Sources of Ancient

Indian History

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 2

Indian History
Ancient India

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Sources of Ancient History

Literary Archaeological Accounts of foreign

Sources Sources travellers and writers

Painting & Idols Greek

Authors
Religious Secular Sangam Articles from excavations
literature literature Chinese
literature Coins
travellers
Monuments and
Brahman Inscriptions writers
Buddhist Jain
and Vedic Lit. Literature Literature Mohammadan
Indigenous Foreign
writers
• Vedas • Brahman • Tripitak • Angas
Non-Historical Historical
• Arnyak • Vedang • Jatak • Upangas
Literature Literature
• Upanishad • Sutra • Pali • Prakirna
• Smriti • Puranas • Sanskrit • Chhed Sutra
• Arthashastra • Rajta rangini
• Mahakavya(Epic) lit. and others
• Astadhyayee • Ramchart i
and others
• Mahabhashya
and others

Religious literature

Brahmanas and Vedic Literary Source (iii) Yajur-Veda: Knowledge of the sacrificial formulas,
for liturgy.
The Vedas (iv) Atharva-Veda: Knowledge of the Magic formulas,
•• The word Veda originated from the root Vidi meaning to named after a kind of group of priests.
know, signifying knowledge.
RIGVEDA
•• Also known as Shruti (to hear).
•• Vedas also known as Apaurusheya (not made by man) • It is the oldest one and known as “the first testament of
and Nitya (existing in all eternity). mankind”.
•• These throw light on the political, religious and the Socio- • It was composed around 1700 B.C.
economic aspects of Vedic period. • First 3 vedas are known as ‘Trayi’.
•• Mantradrashta are the rishis to whom these Vedas are • Rigveda has 10 Mandalas, 1028 Hyms (suktas) and 10,580
ascribed. Richas.
•• There are 4 vedas: • The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the
•• The basic Vedic texts are the Samhita “Collections” longest books. Second to Seventh Mandalas are oldest
of the four Vedas: parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest Mandalas. 8th and 9th
(i) Rig-Veda: Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise, mass delas are of mixed ages.
for recitation. • The Famous Gayatri mantra is in Rig Veda Mandala 3.
(ii) Sama-Veda: Knowledge of the Melodies, for chanting. • Each mandala consists of Suktas which are basically eulogies.
 3
• Rig-Veda has two Branches. The major surviving branch is
Points to Remember
Sakalya. Another branch is Baskala or Vatkal.
•• In Rigveda we have 40 rivers and the Saraswati river is called
• The first word of Rig-Veda is Agni. Hymn 1.1 is addressed the mother of rivers.
to Agni. •• The name of four oceans found in the Rigveda are Apar,
• Mandala 9 is completely devoted to Soma. Purva, Saraswat and Sharyajavat.
•• 6 mandals from 2nd to 7th of Rigved are called Gotra Vamsha
• The 10th mandala contains the Purush Sukta which explains
Mandalas (Kula Grantha).
the 4 Varnas were born from the Mouth, arms, thighs and
feet of the Brahma or Purusha. It is said to have been added Vedas Upvedas Dealing with
later. Rig Dhanurveda Archery
Sama Gandharva the art of music
