by Evan S.

Tobias, Mark Robin Campbell, and Phillip Greco

Bringing Curriculum
to Life
Enacting Project-Based
Learning in Music Programs
Abstract: At its core, project-based learning is based on the idea that real-life problems capture
student interest, provoke critical thinking, and develop skills as they engage in and complete
complex undertakings that typically result in a realistic product, event, or presentation to an
audience. This article offers a starting point for music teachers who might be interested in
using project-based learning as a teaching strategy and also interested in “building” student
competency and “bringing to life” student engagement in the music curriculum. To help music
educators enact project-based learning in their classes and ensembles, we outline a process Project-based
for designing and facilitating projects, provide vignettes that situate theory in practice, and dis- learning can
cuss projects in relation to curriculum, standards, assessment, and teacher evaluation.
transform a music
Keywords: assessment, curriculum, pedagogy, project-based learning, standards
program by offering

I
   love the project-based approach to
music teaching and learning because it
allows my students to engage in music
in very meaningful ways. Students in both
my ensembles and classes design projects
around their interests and explore open-
ended questions that get at the core of
musical ideas and content. Project-based
learning is one of the most student moti-
vating approaches I have ever used. Kids
choose on their own to come in at lunch-
time, as well as after and before school
to work on their projects. Projects allow
me as a teacher to touch on all areas of
the music curriculum in holistic ways,
by integrating performing, responding,
creating, and connecting standards
throughout. Projects even allow me to
get at those hard to teach skills, such as
genuine student-
collaboration, critical and analytical centered learning
thinking, problem solving—which are so
necessary for today’s learning and par- with long lasting
ticipation in musical culture. results.
—Darryl E. Kniffen, music educator, Arlington
Memorial High School, Arlington, Vermont
Darryl Kniffen has been doing project-based
learning in music ever since he began teach-
ing seven years ago. Kniffen’s advocacy for
project-based learning certainly serves to
affirm its educational power and viability in
today’s music classrooms. However, the cur-
rent educational climate and circumstances
under which teachers work make it difficult

Evan Tobias is an assistant professor of music education at Arizona State University, Tempe; he can be contacted at evan.tobias@
Copyright © 2015 National Association
asu.edu. Mark Robin Campbell is a professor of music education in the Crane School of Music at the State University of New
for Music Education
York at Potsdam; he can be contacted at campbemr@potsdam.edu. Phillip Greco is a doctoral student at Columbia University, DOI: 10.1177/0027432115607602
Teachers College in New York City and music teacher at Farmingdale Schools; he can be contacted at phillip_greco@yahoo.com. http://mej.sagepub.com

