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2012
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Chaput, April, "The Impact of the Use of Favoritism on Work Groups" (2012). Seminar Research Paper Series. Paper 36.
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THE IMPACT OF THE USE OF FAVORITISM ON WORK GROUPS
APRIL CHAPUT
University of Rhode Island
This paper addresses a topic that is a Hence, supervisors use subjective criteria in
prevalent phenomenon in the workforce. It does hiring decisions, promotional decisions,
not get a great deal of formal attention, but it is performance evaluations, and work and task
an important issue that exists in all organizations. assignment decisions rather than objective
The topic is organizational favoritism. According measures. “Subjectivity opens the door to
to Morettini, “Favoritism is part of human nature. favoritism, where supervisors act on personal
No two people interact similarly to any other preferences toward subordinates to favor some
two, so it's impossible for all organization subordinates over others” (Prendergast & Topel,
relationships to be "equal". It's only natural to 1996: 958). According to Dr. Sayani Basu, “in
gravitate to people that you share common the work place, favoritism can be said when
interests with, and with whom you have an easy someone-or perhaps a group of people-appears
rapport” (2006: 1). We can view favoritism from to be treated better than others and not
two perspectives: subordinate perceptions of necessarily for reasons related to superior work
supervisor favoritism or actual favoritism performance” (2009:1). In Duran and Morales
behaviors. It is evident that relationships approach to favoritism, “preferred individuals are
between supervisors and subordinates are a those who belong to the group of friends of the
controversial discussion among subordinates, organization. The unfairness that characterizes
supervisors, and organizations in correlation with favoritism is found in the fact that decision-
organizational favoritism. Berman, West, and makers consciously favor their friends at the
Richter (2002) define organization relationship as expense of someone else who is more deserving”
“nonexclusive organization relations that involve (2009:3). According to Bassman and London,
mutual trust, commitment, reciprocal liking and “showing favoritism maybe abusive in itself,
shared interest or values” (2002: 218). An especially if the “out group” subordinates are
organizational relationship can be purely regularly excluded from opportunities for
instrumental based on an exchange of resources development, valued job assignments, pay
or can be affective based on interpersonal liking increases, or other rewards” (1993:21).
and attraction. According to the Merit Systems
The use of favoritism in supervisor decision-
Protection Board, “favoritism occurs when
making has limited academic literature in relation
human capital decisions are based on personal
to ethical decision-making theory, leader-
feelings and/or relationships and NOT on
member exchange theory, or expectancy theory.
objective criteria, such as assessments of ability,
Furthermore, academic literature has used
knowledge, and skills” (2011: 1). For the purpose
antecedents and consequences to investigate
of this paper, favoritism takes place when human
favoritism, but not favoritism in supervisory
capital decisions are established on personal
decision-making.
feelings and/or relationships, such as
assessments of ability, knowledge, skills, and past The purpose of this research is to examine
performance. organizational conditions that make the use of
favoritism more likely (antecedents) and the
The majority of literature available on
outcomes that occur when high use of favoritism
organizational favoritism places emphasis on
is used within groups and organizations
certain human resource functions where
(consequences). I found that the uses of
supervisory decision-making could be influenced.
favoritism in supervisorial decision-making are manage other groups a break-down in SOP has
caused by pre-existing conditions that occur occurred. The break-down in SOP by a supervisor
within the organization. The antecedents used in ultimately is because one subordinate or group of
the favoritism model (Diagram 1) includes: subordinates (in-group) is perceived to be
transparency, clear and specific decision-making favored based on a good relationship or common
criteria, ethical climate or culture, supervisor interests over the other subordinate or group of
accountability for results, and supervisor subordinates (out-group). This will result in
accountability for process. Performance, morale, subordinates perceiving favoritism based on
and motivation are consequences that are critical variations to SOP by supervisors which then
to determining favoritism in supervisor decision- results in reduced morale and organization
making and are also displayed in the favoritism motivation, decreased performance, increase in
model too (diagram 1). I found that favoritism is social capital, perceived inequality and high
more likely to occur in organizations that have a turnover.