• Rig-Veda has two Brahamanas, Aitareya Brahmana &
Atharva Ayurveda the medical science
Kaushitaki Brahmana.
Yajur Sthapatyaved Architecture
• Sometimes Aitareya Brahmana is also known as Ashvalayana
Brahmana . The Brahmanas
• These were composed after the vedas to explain the vedic
YAJURVEDA hymns.
• The name comes from Sanskrit word, yajus, meaning • They are written in prose and ritualistic in nature.
"worship" or "sacrifice," and veda, meaning "knowledge." • The various sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately
• It describes the way in which religious rituals and sacred discussed in the Brahmanas.
ceremonies should be performed. Veda Brahmanas
• The "Yajur Veda" is divided into two parts– Rig veda Aitareya & Kaushitiki/Sankhyan.
(i) Shukla (white)Yajur Veda: It deals with prayers and Yajur veda Shatapatha (the oldest and the largest
specific instructions for devotional sacrifices. Brahamana) and Taittariya.
(ii) Krishna (black) Yajur Veda: It deals with instructions Sam veda Panchvisha (Tandya Maha Brahamana)
for sacrificial rituals. Shadvinsh, Chhandogya & Jaiminaya.
• It also contains the principles of Pranayama and Asana Atharva veda Gopatha.
practice.
• There are several translations of parts of the "Yajur Veda" Aranyakas (Concluding portions of Brahmanas)
which include books of formulas, explanations of prose • Word Aranyak means ‘forest’.
mantras and insights into the sacrificial rites. • The name of Rishabha and Arishtenemi is found in the
Akanyakas.
SAMAVEDA (Book of Charts) • These deal with philosophical doctrines and mysticism to
• It is the collection of melodies. answer the various complex questions related to human life.
• It has 1549 shlokas. q  Madhya Nandin q Sankhyayand
q  Talvakar q Tattiriya
• Except 78 all the rest of the hymns have been borrowed
q  Jainiiniya q Maitrayani
from Rigveda. q Aitareya
• These are meant to be sung at Soma Sacrifice.  These books are opposed to sacrifices and ritual.
• Chandogya & Jaiminiya Upnissadas are two main upnisadas  These lay emphasis on meditation and moral virtues to
of Sam-Veda. bridge the gap between Karma Marga (way of work) and
the Gyan Marga (way of know ledge).
• Panchvisha, Shadvisha and Jaiminiya are its Brahamanas.
THE UPANISHADS
ATHARVAVEDA (Book of Magical Formulae)
• Composed by saints between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C.
• It describes popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble • Word Upanishad is a combination of 2 Sanskrit words -
folk. upa and nishad meaning to sit down near someone (Guru)
• It is divided into 20 book volumes containing 731 hymns and attain secret knowledge.
and 5987 mantras. • These are philosophical texts.
• They are generally called Vedanta, as they came towards
• It has about 1200 mantras taken from Rigveda.
the end of the Veda.
• It contains charms and spells towards of evils and • There are 108 upanishads such as Jesh, Kath, Ken,
diseases. Mandukya, Brihdaranyka, Mundaka, Chhanhdogya,
Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kaushitiki.