www.nafme.org 39
 for them to feel that they can engage in
much instructional creativity. Focus on
data-driven instruction, scripted lessons,
and top-down decision making, to name
a few items, have created huge changes
in our classrooms and significant chal-
lenges to our professional standing. Even
in the face of increased surveillance and
de-professionalization, corporatization
and standardization, and the fragmenta-
tion of knowledge and skills into discrete
behaviors for “objective” accountabil-
ity purposes,1 nothing prevents us from
engaging project-based learning in our
music classes and ensembles. We offer
a starting point for music teachers seek-
ing to expand their pedagogical reper-
toire and curricular expertise. By using
­project-based learning as a teaching strat-
egy and building student competency,
teachers can bring to life student engage-
ment in the music curriculum. We also
offer a rationale and a basis for enacting
music programs that address students’
musical and creative lives in a comprehen-
sive approach that has a long and illustri-
ous tradition in American education.
Project-Based Learning
At its core, project-based learning is built
on the idea that real-life problems cap-
ture student interest and provoke criti-
cal thinking and develop skills as they
engage in and complete complex tasks
that typically result in a realistic prod-
uct, event, or presentation to an audi-
ence.2 Scholar John W. Thomas describes
­project-based learning as (1) central to
the curriculum; (2) organized around
driving questions that lead students to
encounter central concepts or principles
of a discipline; (3) focused on a construc-
tive investigation that involves inquiry
and knowledge building; (4) student-
driven, in that students are responsible
for making choices and for designing and
managing their work; and (5) authentic,
by posing problems that occur in the real
world and that people care about.3
Vignettes
As a device to show how educational
theory and pedagogical principles are
40
embedded in project-based learning, we
have created three vignettes (elementary,
middle school, and high school; Tables
1–3, respectively). These vignettes illus-
trate four attributes of well-designed
and well-taught projects: (1) student
centeredness, (2) teacher facilitation,
(3) collaborative interaction and inquiry,
and (4) disciplinary expertise. The left
side of the table illustrates key peda-
gogical ideas and practices associated
with each attribute. The right side of
the table shows what these pedagogical
ideas and practices might look like in an
actual music project. Although we show
specific ideas and practices attached
to each vignette, there is considerable
crossover of ideas and practices among
the three vignettes. Consider reading the
attributes first and then identifying how
they live out in the practices.
Background
The proliferation and dissemination
of project-based learning in the public
schools during the twentieth century is
often attributed to William Heard Kilpat-
rick and John Dewey.4 As with most teach-
ing innovations, project-based learning
emerged out of a desire to rejuvenate edu-
cation. At the time of its initial formation
in the United States in the late nineteenth
century, there were social, economic,
technological, and cultural rationales call-
ing for reform focused on invigorating
and modernizing public education. Chief
among these reform calls were greater
participation in democracy and connect-
ing academic studies of school to social
and economic processes and forces found
in work and life. These same rationales
exist for its reinvigorated presence.
A review of professional writing
in Music Educators Journal over the
past hundred years reveals a large
number of articles devoted to pro-
jects.5 Most of these articles substan-
tiate James Mursell’s 1932 assertion
that “music education must proceed
in and through musical projects.”6 In
other words, “doing a project” has a
long-standing tradition in American
music education. Curiously, how-
ever, the same review unearths only
a handful of articles that provide
historical and/or theoretical frame-
works used to design projects that
include the defining characteristics
of project-based learning.7
Today, project-based learning and
its design draw its educational ration-
ales from the “cognitive revolution”
in learning theory beginning in the
latter half of the twentieth century8
and the revitalized thinking about
skills for the twenty-first century,9
standards that emphasize critical
thinking, and inquiry-based learning.
Differentiated from (although com-
plementary to) teaching approaches
that use behavioral instruction (i.e.,
following directions, behavioral
objectives, task activities, or rehearsal
strategies), project-based learning
is firmly rooted in a framework of
learning principles drawn from con-
structivist, social constructionist, and
situated learning theories.
Designing Project-Based
Learning
Realizing the full potential of projects in
supporting students’ curiosity and prob-
lem solving requires thoughtful design
and preparation. Attention to structure,
topic selection, context, questions, criti-
cal thinking, dispositions, scope, and
the nature of the experience inform how
a project unfolds over time.
Structure and Design
The design framework we present sug-
gests that what some people call “proj-
ects” we might describe as activities,
tasks, or rehearsal strategies. We con-
ceptualize projects as carefully planned
sets of interrelated learning experiences
built on substantive disciplinary ideas
that involve inquiry and musical engage-
ment, often emergent out of student
learning needs or interests. The five
features that Thomas uses to describe
project-based learning 10 are central to
any conception and facilitation of proj-
ects or project work.
To begin, music teachers might want
to think about the instructional choices
Music Educators Journal  December 2015
TABLE 1
Elementary Vignette
Theory: Attribute
Student Centeredness
•• Experiences learning in school as life—not as
separate and unrelated to life outside of school
Teacher Facilitation
•• Believes that students come to school with a quest
to understand their experiences
•• Asks questions to help students progress, checks
for understanding, highlights and makes what
students are learning explicit, models inquiry, and
catalyzes students’ additional questions
•• Minds-on, hands-on experiences, with a mixture of
systematic instruction, exploration, and personal
reflection
Collaborative Interaction and Inquiry
•• Learning is driven by inquiry (questions) and
collaborative interaction (virtual and real)
•• Classrooms are flexible spaces that adapt to
student needs
Practice: Elementary Music Project: “Music in Community”
Amy Blake’s third-grade music students are engrossed in a project that has captured
their musical imaginations; each is sketching an imaginary city. Ms. Blake asks, “How
will you lay out the streets and buildings?” “Where might we see a celebration that uses
music?” “A ceremony?” “Music for entertainment?”—all in an effort to help students
understand the role of music in culture.
Shortly after Ms. Blake sets the students to work, she finds herself inundated with
students eager to share their personal experiences. One student, Janet, discusses the
marching bands she saw at the Thanksgiving parade. James tells of musicians he heard
at a wedding ceremony and reception. Ms. Blake, sensing that there are many students
with stories to share, stops class and allows volunteers time for a “tell-all.” As students
are talking, she lists their experiences on the chalkboard and suggests that groups use
the ideas to guide their work.
After students complete their drawings, Ms. Blake plays various pieces and asks,
“Where in your city might you hear this music?” The first piece she plays is Pomp and
Circumstance, a piece that students immediately recognize. Ms. Blake asks, “Why do
you think this makes a good graduation piece?” To help students respond, she asks,
“What’s the speed?” “What feelings are in the music?” “What instruments do you hear
and how are they being played? These questions prompt a delightful discussion on
musical qualities such as tempo, articulation, timbre, dynamics, and emotion—clues
that allow Ms. Blake to help students understand why Pomp and Circumstance is
often used at graduation ceremonies. To further enhance understanding, Ms. Blake
asks students to use classroom instruments to create their own piece. She asks, “How
will your graduation piece use the qualities of music we’ve discussed?” In doing this,
Ms. Blake is providing a tangible opportunity for students to understand relationships
between solemn music and a solemn cultural event.