lack of transparency in decision-making,
deficiency of clear and specific decision-making Outline of the Paper
criteria, a non-existent organizational culture or In this paper, I will explain in full detail each
climate, insufficient accountability on antecedent of favoritism in supervisor decision-
supervisors, and a lack of engaged supervisors. making. Next, I will explain in complete detail
Organizations typically have standard each consequence of favoritism in supervisor
operating procedures (SOP) in place to help guide decision-making. Following I will analyze
in the everyday operations of the organization favoritism in supervisor decision-making by
and are an integral part of a successful explaining in comprehensive detail ethical
organization environment as it provides decision-making theory, leader-member
individuals with the information to perform a job exchange theory, and expectancy theory. After
properly, and facilitates consistency in the quality analyzing favoritism in supervisor decision-
and integrity of the organization. Furthermore, making based on theory, I will relate my findings
an SOP is designed, in part, to minimize to the favoritism model (diagram 1). The
favoritism and promote quality through application of the favoritism model will be
consistent implementation of a policy or specified, and I will explain why the favoritism
procedure within the organization. It can be model will more efficiently and effectively
assumed that if at any point during supervisory decrease favoritism in supervisor decision-
decision-making the same policies or procedures making. Lastly, I will conclude with a summary of
used to manage one group of subordinates aren’t the paper, need for future research, and
the same policies and procedures used to recommendations.
FIGURE 1
Favoritism Model
Antecedents of Consequences of
Favoritism
Favoritism
Transparency
Performance
Clear and Specific
Decision-making Criteria Use of
Favoritism in Morale
Ethical Climate or Culture
Supervisor
Decisions
Supervisor Accountability Motivation
for Results
Supervisor Accountability
for Process
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 3
bottom (top) and even with bias in the respective organizations typically make decisions
supervisor’s behavior, it is far out (variance) concerning various “events, practices, and
examples of behavior which are really expensive procedures” requiring ethical criteria” (W.C.
or damaging, and (5) if supervisor’s behavior had Frederick, 1987: 52). Victor and Cullen (cited in
paralleled the decision rules with their average or W.C. Frederick, 1987) established an ethical
mean coefficients, their experience would have climate typology that consists of a 3 x 3 diagram
been better according to the criteria” (Bowman, (Figure 1). The diagram illustrates the theoretical
1961: 316). climate types that could be found in the
organization. To better understand, the diagram
H2: Experienced supervisors make decisions
listed the three types of criteria of ethical theory
based on their own criteria creating
along the vertical axis which are egoism,
biases; supervisors who use clear and
benevolence, and principle. Furthermore, along
specific criteria are less likely to make
the horizontal axis are the three levels of analysis
decisions based on favoritism.
which are individual, local, and cosmopolitan.
Ethical Culture or Climate. Ethical/Culture
This then forms the nine theoretical possible
Climate within an organization is defined by
climates which an organization could experience.
Victor and Cullen (cited in W.C. Frederick, 1987)
They are (1) self-interest, (2) organization profit,
as “the shared perceptions of what ethically
(3) efficiency, (4) friendship, (5) team interest, (6)
correct behavior is and how ethical issues should
social responsibility, (7) personal morality, (8)
be handled” (W.C. Frederick, 1987: 51-52). In
organization rules and procedures, and (9) the
organizations, subordinates tend to behave
law or professional code. This typology shows a
consistent with the work climate and therefore it
range of organizational sources of ethical work
can be predicted that there is a link between
climate including: “(1) the “individual”, in which
climate and behavior. Ethical Culture/Climate is
the basis for ethical decision-making comes from
expected to have an impact on organizational
within the individual (e.g., one’s personal moral
decision-making and according to ethical theory it
beliefs); (2) “local”, whereby the source of ethical
could cause either ethical or unethical behaviors
roles definitions and expectations come from
in the organization. Ethical theory has many
within the focal organization (e.g., organizational
different aspects; however for all intended
practices, policies, etc.); or (3) “cosmopolitan,” in
purposes I will be using the work of Victor and
which case the source or reference group for
Cullen to find out how organizations can establish
ethical decision-making is external to the
an ethical climate.
individual and focal organization (e.g.,
Victor and Cullen developed the Ethical professional association)” (Shepard & Wimbush:
Climate Questionnaire (ECQ) “to tap respondents’ 1994: 638).
perceptions of how the members of their
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 7
FIGURE 2:
Victor and Cullen Typology of Ethical Climates
Locus of Analysis
Furthermore, Victor and Cullen (1988) that there is a significant difference in ethical
identified five dimensions of ethical climate climates among firms and within firms.
including caring, rules, law and code, Therefore, “a theory of ethical climates is
independence, and instrumental. These developed from organization and economic
dimensions are linked to Victor and Cullen’s theory to describe the determinants of ethical
typology of ethical climates (Figure 2) and were climates in organizations. In particular, the
determined based on a survey of 872 sociocultural environment, organizational form,
subordinates of four firms that were both multi- and organizational-specific history are identified
dimensional and multi-determined. Based on the as determinants of the ethical climate in
data collected from the survey it was revealed organizations” (Victor & Cullen, 1888: 101).