• These are anti-ritualistic discussing theories of creation of
the universe.
• These define the doctrine of action with the goal to attain
salvation through meditation and self-control.
• The famous doctrine of Adwaitavad is ascertained in
Upanishads.
• The national statement “Satyameva Jayate” has been
taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
• Oldest Upanishad - Vrihadaranyaka.
• All the works are known as Shrutis meaning Revelation.
Shruti means hearing and refers to the hyms of the infinite
hearing by the soul.
VEDANGAS (Limbs of the Vedas)
• Composed around 600-200 B.C.
• Group of Vedanga texts - Dharmasutra
• There are 6 Vedangas:-
1. Shiksha
• It deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation or
phonetics associated with each syllable through the correct
intonation, conjunction (sandhi) and disjunction (vichheda)
of syllables, recognized primarily as vowels and consonants.
•• Pratishakhya is the oldest text on Phonetics.
2. Kalpa
• Kalpa literally means sacred rule or law or ordinance and
sutra means a thread. Sutras are threads of knowledge or
short statements used as memorial rules.
• It deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual
aspect of the Vedas.
• Technically it is the applied science of the Vedas.
• In the absence of written language, the sutras acted as mental
hooks and helped the students remember the intricacies of
performing vedic sacrifices and observing the daily rituals.
• Kalpa Sutras are usually divided into Srautasutras and
Smarthasutras.
• The latter are divided into Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras.
3. Vyakarna
• It deals with Sanskrit grammar or the analysis and
decomposition of words, word formation, root words and
complex sentence structures, providing useful insights into
the usage of words and sentences leading to the mastery of
the language.
• The most authoritative work on the subject is considered to
be the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, who lived probably between
the 5th and 6th Century BC.
4. Nirukta
• It deals with the etymological interpretations or explanations
of obscure words especially those found in the Vedas.
• Technically it deals with the difficult and obscure words of
a dictionary, whose analysis and interpretation is vital to
the study and understanding of the Vedas which are replete
with mysterious symbolism not usually understood by all.
4
• The most authoritative exponent of this branch of study
is Yaksha, a Sanskrit grammarian and master of Sanskrit
etymology, who lived before Panini.
5. Jyotisha
• It deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of
fixing auspicious date and time to perform various vedic
rites and rituals including the sacraments or rites of passage.
The auspicious time is usually determined based on the
position of the luminous bodies (jyotis) namely the sun, the
moon, the stars and other heavenly bodies.
• According to tradition, sage Bhrigu is said to be the first
person who perfected the knowledge of Jyotisha and built a
record of the natal charts of every human being who was to
be born on earth.
• Some of the earliest works on the subject are considered to
be Jyotishyavedanga (400 BC) and the Siddhanta.
• The treatise of Aryabhata, known as Aryabhatiya, (600
AD) and the Panchasiddhantika of Varahamihira are other
important works.
6. Chhanda
• It deals with the analysis of the types of meter used in the
construction of various Vedic hymns.
• Chhandashastra of Pingalanaga is considered to be the
oldest text available on the subject.
• It was probably composed between 6th and 5th Century BC.
SUTRAS
• Kalpasutra is quite famous having 3 parts.
Shravta Sutra  Deals with rituals and yagna
ceremonies.
 Chief compositions are
Samkhyanam, Aashvakayan,
Latkayah, Kattyayana, Bodhyayan
Griha Sutra  Deals with Sanskaras and 4
ashramas: Brahmacharya,
Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa
Dharma Sutra  Deals with social life
 Explain code of conduct and
religious matters
• Also has - Kavshiki Sutra (medical science and remedies)
• Sulya Sutra (Sacrifices)
SMRITIS (Auxiliary treatises)
• It means “remembrance”.
• Regarded as a part of revelation
• There are 6 smritis:
q Manusmriti - oldest smriti (pre-Gupta period)
q Yajnvalka Smriti - Pre- Gupta period
q Narad Smriti - Gupta period
q Parashara Smriti - Gupta Period
q Brihaspati Smriti - Gupta period
q Katyayana Smriti - Gupta period
 5
Points to Remember Vaisheshika Vaishesika Uluka
Darshana Sutra Kanada
Name of the Smritis Chief Commentators Mimansa / Purva Purva minasha Sutra Jaimini
Manu Vishwarupa, Medghatithi, Govindraj Mimansa
Kulluk Bhatt Vedanta/Uttara- Brahamha Sutra/ Badarayana
Mimansa Vedanta Sutra
Yajnavalkya, Narad Vishwarupa, Vijnyaneshwar, Apararka
Parashar Madhavacharya THE UPAVEDAS
• Derived partly from Vedas and partly associated with
PURANAS
other Vedas.
• The Puranas means “the OLD”. • Deals with subjects such as music, art and craft, archery,
• There are 18 Puranas including Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, medicine, etc.
Shiva, Bhagvat, Narad, Markandey, Agni, Bhavishya, q Ayur Veda or medicine - Upaveda of Rigveda
Brahma-Vaivartya, Lingayarah, Skanda, Yaman, q Dhanur Veda or archery - part of Yajurveda