Disciplinary Expertise
•• Important concepts, including physical and
analytical skills tied to standards
Returning to the students’ city sketches, Ms. Blake asks, “What could we learn if we
put all the cities together?” After a rumble of excitement among students, Ms. Blake
assembles the individual cities into one giant city and calls for the students to stand
around them. In doing this, Ms. Blake and the students are able to articulate purposes
of music in culture and wonderful stories about the potentials of collaboration.

available to them, including their vary-
ing degrees of focus, intent, and scope.
Figure 1 shows a continuum of teaching
and learning options for music classes
and ensembles—with single-focused
activities at one end and open-ended
projects at the other. Although projects
provide rich contexts for musical learn-
ing, projects typically do not constitute
the whole educational program.11
Excellently designed projects
(whether thematic, blended, or open-
ended) require structure and a solid
understanding of human learning pro-
cesses. They also require significant
upfront planning that includes timelines
and management strategies that take
into consideration the uniqueness of
specific schools and classrooms. A
basic framework for designing projects
includes (1) choosing a worthy topic,
(2) finding a real-life context, (3) creat-
ing generative questions, (4) developing
critical thinking and cultivating disposi-
tions, (5) deciding the scope, and (6)
designing the experience.
Worthy Topics
Choosing a topic is a serious consider-
ation because it serves as the spring-
board for subsequent teacher planning
and student learning. Worthy topic
ideas can come from anywhere—cur-
rent events, issues, professional or
scholarly readings in music, or even the
students themselves. For example, state
or national arts standards provide a set
of musical processes and questions that
can form the basis for projects. Authors’
texts such as Alan P. Merriam’s The
Anthropology of Music 12 and Andrew
H. Gregory’s “Musical Roles in Societ-
ies”13 offer descriptions of how music
functions in society and have implica-
tions for how the personal and social
aspects of music relate to students’ own
lives.14 Reimer’s musicianship roles15 and

www.nafme.org 41
TABLE 2
Middle School Vignette
Theory: Attribute Practice: Middle School Music Project: “Music, Time, and Place”
Student Centeredness Standing before their sixth-grade classmates and music teacher, Mr. Cane, Matt and Billy are about to
•• Constructs own knowledge—teachers present a design for an iPhone app called “Music of the American Revolution.” Their design includes
facilitate and guide process visuals that show the main menu, submenus, and the musical/historical content. Themes of the main
menu include (1) Causes of the War, (2) Battles of the War, and (3) The Making of a New Nation. Their
Teacher Facilitation third visual displays the musical content of one of the submenus. This includes a medley of pieces the
•• Acts as a guide as students make students in the band arranged, performed, and recorded for the project. It also includes recordings
decisions of period music that orchestra students arranged and performed over which choral students intoned
•• Cultivates intellectual dispositions letters from Revolutionary War veterans. Matt and Billy plan to perform a fife and drum piece included
and assists students in using critical on the app design. One of their classmates created an animated visualization of the music to coincide
thinking skills with its performance in the proposed app.

Collaborative Interaction and Inquiry
•• Uses resources of all kinds—
classroom, community, virtual
•• All children want to and have a drive
to learn
Disciplinary Expertise
•• Assumes sociocultural (professional)
roles and uses tools germane to
specific project in order to solve
problems, explain, or present
information generated through
investigation and research
•• Culminates in authentic exhibitions
that showcase product and process
of learning
As the sixth graders begin their demonstration, Mr. Cane thinks back to when students began their
work. With class discussions about teamwork in mind, Mr. Cane recalls moments of collaborative
problem solving and decision making among the students. He is amazed by the extent to which
they embodied the roles of “application developers.” Glancing at their visuals, he is reminded of
a conversation that guided students toward a logical layout and prompted musical and historical
investigations. He recalls when they discussed how to represent the communicative role that the fife
and drum played on battlefields. His colleagues had similar conversations with ensemble students
about how to arrange the music and express the narratives in historical texts.
As Billy takes out the fife and Matt locks in the snare drum, Mr. Cane looks at his notes describing his
last observation of the students as they rehearsed General Washington’s March. He ponders: Will the
students accurately perform the articulation and dynamic plan they have created? How will they use
the app design to demonstrate understanding of the American Revolution and the role music played
during the event? Will the students turn their designs into an app using online sources?
Reflecting on the diversity of students’ projects ranging from Music of the American Revolution, to
Latin American Dance Music, to Musical Responses to Natural Disasters,
Mr. Cane considers how to connect class projects together and prompt conversation on the topic
“Music in Time and Place.” Mr. Cane is confident that the class’s interactive experiences will provide
rich contexts for discussing investigation and decision-making processes, key learning goals Mr. Cane
purposely set out to teach.