FIGURE 3
Victor and Cullen (1988) Theoretically and Empirically-Identified
Dimensions of Ethical Climate
Theoretical Dimensions Empirical Dimensions
Individual/Benevolence Caring
Local/Benevolence
Local/Principle Rules
Individual/Principle Independence
Individual/Egoism Instrumental
Local/Egoism
Shepard & Wimbush, 1994: 639)
Chaput – Favoritism 8
I will use both the ethical climate typology as a guide for supervisor’s ethical decision-
and the five dimensions of ethical climate making.
developed by Victor and Cullen’s to describe the
Fourth, it can be predicted that an
relationship between ethical climate and
organization that has an ethical climate utilizing
favoritism (Table 1).
“independence” would illustrate that supervisors
First, it can be predicted that an organization are “guided by their personal moral beliefs”
that has an ethical climate utilizing “law and (Shepard & Wimbush, 1994: 639). As a result, an
code” would require that supervisors adhere to individual/principle organization in theory would
the codes and regulations of their profession in have a low relationship between ethical climate
fear that they would jeopardize their job and lose and favoritism because decision-making is based
the respect of their colleagues (Shepard & on criteria of the supervisors “own personal
Wimbush, 1994: 639). As a result, a moral beliefs based upon a set of well-considered
cosmopolitan/principle or a cosmopolitan principles” (Shepard & Wimbush, 1994: 639). In
benevolence organization in theory will have no this case, supervisors are “self-guided to the
relationship between ethical climate and extent that others within and outside the
favoritism because decision-making is made organization have little or no influence on their
based on objective criteria centered on codes and ethical decision-making” (Shepard & Wimbush,
regulations of the organization. 1994: 639).
Second, it can be predicted that an Fifth, it can be predicted that an organization
organization that has an ethical climate utilizing that has an ethical climate utilizing
“caring” would employ supervisors that “have a “instrumental” components have supervisors
sincere interest for the well-being of each other, that “look out for their own self-interest, first and
as well as others within and outside the foremost, to the exclusion of the interest of
organization, who might be affected by their others who may be affected (even adversely) by
ethical decisions” (Shepard & Wimbush, 1994: their decisions” (Shepard & Wimbush, 1994:
638). As a result, an individual/benevolence or a 639). As a result, an individual/egoism or local
local/benevolence organization in theory will egoism organization in theory would have a high
have a low relationship between ethical climate relationship between ethical climate and
and favoritism because decision-making is made favoritism because decision-making is based on
based on criteria in which “policies and practices criteria exclusively to the supervisors own self-
of the workgroup would foster concern for those interest.
affected by subordinates’ decisions. Not only
Overall, ethical theory has predicted that
would the policies and practices promote this,
organizations can create an ethical climate by
but most workgroup members would individually
creating a work environment that utilizes “law
conduct themselves in this manner” (Shepard &
and code”, “caring”, “rules”, or “independence”
Wimbush, 1994: 638).
as the dimension. In that scenario, “It is expected
Third, it can be predicted that an organization that ethical behavior will be most prevalent
that has an ethical climate utilizing “rules” would among supervisors because the organizational
comprise of supervisors “who adhere strictly to policies and accepted behavior would command
the organizational rules and policies” (Shepard & the consideration of others when making ethical
Wimbush, 1994: 639). As a result, a decisions” (Shepard & Wimbush, 1994: 640).
local/principle organization in theory would have Furthermore, there will for the most part be no
a low relationship between ethical climate and or low relationship between ethical climate and
favoritism because decision-making is based on favoritism because decision-making is based on
criteria in which the rules and policies will serve more of an objective criteria. In contrast, when
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 9
an organization has an instrumental work climate high relationship between ethical climate and
it is expected to foster unethical behaviors. favoritism because decision-making is based on
Therefore, it can be predicted that there will be a personal feelings and/or relationships.