Kurma, Matsya, Garur and Brahmand. q Gandharva Veda or singing - part of samaveda
q Atharveda or Science of wealth - part of Atharva veda
• Oldest Purana - Matsya Purana:

• These discribe the genealogies of various royal dynasties BUDDHIST LITERATURE

q Maurya q  Andhra
TRIPITAKA
q Shishunaga q  Gupta, etc.
• Pitaka literally means ‘basket’ and it was called so, because the
• They describe generally 5 subjects : sarga (creation of
original texts were written on palm-leaves and kept in baskets.
creation of the word), Pratisarga (Re-creation after the
• Vinay Pitaka- Buddha's sayings,
dissolution of the word), wamsha (Genealogies of gods
• Abhidhamma Pitaka - religious discourses of Buddha
and rishis), Manvantara (The reings of the Manus- The (Abhidhamma Pitaka comprises of
first humans) and wamshanucharita (genealogies of various Dighgha Nikaya, Majhim Nikaya,
royal dynasties). Sanyukta, Anguttar Nikaya and
MAHAKAVYA (EPICS) Khuddak\Kshudraka Nikaya).
There are in mainly 2 EPICS: • Milindapanho (i.e. Questions of Milinda)- a dialogue
1. The Ramayana (Valmiki): It is known as ‘Adi kavya’ between Milinda (identical with Indo-
(The oldest epic of the world). At present, it consists of Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist saint
24,000 shlokas i.e., verses (Originally 6,000, Later-12,000, Nagasena.
Finally-24,000) in 7 Kandas i.e., sections. 1st and 7th • Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha - The great chronicles of Sri
Kandas were the latest additions to the Ramayana. Lanka.
2. The Mahabharata (ved Vyasa): The longest epic of
the world. At present, it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas Sanskrit Texts
i.e., verses (Originally-8,800-jay Samhita, Later-24,000- • Famous books by Ashvaghosa:
Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/Bharata, Finnaly-1,00,000- q Buddha charita
Shatasahastri Samhita/Maha bharata) in 18 Parvans i.e., q Saundaramanda
chapters, plus the Harivamsa supplement. Bhagavad Gita
q Sutralankar
is extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahavarata.Shanti
q Sari Putra Prakaram
Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahavarata.
q Vajrasuchi
DARSHANS JATAK KATHAS
• These are auxiliary treaties of the Vedas.
• These are 547 or 549 tales describing the prebirth stories
• There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-
of Buddha.
Darshans:
• Are parts of art and literature useful for the historical study
Darshans Basic Test Founder
Sankhya Sankhya sutra Kapila of 3rd century BC.
Darshana • Present a socio-economic conditions of Mauryan period.
Yoga Darshana Yoga sutra Patanjali
Nyaya Darshana Naya sutra Akshapada
JAIN LITERATURE
Gautama
 6
• Literature of Swetambaras: Kathasarit Sagar  Composed by Somdeva
q Written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit Mudraraksasa  Composed by Vishakhadutta
q Includes 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnakas, Devi Chandra  Composition of Gupta Period.
6 Chhadasutras. 4 Malasutras, 2 Sutragranthas. Guptam  Explains - establishment of
• All Jain granthas complied in the Council of Vallabhi in Mauryan Dynasty
 Fall of Nanda Vansha
516 AD containing exposition about Prasenjit, Ajatshatru,
 Ram Gupta and Dhruvadevi’s story
Bimbishar, etc. Naganand,  Composed by king Harshavardhana
• Parishta Parvan Bhadrabahu Charit:- Provide descriptions Priya Darshika of 7th century AD
about Chandragupta Maurya. and Ratnavali
• Important books: Harsha charita  Composed by Banbhatta
q Parishistaparvan  Describes Harsha’s kingship and
administration.
q Trishista Shalaka
Gaudvaho  Composed by Vakpatiraj
q Purusham Charitra  Explains the victory of king
q Dwayashray Mahakavya Yashovarman of Kannauj and the
q Mahavir Charit subjugation of Gauda.
q Kumarpal Charitra Navsahsanka  Composed by Padmagupta Parimal
Charit  Describes the events of Parmara of
SECULAR LITERATURE Malwa
Vikramank Dev  Composed by Vilhana
NON HISTORICAL SOURCES Charitam  Describes the achievements of king
of Chulukya Vikramaditya VI
ARTHASHASTRA
• Prithviraj Raso  Written by Chand Bardai
q Composed by Kautilya (Chanakya) • Prithviraj Vijay  Composed by Jayank
q Gives a methodoligical analysis of political and Economic • Kumar Parpal
Charit
conditions of the Mauryan Period.
Parmal Raso  Written by Jaganaka
MUDRARAKSHASA:  Describes the Rajputana Period
q Composed by Vishakhadatta.
q Explains the destruction of NANDAS by Chandra Gupta HISTORICAL LITERATURE
Maurya.
RAJTARANGINI
Books Features
q Written by Kalhana in 12th Century.