Tobias’s possibilities of student engage-
ment with music16 also offer ideas on
how students can engage in and study
musical thinking and artistic processes
more deeply, and they connect to the
importance of situating learning in sub-
stantive disciplinary and students’ real-
life contexts. Themes such as “Music in
Time of War” or “People, Politics, Patrio-
tism, and Music” also have great poten-
tial to engage students in important and
big ideas in musical understandings.17
In short, topics that encourage stu-
dents to think imaginatively about music
and develop skills as a component of
artistic inquiry are likely to be of stu-
dent interest, have long-lasting value,
and meet curriculum requirements. As a
point for all curriculum design in music,
researchers Mark Robin Campbell, Linda
K. Thompson, and Janet R. Barrett sug-
gest that music education experiences
be assessed as to their generativity (the
extent to which experiences generate
additional experiences by creating a
need to know), vibrancy (the extent to
which experiences are both minds-on
and hand-on), and residue (the extent
to which experiences provide a positive
and affirming sense of achievement).18
Whether used individually or collec-
tively, these criteria can help music
educators prioritize and make deci-
sions as to the extent to which a project
topic and the activities that grow out of
it are likely to be musically educative,
regardless of the duration or scope of
a project.
Real-Life Context
Think about the sociomusical and cultural
world in which we live. What is the range
of roles people play in music? What do
they do? Performers, listeners, songwrit-
ers, and critics, for example, approach
their work in similar but different ways.
All have a set of fundamental musical
problems they must address and try to
solve, and it is engaging in those problem-­
solving processes that unlocks the door to
musical understanding. Situating a project
in a real-life context brings both vivid-
ness and authenticity to students’ learning