TABLE 1
Relationship Between Ethical Climate and Favoritism
H3: It can be predicted that if a supervisor is policies and procedures (compliance), and
using only objective criteria for demonstrating performance” (Lavergne, 2002: 5).
decision-making, then there is no This is a concept referred to as Result Based
relationship between ethical climate Management (RBM), “a management philosophy
and favoritism. and approach and set of tools designed to
improve both management effectiveness and
H4: It can be predicted that if a supervisor is
accountability” (Lavergne, 2002: 5). RBM can be
using a combination of objective
successfully achieved if supervisors and
criteria and biased criteria for decision-
organizations define realistic expected results,
making, there is a low relationship
assess risk, monitor progress toward the
between ethical climate and
achievement of expected results, and integrate
favoritism.
lessons learned into management decisions and
H5: It can be predicted that if a supervisor is report on performance (Lavergne, 2002).
using biased criteria for decision-
The elements of RBM and Accountability are
making, there is a high relationship
essential, because they define the standards
between ethical climate and
against which performance is assessed; they are
favoritism.
also key factors that motivate behavior.
Supervisor Accountability for Results. Supervisors who are being held accountable for
When a supervisor is being held accountable results and use RBM are encouraged to “describe
for results there biggest focus is “striving for clear roles and responsibilities for the main
results (results), making efficient and effective partners involved in delivering the policy,
use of resources (cost-effectiveness), assessing program or initiative (sound governance
and manage risks (prudence or due diligence), structure); ensure clear and logical design that
ensuring compliance with laws, regulations, ties resources to expected outcomes (results-
Chaput – Favoritism 10
based logic model) that shows a logical sequence found that high accountability would result in
of activities, outputs and a chain of outcomes for higher self-set goals; high accountability will
the policy, program or initiative; determine result in high levels of task attentiveness and
appropriate performance measures and sound context attentiveness; and “goals and
performance measurement strategy that allows accountability would interact such that the goal-
supervisors to track progress, measure outcomes, performance correlation would be positive and
support subsequent evaluation work, learn and strong under low accountability, where goals
make adjustments to improve on an ongoing would likely serve more of a performance-
basis; set out any evaluation work that is enhancement function, and substantially reduced
expected to be done over the life cycle of a under high accountability, where goals would be
policy, program or initiative; and ensure more likely be used for impression-management
adequate reporting on outcomes” (TBS, 2001:1). purposes” (Frink & Ferris, 1998: 1276). Overall,
“supervisors should focus more intently on the
In addition, accountability for performance is
strategic relationship between outputs and
a fundamental principle in organizations,
outcomes in order to refine our output choices
however it needs to be implemented and
and improve effectiveness” (Lavergne, 2002: 25).
managed correctly. “In organizations,
accountability implies a system of rewards and H6: It can be predicted that if supervisor’s
sanctions for conformity to organizational accountability is based on results, they
standards, or a control system” (Frink & Ferris, are less likely to make decisions based
1998: 1260). A fundamental accountability on favoritism.
mechanism for both supervisors and
Supervisor Accountability for Process.
subordinates is the performance evaluation
Supervisor accountability for process occurs in
process. The performance evaluation process
organizations that have an organizational
often includes a goal-setting component where
structure with a control process. Most often
goals are articulated and then during follow up
organizations that have a control system “use as
meetings the goals are reviewed and action plans
the basic independent variable some form of
created and are implemented. It is imperative
organization or organizational procedure
that the goal setting component of a
designed to control the activities of the
performance evaluation for all subordinates
organization members” (Ouchi, 1977: 95). There
including supervisors is used as a performance-
is a difference among the structure of an
enhancement and not just an impression
organization and its control mechanism. The
management mechanism.
structure of an organization “consists of familiar
Literature shows that supervisors who are variables such as vertical and horizontal
held accountable for results use “both setting and differentiation, centralization, and formalization”
accomplishing the goals (i.e., both the processes (Ouchi, 1977: 96); whereas the control system
and outcomes) as a means for self-satisfying “consists essentially of a process of monitoring,
objectives, such as elevating or defending either evaluating, and rewarding, and the data which
our self or public image. In this view, the goal are processed by this system may consist of
setting process itself may help one achieve a measures of behavior of outputs” (Ouchi, 1977:
secondary objective, such as image 99)
enhancement, providing a motivational basis for
Supervisor accountability for process often
goal setting” (Frink & Ferris, 1998: 1262).