Arthashastra  Composed by Kautilya (Chanakya)

q Description about rulers of Kashmir.
 Gives a methodoligical analysis of
political and economic conditions q Considered as 1st historical book of India.

of the Mauryan period. Ramcharitam
Astadhyaee  Composed by Panini
 It’s a grammar on which q Written by Sandhyakar Nandi
Patanjali has written annotation q Historical creation describing the works and achievements
named MAHABHASHYA. of Rampal, the Pala ruler of Bengal.
 The book explains the conditions
of Mauryan period. SANGAM LITERATURE
Garg Samhita  Describes the onset of Yavanas in
India. • Sangam: A college or assembly of Tamil poets held under
Abhijnayan Shakun  Composed by Kalidasa Royal patronage of Pandayan Kings in Madurai.
Talam q The Assembly lasted for 9,990 years.
Malvikagni Mitram  Explain the conditions of society
q It was attended by 8,598 poets and 197 Pandyas.
and culture of Gupta period.
 Also describes the fight between q The narrative texts are called Melkanakku consisting
Yavana and Pushyamitra Sanga of 18 major works and 10 idylls.
Bhasha  Composed by Swapnavasvadutta
q This shows that early Tamils were Pastoral.
 Throws light on the events of Gupta
period. q These are heroic poetry giving ideas of the state
Vrihadkata  Composed by Gunadhaya formation in which the army consisted of group of
Vrihat  Composed by Kshemendra warriors, and the taxation system and judiciary.
Kathamanjari
 7
q These didactic texts cover the early centuries of the B MANIMEKALAI
Christian era. • Was written by a grain merchant Sittalai Sattanar.
q Patinenkilkanakku is called Kilakanakku (18 minor • Deals with the adventures of Manimekala, the daughter
works) describes the code of conduct and occupations born of Kovalan and Madhavi.
of various social groups. • This epic is strongly tinged with Buddhism.
q Kural or Muppal, a part of Patinenkilkanakku, was
written by Tiruvalluvar and is called “Bible of Tamil q The authors of these 2 epices were friends who were
Land”. contemporaries of Chera King Senguttuvan.
q These epics reflect the social and economic life of the
SANGAM EPICS Tamils upto 6th century AD.
A SILAPPADIKARAM C SIVAGA SINDAMANI (JIVAKA)
• Composed around 6th century AD. • Was written by Jain Tiruttakra Devas
• Was written by Ilango Adigal. • This epic is tinged with Jainism.
• Deals with the story of Kovalan and Madhavi of • It shows the dominance of Sanskrit style over the indegenous
Kaveripattinam. style of the previous epics.
• Kovalam falls in love with Madhavi and forgets his noble D BHARATAM
wedded wife Kannagi. • Was composed by Perudevanar.
• This epic is called “Illiad Of Tamil Poetry”. • Has great importance of Tamil Literature.

The Three Sangam at a glance

Sl. No Venue Chairmanship Available texts No. of patron
I Sangam Ten-Mudurai (South) Agattiyar × 89
(Old-Capital) of Pandayas
II Sangam Kapatapuram/Alvai Agastaya Tolakapiyyar Tolkappiyam 59
(engulfed in sea) (grammar & poetics)
III Sangam North Madurai Nakkirar Ettutogai, Pattu-Pattu* 49
Patinenkanakku
*Ettutogai and Pattu-Pattu are called Melakanakku.