42 Music Educators Journal  December 2015

Figure 1
A Continuum of Teaching and Learning Options
Theme or Topic Music and expression
MoreLess
Single Focus
Integrated
Units
Degree of student initiation and decisions
Thematic
Blended
Open Ended
and introduces them to what educational
theorists Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger
call a “community of practice.” 19 For
example, imagine how performers in a
mariachi band approach their work—
imagine them practicing, building reper-
toire, booking gigs, and marketing their
work. Or consider how ethnomusicolo-
gists investigate musical practices and
musical aesthetics within a specific com-
munity—imagine them deciding which
tools to use, gaining insider information,
checking the accuracy of their informa-
tion, and deciding how to represent their
findings. Planning for real-world engage-
ment in a project helps situate learning
in a sociomusical and cultural context.
It also helps students see themselves as
potential participants and contributors to
different musical practices.
www.nafme.org
Music Class
Types of Activities, Tasks, or Rehearsal Strategies
Students match dynamics to corresponding symbols. Students practice performing rhythms accurately.
Students learn and practice music, move to, or
discuss the music, and apply dynamics to their
performance.
Educator teaches a unit from a purchased
curriculum that focuses on musical expression and
expressive markings.
Types of Projects
Educator and students choose varied music to explore,
move to, and discuss in relation to expression. They
create and perform music expressing a typical school
day and determine how to share it with others.
Educator invites students to imagine how music
can express or affect one’s sense of place. Educator
has students create music that expresses their
sense of place in the local community. Students, in
consultation with the educator, choose varied ways
to explore how others have done the same or extend
the project in ways related to their interests.
Educator asks students how music can be expressive.
Students generate related questions and project
ideas with each other and the teacher that include
creating, performing, responding, and connecting.
Questions
Generative questions lie at the heart of
project-based learning and frame stu-
dents’ learning throughout an entire
project. What are generative questions?
They are questions that are open-ended,
not easily solved, and have the capacity
to generate multiple pathways for stu-
dent learning. Generative questions (also
called driving or essential questions)
encourage students to think deeply, to
think across subject matters; they create
a need to know and provide a relevant
and meaningful context for learning.20
Consider how students’ engagement
changes when provided with questions
that help them see connections between
music as a discipline and their own lives.
Consider, on the other hand, a question
Ensemble
Music and movement
Students work to improve their performance of a dance
suite.
Students work to perform aspects of a dance suite in
ways that match the dance styles and study facts about
dances and related music.
Students perform teacher-selected works that
are representative of varied dance styles, view
corresponding videos, and analyze the music to identify
similarities and differences. Educator has students
apply their analyses to a specific set of dance pieces
they are performing.
Educator asks students to consider: How are music
and movement related? Educator has students
investigate and perform global dance music. They
then create their own dance music, analyzing
connections with other music. Educator provides
students opportunities to extend the project in ways
related to their interests.
Educator asks students to consider: How are music
and movement related? Students generate related
questions and project ideas with each other that involve
creating, performing, responding, and connecting.
that is primarily factual, such as “Who
composed ‘The Battle Hymn of the
Republic’?” While important for ascer-
taining a specific response, its capacity
to generate sustained inquiry, provoke
thought, engender lively discussion, or
analyze music in time in place is lim-
ited. Similarly, the question, “What scale
or mode is used in this piece?” may be
important for information recall, but
it will not likely lead to students ask-
ing more questions or engender deep
thought about musical structure.
When designing a project, try captur-
ing its essence in one or two generative
questions. For instance, consider a project
focusing on music in the community such
as the one described in Table 1. Genera-
tive questions might include “What roles
might music play in community?” and
43
“How might musical expression connect
with or relate to community events?” Also
consider providing students opportunities
to articulate their own generative ques-
tions that might contribute to a project.
Critical Thinking and
Dispositions
Critical thinking and the cultivation of
intellectual dispositions are key ele-
ments to be considered in designing a
project. Think about how you want your
students to use their minds. Consider
how you would create learning prob-
lems that tap into students’ abilities to
think critically—to be analytical, explan-
atory, and interpretive. Decide how you
would cultivate a student’s curiosity,
wonderment, persistence, regard for evi-
dence, or excellence in work. Consider
how your project could have students:
•• explore a musical issue or develop a
skill from multiple perspectives;
•• learn how to ask pertinent questions
or make informed decisions;
•• determine how parts and wholes are
related or compare, contrast, and
predict;
•• identify “blank spots” in their musi-
cal skills or be playful and engage
in wonderments;
•• gather and synthesize relevant infor-
mation into solutions or articulate
findings from research;
•• combine knowledge and skills across
disciplines or play a role in local or
global needs.
Scope
Considerable practicality must be given
to deciding the scope of a project before
carrying it out. Some reflective thought
might help you answer the following
questions when thinking about both the
depth and breadth of a project: How
ready are the students for project-based
learning? How comfortable am I with it?
How can I work with the existing school
schedule? Investigations, field trips, time
for practice, working with technology
and digital media, involving commu-
nity members, along with assembling
44
materials and planning for end-of-proj-
ect sharing and show-and-tells take time.
Sometimes a short two-week project
focused on a single topic, such as learn-
ing about the dances in a dance suite,
can be sufficient. Other times, a more
ambitious project lasting several months
that involves multiple teachers, several
standards, and extensive technology,
such as responding to, creating, perform-
ing, and connecting dance music from
around the world, will be necessary.
Design the Experience
Sketch out in narrative form what the
project is. Include the key concepts,
skills, and generative questions used to
frame the project. Describe the context
and activities that students will be doing.
Visualize and indicate how students will
share their learning and how they will
represent their skills, findings, prod-
ucts. Articulate the ways that they might
engage with music. After you sketch
out the project, focus on the kinds of
experiences that students are likely to
undergo. That is, think like a director of
museum education for a moment. How
do places like San Francisco’s Explorato-
rium, Washington, D.C.,’s Smithsonian
Institution, Chicago’s Field Museum of
Science and Industry, or Phoenix’s Musi-
cal Instrument Museum draw visitors to
their doors?21 They all use marketing and
motivational tools such as engaging titles
that convey a sense of importance and
specialness as setups. They provide grab-
bers in their descriptions of events and
activities that provoke interest, make an
emotional connection, or curate things in
ways that seem novel. Some might refer
to this as designing experiences.
Education scholar Kurt Squire
explains how a video game “provides
a set of experiences, with the assump-
tion being that learners are active con-
structors of meaning with their own
drives, goals, and motivations. Most
good games afford multiple trajectories
of participation and meaning making.
Content is delivered just-in-time and
on demand to solve problems.”22 Music
educators can plan projects in simi-
lar ways by creating opportunities for
students to have certain experiences but
leaving the plan or design open enough
for “multiple trajectories of participation
and meaning making.”23 Setting up your
project using these techniques can make
your students feel like they will enjoy
and learn something by engaging them
in what the project has to offer.
Situating Project-Based
Learning
Situating project-based learning within
and across the curriculum requires
attention to issues ranging from address-
ing standards to cultural relevance. By
reflecting on issues related to learning,
educators can engage in project-based
learning while satisfying expectations
related to assessment, evaluation, and
accountability.
Curriculum, Standards, and
Cultural Relevance
It can be thrilling to observe how aspects
of one’s curriculum emerge organically
from students’ musical engagement and
conversations in projects. This occurs
when providing students space to
uncover or discover ideas and ways of
being musical.24 However, music educa-
tors may need to navigate through pre-
set curricula or policies that challenge
the emergent nature of project-­b ased
learning.25 Challenges such as these can
be treated as opportunities to engage
as curriculum designers.26 This includes
reframing mandates or curricular struc-
tures that seem prescriptive to be more
open-ended and conducive to project-
based learning. This may also include
infusing the cultural backgrounds of stu-
dents and the sociocultural context of a
music educator’s school setting through-
out a project so as to create bridges
between students’ home and school
lives. Educators might even design proj-
ects that address sociocultural issues
and help learners engage with music
through critical inquiry. 27 Similarly,
designing projects also provides educa-
tors with opportunities to examine cur-
riculum with a critical lens and consider
potential assumptions or biases.
Music Educators Journal  December 2015
TABLE 3
High School Vignette
Theory: Attribute
Student Centeredness
•• Students brainstorm, contribute ideas,
pose questions, plan to investigate
and explore ideas, self-assess relative
to learning goals, work autonomously,
think critically, and persist
Practice: High School Ensemble Project: “Music as Response”
With several years of ensemble teaching experience, Ana Ayo is growing professionally this quarter
while renewing her curriculum. Along with performing a local composer’s music, students are
addressing the question “How might people respond to their worlds through music?” Ms. Ayo
piqued students’ interest by having them respond to an imaginary arts organization’s “request for
proposals” that explored the generative question. Students engaged in research, brainstorming,
and concept mapping before launching into varied projects that addressed the question.