occurs in hierarchical organizations. In a control
Therefore, Frink and Ferris (1998) conducted two
process environment, supervisors communicate
studies (laboratory and field) to evaluate
the organizational policies and objectives and are
accountability in organizations in general and the
then filtered down and executed by subordinates
effects of accountability when using goal setting
who are responsible for completing the necessary
in the performance evaluation process. It was
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 11
to the path instrumentalities perceived by the that it is ethical to respect individuals and it is
worker and path instrumentalities are related to unethical to disrespect individuals.
satisfaction and performance (Siuggh & Kumari,
Ethical decision-making in organizations
1988).
include three important components (Smith-
Crowe & Tenbrunsel, 2008) moral awareness,
ANALYSIS
moral decision-making, and amoral decision-
Ethical Decision-Making making. This model (figure 3) develops a
framework around what drives ethical decision-
Ethical decision-making has many key
making and includes whether decision-makers
relationships and factors in the ethical decision-
are morally aware. The model also uses decision
making process. The key relationships and
frames to describe the perception of the decision
factors that have been discussed in research
maker; these decision frames were built to
specifically focus on behavioral or descriptive
develop the concept of moral awareness and the
ethics.
lack thereof. Therefore, the construct establishes
Ethical is “a particular type of social value, that “under the influence of an ethical frame,
that having to do with how humans cooperate decision makers are morally aware. Under the
and coordinate their activities in the service of influence of other frames (e.g., a business frame
furthering human welfare, and how they or a legal frame), however, decision makers are
adjudicate conflicts among individual interests” not morally aware” (Smith-Crowe & Tenbrunsel,
(Rest, 1986: 3). Ethical decision is “a decision 2008: 553). The notion to this model is being
that both legally and morally acceptable to the able to recognize and identify which frame is
larger community. Conversely, an unethical being used; this is crucial to understanding and
decision is a decision that is either illegal or predicting ethical and unethical decisions.
morally unacceptable to the larger community” Therefore, in this construct the perspective not
(Jones, 1991: 367). Behavioral ethics is only includes the concept of moral awareness but
“individual behavior that is subject to or judged extensively adds to the understanding of
according to generally accepted moral norms of decisions made when decision makers are
behavior” (Trevino, 2006: 952). In the article, morally unaware. The decision-making process
Ethical Decision-making: Where we’ve been and influences this theory too. “The decision-making
Where We’re Going, the authors discuss the process can be characterized as either moral or
“respect principle”. This principle was amoral and the outcomes of either decision
established by I. Kant (1785/1964), and says that process as either ethical or unethical, moral
people should never be treated merely as means, dimensions are part of the decision-making
but always as ends in themselves. According to process, whereas in amoral decision-making, they
Smith-Crowe & Tenbrunsel (2008) this principle are not” (Smith-Crowe & Tenbrunsel , 2008: 553).
provides an “ethical” framework that establishes
Chaput – Favoritism 14
FIGURE 3
Model of Ethical Decision-Making
The decision-making process can be decision maker’s perspective along with the
considered as either moral or amoral; the normative consequences of their actions are both
outcome of the decision is either ethical or crucial to enhancing our knowledge of ethical
unethical. However, the outcome, whether decision-making” (Smith-Crowe & Tenbrunsel,
ethical or unethical can be characterized as 2008: 553). The table illustrates the four
intentional or unintentional. The typology of different outcomes that are produced depending
dependent variables (table 2) “distinguishes on the decision-making process used (moral or
between intentionality and ethicality, is derived amoral) and result of the decision (ethical or
from both the need to bridge the gap between unethical). In general, the purpose of this
descriptive and normative approaches to ethics typology is to determine if the decision maker
and the recognition that understanding the was morally aware of the decision made.