Sangam Literature and its Author Know more about Literature

Sangam Literature Authors Subject/nature/Hint Some Important Literature/Books Writer
A work on grammar Kuvalaymala Udyaodan Souri
Agattiyam Agastya
of letters Kalpasutra Bhadrabahu
Tolkappiyam (Tamil A treatise on grammar Nyaya Bhasya Vatsyayana
Tolakapiyyar
grammar) & poetry Mudra Rakshas Vishakha Dutt
Ettutogai (8 Melkannakku
– – Malvikagnimitram Kalidas
anthologies) combined form.
Raghuvamsam Kalidas
Pattu Pattu (10 Melkannakku
– – Meghdootam Kalidas
idyls) combined form.
Patinenkilakanakku Ritusamahar Kalidas
– – A didactic work. Mrichcha katikam Shudrak
(18 minor works)
A treatise on polity, Kam Sutra Vatsyayana
Kural (Muppal) Tiruvalluvar
ethics, social norms. Kadambari Banbhatta
A love story of Katha Sarit Sagar Somadeva
Silappadikaram Ilango Adigal
Kovalan Smadhavi Kavya Darsha Dandin
Sittalai The adventures of
Manimekalai Kirartarjuniyam Bharavi
Sattanar Manimekalai
Vikramovarshiyam Kalidas
Sivaga Sindamani Tiruttakadevar A sanskrit treatise
Charudatta Bhasa
Bharatam Perudevanar The last epic
Pratigya Yaugan dharayana Bhasa
Pannirupadalam 12 disciples of A grammatical work
Prayag Prasasti Harisena
(grammar) Agastya on puram literature
Padartha Dharma Sangraha
Kakkipadiniyam
– – A work on prosody Vyasa Bhasya (A yogophi) Acharya Vyasa
(Prosody)
 8
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES Famous Inscriptions
Inscription Aspect King
Junagarh Rock Says that a dam on the Rudradaman
sudarshana lake (Saka)
was constructed by
MATERIAL
Pushyagupta a governor
FROM
EXCAVATIONS COINS INSCRIPTIONS MONUMENTS
of Chandragupta
Maurya. It was written
in Sanskrit
EXCAVATIONS Allahabad Pillar Composed by Harisena Samudragupta
• The credit for excavating the pre-aryan past goes to in Sanskrit
Sir William Jones of Asiatic Bengal Society (estd. on Aihole Inscription Mentions Harsha defeat Pulakeshin II
1st Jan 1784). by Pulakeshin II.
•• James Princep, the Secretary of ABS succeeded for the Composed by Ravikriti
Vishnuvardan son of
1st time in deciphering the Brahmi script. King
•• Sir Alexander Cunninghum, the “father of Indian Gwalior Most famous Pratihara Bhoja
Archaeology, arrived in India in 1831. Inscription king
• He judged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-aryan civilization. Hathigumpha Kharvela
• He was appointed as Archaeological Surveyor by Indian Boghaz koi Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Proves Rig Veda
Government. [1400 B.C.] two Nasatyas mentioned to be more
• In 1904, Lord Curzon revived this work and than 1400 BC old
John Marshall was appointed as its director - general. Nanaghat Achievements of the Satkarni I
• He discovered the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Inscription king [Satvahana king]
•• Rakhal Das Banerji, in 1922, found seals at Mohenjodaro. Nasik Inscription Achievements of the Gautamiputra
• Later on the sites were excavated under the direction of king Satkarni
Marshall from 1924 to 1931. Mehrauli Iron Changragupta II
•• Sir R. E. Mortimer Wheeler made important discoveries Pillar
at Harappa after the 2nd World War. Mandsor Composed by Kumargupta I
• Indian epigraphists such as Bhanu Daji, Bhagavanlal Inscription Vatsabhatti
Indraji, Rajendralal Mitra and R. G. Bhandarker Bhitari Stone Skandagupta
contributed in the excavations of new sites. pillar
COINS Tiruvalangadu His conquests Rajendra I
(annexed whole of Sri (Chola)
• The study of coins is called Numismatics. Lanka)
• Coins helps in discovering ideas about the contemporary Uttaramerur Chola village Cholar Period
economic conditions. assemblies
• They provide facts with date that help us in fixing chronology.
• In Panini’s Astadhyayee, Brahmin, literature and Upanishads INSCRIPTIONS
we find the description of Vedic coins or currency named • Inscriptions are the words cut on stone or metals.
Nishka, Shatman, Suvarna, and Panishka. •• Epigraphy - study of inscriptions.
• The Punch-Marked Coins (of Silver and Copper) are the • Inscriptions are most reliable and free from interpolation.
earliest coins of India.
• These are written in different languages such as Pali,
• The Kushanas issued gold coins depicting many deities on them.
Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, etc.
• The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Lord Shiva.
• Before the Gupta period, 95% of such inscriptions were in
• The Gold coin of Gupta Period are quite important in this
context. Prakrit.
•• Samudra Gupta’s Aswamedha coins and lion slayer coins • In the later period, most of the inscriptions were written in
Brahmi while only a few were in Kharoshti.
reflect his ambitious and love for hunting.
• He is seen playing on a lyre in a coin depicting his love for • Some important inscriptions are:
music. q Ashoka’s rock cut edicts
q Pillar edicts
• For the first time Gold coins were introduced by indo-Greeks. q Inscriptions of Kharvela
• The Gold Coins of Kushanas were purest among all. q Allahabad Inscription/Prashasti by Harisena.
• The rulers of the Gupta dynasties issued the maximum number q Gupta age inscription at Khalimpur & Bhagalpur.
of gold coins.
MONUMENTS AND RUINED CITIES
• Dinar (gold coins) were issued by Guptas.
• These reflect the growth of material prosperity and the
• Most of the coins issued by Satvahana ruler were made of Leads.
development of culture.
 9
• The ancient monuments of Takshila provide information Bengal Paharpur, Mahasthana,
about the Kushans and its sculpture imparts the knowledge of Pundravardhana Kotivarsha, etc.
Gandhar Era.
• The Maurya history is known by the Stupas, Chaityas and viharas.
Madhya Pradesh Vrisha, Padmavati, Ujjain, Sanchi, etc.

