresh compatible
sandstone 126
 xv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1.1 Location of the State of Tamilnadu on the map of India 3

1.2 Location of Kanchipuram district in Tamilnadu 3
1.3 Kanchipuram district map showing the location of
Kanchipuram town - The geographical area of the study 4
1.4 Plan of Kanchipuram town - Geographical area of study 4
1.5 The Kailasanatha temple 10
1.6 The Vaikuntha Perumal temple 10
1.7 The Mukteswara temple 11
1.8 The Matengeswara temple 11
1.9 The Iravataneswara temple 12
1.10 The Piravataneswara temple 12
1.11 Splitting and peeling of stone layers found in the
Matengeswara temple and the Vaikuntha Perumal
temple 14
1.12 Rounding of edges found in the Kailasanatha temple 14
1.13 Surface erosion found in the Piravataneswara temple 15
1.14 Pitting found in the Vaikuntha Perumal temple and the
Iravataneswara temple 15
1.15 Growth of micro-organisms found over the lime
wash applied on sandstone surface - The Iravataneswara
temple 15
1.16 Cracks found in the columns - The Kailasanatha temple 16
2.1 Geological map of India 32
3.1 Methodology adopted for Decay mapping - Stage I 49
 xvi

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.2 Methodology adopted for decay mapping - Stage II 57

4.1 Sandstone sample collected from the Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 60
4.2 Sandstone sample collected from the Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 61
4.3 Sandstone sample collected from the Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 61
4.4 Photograph of the thin sections prepared from the
samples 62
4.5 Microphotographs of sample I 63
4.6 Microphotographs of sample II 63
4.7 Microphotographs of sample III 63
5.1 Documentation of the Matengeswara temple -
Monument-I 70
5.2 Documentation of the Mukteswara temple -
Monument-II 71
5.3 Documentation of the Piravataneswara temple -
Monument-III 72
5.4 Investigation grid - East elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 74
5.5 Investigation grid - West elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 75
5.6 Investigation grid - North elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 76
5.7 Investigation grid - South elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 77
5.8 Investigation grid - East elevation - The Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 78
 xvii

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.9 Investigation grid - West elevation - The Mukteswara

temple - Monument-II 79
5.10 Investigation grid - North elevation - The Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 80
5.11 Investigation grid - South elevation - The Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 81
5.12 Investigation grid - East elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 82
5.13 Investigation grid - West elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 83
5.14 Investigation grid - North elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 84
5.15 Investigation grid - South elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 85
5.16 Decay mapping - East elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 87
5.17 Decay mapping - West elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 88
5.18 Decay mapping - North elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 89
5.19 Decay mapping - South elevation - The Matengeswara
temple - Monument-I 90
5.20 Decay mapping - Comparison of the elevations on four
sides - The Matengeswara temple - Monument-I 91
5.21 Decay mapping - East elevation - The Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 92
 xviii

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.22 Decay mapping - West elevation - The Mukteswara

temple - Monument-II 93
5.23 Decay mapping - North elevation - The Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 94
5.24 Decay mapping - South elevation - The Mukteswara
temple - Monument-II 95
5.25 Decay mapping - Comparison of the elevations on
four sides - The Mukteswara temple - Monument-II 96
5.26 Decay mapping - East elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 97
5.27 Decay mapping - West elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 98
5.28 Decay mapping - North elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 99
5.29 Decay mapping - South elevation - The Piravataneswara
temple - Monument-III 100
5.30 Decay mapping - Comparison of the elevations on
four sides - The Piravataneswara temple -
Monument-III 101
5.31 Example of Decay Level V - very severe damage
seen at the plinth level - west elevation - The
Matengeswara temple 102
5.32 Efflorescence - Decay Level IV found below projections -
The Matengeswara temple 103
5.33 Flaking, scaling, multiple scaling and surface erosion
found at the plinth level - South elevation - The
Matengeswara temple 103
 xix

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

5.34 Pyramidal roof with absence of projections - Section -

The Matengeswara temple 104
5.35 Preparation of lime plaster 105
5.36 Comparison of the restored surface with lime plaster
and the original surface of sandstone -
The Kailasanatha temple 106
5.37 Restoration done missing the original detail 106
5.38 Damages caused by religious practices 107
6.1 Geological map of Tamilnadu 111
6.2 Geological map of Kanchipuram district (part),
prepared by Geological Survey of India, 2003 112
6.3 Topo map (part) of Kanchipuram taluk 114
6.4 Locations of wells from where fresh sandstone were
procured - Topo map (part) of Kanchipuram taluk 115
6.5 Locations of sandstone monuments under study
in Kanchipuram town - Topo map (part) of
Kanchipuram taluk 115
6.6 Community promoted temples built with sandstone
in Kanchipuram town 116
6.7 Sandstone sample I collected from the site
Thiruppakkuzhi 118
6.8 Sandstone sample II collected from the site Kil Ambi 118
6.9 Sandstone sample III collected from the site Mel Ambi 118
6.10 Photograph of the thin sections 119
6.11 Microphotographs of sample I 119
6.12 Microphotographs of sample II 120
6.13 Microphotographs of sample III 120
 xx

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASI - Archaeological Survey of India

GSI - Geological Survey of India
PWD - Public Works Department
SDA - State Departments of Archaeology