•• Learns best with a positive self-image,

sense of purpose, and initiative
Teacher Facilitation
•• Observes and listens to students, takes
notes on their progress or challenges,
addresses sociocultural issues, and
identifies productive moments to
respond
•• Assists students in problem
generating and solving by scaffolding,
collaborating, thinking aloud, and
modeling decision making
Collaborative Interaction and Inquiry
•• Students interact with parents,
community members, and visiting
guests
•• Diverse strengths, weaknesses,
interests, and backgrounds are
capitalized so that students learn from
each other and grow as individuals
Several students, upset over tensions in the Middle East, formed a new ensemble inspired
by Daniel Barenboim’s initiative where Israeli and Palestinian youth performed together in an
orchestra. The students are creating and performing music that incorporates aspects of their
cultures while exploring issues of cooperation, difference, and sharing. Other students intrigued by
clarinetist David Rothenberg’s improvisations with animals and insects are performing composed
and improvised music with nature. They will be performing in natural environments throughout
their community. After researching how composers respond to their worlds, another group is
collaborating with the school’s media club to create and perform music for a student documentary
on climate change. Students are deeply engaged and encountering curricular aspects that Ms. Ayo
had not thought to address until later that year.
Ms. Ayo circulates among groups observing, asking questions, addressing issues of technique and
musicality, and encouraging students to reflect on their engagement and learning. Ms. Ayo wonders
about possibilities for sharing music with others, providing students with springboards for their
own ideas. She reminds students of the generative question and criteria articulated in the request
for proposals. They post works in progress on the music department website and share their
developing perspectives and projects during large group discussions. They engage as class experts,
even peer teaching. At times, musicians visit the ensemble via web-based media, dialoging with
students and answering their questions.

Disciplinary Expertise
•• Initiated and framed by generative
questions, problems, issues, and topics
derived from real world and shared in
multiple forms
Ms. Ayo anticipates students sharing completed projects with the school and community. She is
excited that administrators agreed to consider students’ exhibitions of understanding, growth, and
development as a summative assessment. She will use this evidence of student learning for her
teacher evaluation. Inspired by students’ depth of learning and development as individuals and
musicians, Ms. Ayo commits to make projects core to the music curriculum.

Reframing curriculum images toward
more project-based learning could
begin by emphasizing anchor standards
as contrasted with performance stand-
ards. Student learning objectives that
focus on discrete behaviors or prede-
termined tasks might be recast in ways
that emphasize musical understanding
or how students demonstrate musical
decision making. Project-based learn-
ing empowers educators to design their
own curriculum and even co-gener-
ate projects with students in place of
implementing preexisting or corporate-­
produced curriculum. Educators might
also consider the types of pedagogy
that are most resonant with project-
based learning by embracing student
centeredness and facilitating learning,
collaborative interaction, and inquiry
to help learners develop disciplinary
expertise. This may feel different from
instruction strategies that are more
teacher-centered and emphasize direct
instruction, task completion, and con-
tent acquisition. Addressing curricula
and policies in such ways while bal-
ancing approaches along the continuum
outlined in Figure 1 can help support
comprehensiveness.
Assessment and Teacher
Evaluation
Project-based learning provides count-
less opportunities for assessing and pro-
viding evidence of students’ growth and
learning. Similarly, project-based learning
invites assessment for learning in addi-
tion to assessment of learning.28 Although
this can include summative measures of
accountability, project-based learning
encourages students and educators to
consider the role of formative assessment
in supporting learning.29 This means pro-
viding ongoing feedback and including