Famous Ancient Monuments (Indian and Foreign) Rajasthan Sambhar, Rairh, Karkot Nagar, Bairat
Monument Place etc
Sarnath Varanasi Gujarat Langhnaj/Anhilper, Patan, Amreli, etc.
Ajanta-Alora Aurangabad
Dashavatar Mandir Devgarh, Lalitpur Mysore Chandravali, Brahmagiri, etc.
Bhitargaon’s brick temple Kanpur
Deccan Kondapur, Kolhapur etc.
Parvati Mandir Nachan Kuthar
Shiva Mandir Donda Plateau, Java Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda, Amravati, etc.
Angakorvat Mandir Cambodia Uttar Pradesh Mathura, Varanasi, Shravasti,
Borobudoor Java Hastinapur, Kaushambi, Ahichchhatra
Bogajkoi and Percipolus Turkey etc.
Vaishnan Mandir Kano Mountain, Malaya Kashmir Avantipur, Parihaspur, Martand, etc.

Some Important Literature/Books Writer • Pre-Aryan civilization of Indus valley excavated partly
in Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro in Sind and partly in
Amarkosha Amarsimha
Harappa in Punjab.
Chandravyakarana Chandragomin • Large sities have been discovered in North-West India,
Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma Rajasthan and Deccan.
Hitopadesha Narayan Bhatta • The only Neolithic Settlement (7000 BC) discovered in
Aryabhattiya Aryabhatta Indian Subcontinent is in Mehrgarh. It is located on the
Brihatsamhita Varahmihira banks of Bolan river on Kochi Plain.
Panchasidhantika Varahmihira
Laghu and Brihat Jataka Varahmihira
ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN TRAVELLERS AND
Nitisastra Kamandaka WRITERS
Natya Darpan Ramchandra • Before the arrival of Alexander, scripts of information
Kavyalankara Bhamaha about India were written by some Greek authors like:–
Dashpadarthashastra Dignaga  Herodotus
 Ktesia
Brahma Sidhanta Brahmagupta  Hiketious
Charak Samhita Charak  Skylaix
Astanga hridaya Vagbhata  With the expedition of Alexander, some great men of
Shalya Shastra Sushruta letters came to India and took interest in Indian philosophy
Ashwashastra Shalihotra and culture.
There were –
Nayayavatar Sudhasena
 Aristobulous
Visuddim agga Buddhaghosa
 Aunesicritous
Praman samuchchay Ignaga  Neorkous
Nyayapranesh Dingnath  Megasthenes, the Ambassador of Seleucus Nikator to
Bhattikavya Bhatti Chandra Gupta Maurya, wrote a highly valuable account
Mitakshara Vigyaneshwar of India in his book "Indica".
Setubandh Pravarsen This book was translated by MC crindle.
Abhinav Bharti Abhinv Gupta  Tsumachin (100 B.C), the "Father of the history of China",
was the '1st Chinese historian to describe India.
Shringar Prakash Bhoj
 Tibetian writer Lama Taranath wrote Kangyur and
RUINED CITIES Tangyur through which we known about Shakas,
Kushans and Parthians.
• The important excavated cities and towns of ancient India are:-
 By 8th century AD, Arab writers and travellers started
Region Cities taking interest in writing about Indian society.
Bihar Rajgir, Nalanda, parts of Pataliputra, Its code of conduct became a source of knowledge through
Bodhgaya, etc. which a datewise history could be constructed.
 The Chinese historians Tsu-Ma-Fien, Fa-Hein, Hiuen-
North-Western Peshawar, Taxila, etc.
Tsang and I-Tsing present abundant material on India.
Frontier Province
and Punjab  The narratives left by Hiuen-Tsang about the reign of
Harshavardhana are very valuable.