www.nafme.org 45
self-, peer-, and teacher-led assessment
throughout projects. Just as educators
engage in ongoing reflection in terms of
how projects are proceeding and what
students are learning, they can encour-
age students to be reflective of their own
musical engagement and learning.
Music educators might also posi-
tion projects as components of teacher
evaluation systems. For instance, pro-
jects might serve as summative or “cor-
nerstone” assessments that demonstrate
students’ growth and learning in real-
life contexts. Music educators can also
abstract components of projects as “per-
formance tasks” if needed. When nec-
essary, music educators may draw on
teacher- and student-generated rubrics
to translate students’ growth and learn-
ing in projects to quantitative data. Situ-
ating projects as forms of assessment
that are connected and contextualized
may stand in place of completion tasks
that are used for the sake of assessment
measurements or accountability.
Making It Happen!
Maxine Greene suggests that a primary
goal of education is to “release” or
“educate the imagination.”30 A balanced
combination of projects and systematic
instructional approaches (as outlined in
Figure 1) might help music educators
achieve this goal while helping students
develop musical understanding and skills.
While projects provide rich contexts for
musical learning, projects typically do
not constitute the whole educational
program.31 When making pedagogical
decisions, we might consider the degree
to which the approaches we use (1) sup-
port the flexibility required for indepen-
dent musical thought and engagement;
(2) promote students’ inquiry, curiosity,
and investment in their own educa-
tion; (3) help students develop musical
understanding and skills; and (4) afford
evidence of students’ growth and learn-
ing. Reconceptualizing our classes and
ensembles with this balance in mind
can inform when and how we inte-
grate project-based learning. Addition-
ally, a culturally relevant pedagogy that
“helps students to accept and affirm their
46
cultural identity while developing critical
perspectives” may help music educators
facilitate projects in a comprehensive
manner that accounts for students’ diver-
sity.32 As a starting point toward teach-
ing music through projects, consider the
steps outlined in this article and address-
ing the following questions:
•• Where might projects complement or
modify current teaching approaches
in my classes or ensembles?
•• What aspects of my curriculum might
be addressed through project-based
learning?
•• What types of generative questions
might my students be interested in
and lead to engaging musical projects?
•• Who might I collaborate with to
help with designing and facilitating
projects?
Our pedagogical choices reflect our
values and beliefs about the role of edu-
cation in young people’s lives. Including
projects in our classes and ensembles
demonstrates value for providing learn-
ers with opportunities to think critically,
engage with music imaginatively, and
approach the world with curiosity. How
might project-based learning bring your
curriculum to life?
Notes
1. Diane Ravitch, Reign of Error: The Hoax
of the Privatization Movement and the
Danger to America’s Public Schools (New
York: Random House, 2013).
2. Brigid Barron and Linda Darling-
Hammond, “How Can We Teach for
Meaningful Learning?,” in Powerful
Learning: What We Know about
Teaching for Understanding, ed. Linda
Darling-Hammond, Brigid Barron, P.
David Pearson, Alan H. Schoenfeld,
Elizabeth K. Stage, Timothy D.
Zimmerman, Gina N. Cervetti, and
Jennifer L. Tilson (San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass, 2008), 11–70;
Jane L. David, “What Research Says
about . . . / Project-Based Learning,”
Educational Leadership 65, no. 5
(2008): 80–82; and Thom
Markham, Project Based Learning
Handbook: A Guide to Standards-
Focused Project Based Learning for
Middle and High School Teachers
(Novato, CA: Buck Institute for
Education, 2003).
3. John W. Thomas, A Review of Research
on Project-Based Learning (San Rafael,
CA: The Autodesk Foundation, 2000).
4. William Kilpatrick, “The Project
Method,” The Teachers College Record
19, no. 4 (1918): 319–35; and John
Dewey, Experience and Education (New
York: Macmillan, 1938).
5. See, for example, Frederick Burrack and
Tammy McKenzie, “Enhanced Student
Learning through Cross-Disciplinary
Projects: Projects That Connect
Music with Other Disciplines,” Music
Educators Journal 91 no. 5 (2005):
45–50; Mark Fonder, “Discover Your
Band or Orchestra’s Roots,” Music
Educators Journal 77, no. 1 (1990):
40–45; Adria R. Hoffman and Bruce
A. Carter, “A Virtual Composer in Every
Classroom,” Music Educators Journal
99 no. 3 (2013): 59–62; Jenai Jenkins,
“A Kaleidoscopic View of the Harlem
Renaissance,” Music Educators Journal
94, no. 5 (2008): 42–49; Anne D.
Modugno, “The Lost Student, Found,”
Music Educators Journal 78 no. 3
(1991): 50–54; Alex Ruthmann, “The
Composers’ Workshop: An Approach to
Composing in the Classroom,” Music
Educators Journal 93 no. 4 (2007):
38–43; Laura K. Sindberg, “Piece by
Piece: The Story of the Central Bands
Commissioning Project,” Music Educators
Journal 91 no. 3 (2005): 25–28;
and Alfred S. Townsend, “Implement
a ‘Connecting Parents with Learning
Project’ in Your School,” Music Educators
Journal 97 no. 1 (2010): 45–48.
6. James L. Mursell, “We Need Music,”
Music Supervisors’ Journal 19 no. 2
(1932): 70.
7. Mark Robin Campbell, “Interdisciplinary
Projects in Music,” Music Educators
Journal 82, no. 2 (1995): 37–44;
Evan S. Tobias, “Toward Convergence:
Adapting Music Education to
Contemporary Society and Participatory
Culture,” Music Educators Journal
99, no. 4 (2013): 29–36; and Adria
R. Hoffman, “Performing Our World:
Affirming Cultural Diversity through
Music Education,” Music Educators
Journal 98 no. 4 (2012): 61–65.
8. Howard Gardner, The Mind’s New Science:
A History of the Cognitive Revolution (New
York: Basic Books, 1987).
9. Tony Wagner, “Rigor Redefined,”
Educational Leadership 66 no. 2 (2008):
20–25. See also http://www.p21.org/.
Music Educators Journal  December 2015
10. Thomas, A Review of Research on
Project-Based Learning, 3–4.
11. Lilian G. Katz and Sylvia C. Chard, Engaging
Children’s Minds: The Project Approach,
2nd ed. (Stamford, CT: Ablex, 2000).
12. Alan P. Merriam, The Anthropology
of Music (Evanston, IL: Northwestern
University Press, 1964).
13. Andrew H. Gregory, “The Roles of Music
in Society: The Ethnomusicological
Perspective,” in The Social Psychology
of Music, ed. D. J. Hargreaves and
A. C. North (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1997): 123–40.
14. Paul. A. Haack, The Uses and Functions
of Music as a Curricular Foundation
for Music Education (Greensboro, NC:
Sounds of Learning, 2005), accessed
November 24, 2014, https://performin
garts.uncg.edu/mri/research-areas/_files/
solproject_final.pdf.
15. Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music
Education: Advancing the Vision (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003).
16. Tobias, “Toward Convergence.”
High School Concerto Competition
The U.S. Navy Band’s High School Concerto Competition is open to all students currently
enrolled in grades 9 through 12. Visit our website for information on how to apply for this unique
opportunity. Deadline for submissions is January 23, 2016.
Top prize includes a solo performance with the Concert Band and The Ambassador Middendorf
Young Artist Award of $1,000.
www.nafme.org
17. Campbell, “Interdisciplinary Projects in
Music.”
18. Mark Robin Campbell, Linda K. Thompson,
and Janet R. Barrett, Constructing a
Personal Orientation to Music Teaching
(New York: Routledge, 2010).
19. Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger, Situated
Learning: Legitimate Peripheral
Participation (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1991).
20. Sheila Scott, “Repetitions and Contrasts:
Using Essential Questions to Frame
Unit Plans in General Music,” General
Music Today 27 no. 2 (2014): 22–29;
and Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe,
Understanding by Design, expanded 2nd
ed. (Alexandra, VA: Pearson, 2005).
21. See exploratorium.edu, si.edu, fieldmu
seum.org, and mim.org.
22. Kurt Squire, “From Content to Context:
Videogames as Designed Experience,”
Educational Researcher 35 no. 8
(2006): 19–29, 24.
23. Ibid.
24. Wiggins and McTighe, Understanding by
Design.
25. Elliot W. Eisner, The Educational
Imagination: On the Design and
Evaluation of School Programs, 3rd ed.
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice
Hall, 2002).
26. Janet R. Barrett, “Planning for
Understanding: A Reconceptualized
View of the Music Curriculum,” Music
Educators Journal 91 no. 4 (2005):
21–25.
27. Gloria Ladson-Billings, “Toward a Theory
of Culturally Relevant Pedagogy,”
American Educational Research Journal
32 no. 3 (1995): 465–91.
28. Sheila J. Scott, “Rethinking the Roles of
Assessment in Music Education,” Music
Educators Journal 98, no. 3 (2012):
31–35.
29. Ibid.
30. Maxine Greene, Releasing the
Imagination: Essays on Education, the
Arts, and Social Change (San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass, 1995).
31. Katz and Chard, Engaging Children’s
Minds, 8.
32. Ladson-Billings, “Toward a Theory,” 469.
47