 Contribution of some Muslim authors:-
 Al-Biruni :- The Muslim author and traveller has left
a detailed account of India and portrays the social and
political conditions of the country.
 Suleiman:- Another historian who gave an exclusive
account of Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
Some other Muslim authors are AL-Mahsudi,
Al-Biladuri and Hassan Nizami along with other
prominent writers who have left an exclusive
narration on the history of India.
 Contributions of some other travellers:-
 Alexander Hamilton - First French who taught
Sanskrit in Europe.
Books of Foreign Travellers
10
 Charles Wilkins – He translated the Bhagwad Gita
into English in 1785.
 William Jones – He translated Kalidasa's Abhijnan
Shakuntalam into English in 1789.
He set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 in
order to study Indian laws and customs.
 Friedrich Maxmueller - He edited the translation of
Rig Veda.
 James Princep – He interpreted the earlier Brahmi
Script in 1837.
 He read Emperor Ashoka's edicts.

Author Book Subject

Megasthenese ... Indica • Information of Mauryan India.
Greek Ptolemy 2nd cent A.D. Geography • Geographical treatise on India.
Ariens 2nd cent A.D. ... Indica,Invasion of Alexander • Based on the contemporary
authors of Alexander
Pliny 1st cent A.D. ... Natural historia • Trade relation between Rome and
India, Indian animal and plants.
Anonymous (A.D. 80) ... • Personal Voyage of Indian Coasts.
Periplus of the Erythreans Sea

Tsumachin 1st cent. B.C.... • Personal opinion about India.

... • The Gupta Emperor - the 5th
Chinese Fa-Hien (A.D. 399) Record of the Buddhist Countries cent. A.D.
Hieun-Tsang (A.D. 629) ... Buddhist record of the western
• Condition of India in the period
world of Harshavardhan.
Itsing (A.D. 670) A record of Buddhistic religion
• The Guptas under Sri Gupta in
Hwuili ...
.. Life of Hieun Tsang the 7th Cent. A.D.
• Accounts of Hiuen Tsang's travel
in India.

Ibn Khordabeh ... Kitabul Masalak wal Mamalik • Indian society and trade ways.
9th Cent. A.D. • Indian sea coast, conventions,
Mohammadan Silsija ul Tavarish
Suleiman ... culture.
Writer
Almasudi ... Muruj-ul-Jahan • Indian society.
Albiruni ... Tarikh-ul-Hind • Contemporary Indian history.
Ibna-Batuta ... Rihla • India under the Kingship of
Muhammad Tughlaq

Some Remarkable Facts

1. Beal and waters translated the work of Hiuen-Tsang.
2. Herodotus is regarded as the father of History, wrote ‘Historica’.
3. Hieun-Tsang is called the King of travellers who wrote ‘Si-Yu-Ki’
4. Takkusu translated ‘Si-Yu-Ki’, under the name of 'A record of the Buddhist religion'.

MISCELLANEOUS
• Materials such as cave temples and monasteries, pillars, potteries, seals, stones implements and tools provide us detailed
information on social, economic political Religious and cultural arenas of the ancient Indian History.
• Central and state archeological departments and different Universities carry out excavations to reveal new data on pre-history
and ancient history of India.