TABLE 2
Typology of Dependent Variables
Process
their relationship has improved). This phase is between the supervisor and the subordinate
considered a test to see if the supervisor is willing turns into a partnership that involves a high
to provide new challenges to the subordinate degree of exchange where they depend on each
based on the trust and respect developed. The other for favors and special help. There interests
subordinates interests begin to become group are group oriented and based on mutual trust,
oriented versus self-interest. Phase III, the respect, and obligation toward each other.
mature partnership, is when the relationship
TABLE 3
Phases in Leadership Making
valued” (Isaac, Zerbe, & Pitt, 2001: 214). This the reward he or she receives (pay, time off, etc.).
determines the extent to which the person values
FIGURE 4
The Expectancy Theory Model
EFFORT
EXPECTANCY (E-P
LINKAGE)
PERFORMANCE VALENCE
INSTRUMENTALITY (P-O
LINKAGE)
OUTCOME
decisions is that supervisors must be fully aware for building and maintaining and ethical work
and informed of the policies and procedures culture or climate.
present in the organization (transparency is key)
When using ethical decision-making theory it
as well as what measures can be taken to avoid
can cause some biases towards the end of the
favoritism. The “respect principle” emphasizes
decision-making process. According to Zeleny
the importance of moral and amoral decision
(1981), when the decision-making process begins
making and what constitutes ethical and
information is gathered and the evaluation of the
unethical decision making.
decision is quite impartial and objective. As
An ethical infrastructure is an important potential decisions are filtered and made and
component to ethical decision making theory. An some alternatives are discarded, cognitive
ethical infrastructure means that the organization dissonance begins to dominate. As a result, “the
has a culture or climate, informal systems, and process of divergence becomes more subjective
formal systems that are relevant to ethics in the and biased towards the few remaining
organization (Tenbrunsel & Smith-Crowe, 2008). alternatives” (Zeleny, 1981: 90). Overall, the
The ethical climate component is applied by decision has been resolved, however all
Victor & Cullen (1988), through the impact levels impartiality or objectivity is abandoned. This is
of moral awareness, with benevolence and when he organization must have supervisors who
principle ethical climates leading to greater moral show commitment, honest, loyalty, and trust.
awareness, and egoistic ethical climates resulting
Hence, in order for an organization to
in lower levels of moral awareness. In order for
decrease favoritism in supervisor decision-making
supervisors to correct such behaviors they must
an organization must hold supervisors
be morally aware (through training) and then
accountable for business decisions (business
proceed to develop a more ethical culture or
results and organizational processes). This can be
climate within the organization to prevent the
done using ethical decision-making theory
use of favoritism when making decisions.
through the implementation of knowledge
In addition, supervisor behaviors are structures and administrative systems that
important in ethical decision-making theory. A reinforce ethical behavior, a formal ethical code
supervisor must have support for others, that provides behavior guidelines for ethical
honesty, holding oneself accountable for decisions, and responsible leadership. This
outcomes and decisions, fairness to others, and successful implementation will ensure clear
the ability to articulate personal and communication regarding ethical standards and
organizational ethical standards (Pimentel, Kuntz, fair workplace practices (Pimentel, Kuntz,
Elenkov, 2008). This requires the organization to Elenkov, 2008).
have a control process where “specific structural
and functional arrangements are in place in order Application of Favoritism Model to Leader-
to ensure effectiveness” (Pimentel, Kuntz, Member Exchange Theory
Elenkov, 2008: 365). Furthermore, according to The application of favoritism model to LMX
Collier and Esteban (2007), the collaboration of has some strengths and weaknesses. In LMX
leadership behaviors and organizational practices theory it has been established that in
permits for a strong ethical culture or climate. organizations in-groups and out-groups are
Assessing ethical climate or culture, developed. This is a weakness of the theory and
implementing ethical values in the organization there has been a lot of criticism about LMX
through training and open communication, and stating that out-groups are harmful to
using reward and performance appraisal systems organizations because supervisors develop
to recompose and reinforce ethical behavior relationships with subordinates who contribute
constitutes some of the most effective methods more and in return they get more. This can be
preserved as favoritism. The notion that people
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 19
should get along with everyone and treat All subordinates deserve rewards attached to
everyone equally is questionable with LMX. LMX performance. Using expectancy theory
theory divides subordinates into two groups and organizations must implement ways to help
one group receives special attention; this can be supervisors motivate subordinates. Expectancy
presented as favoritism to the in-group. LMX was theory of motivation plays a big part in workplace
not designed to create privileged groups in the behavior. Basically, the expectancy theory says
organization; however some might view it as that the higher the rewards and the more
such. rewards are measured by performance, the
harder a person would work. Therefore,
In contrast, LMX theory is known to
subordinates that are being rewarded based on a
accurately explain the notion of the importance
strategic and transparent reward system will
of an effective leader-member exchange. LMX
work more efficiently because the expectations
“warns supervisors to avoid letting their
are clear and specific and subordinates will not
conscious or unconscious biases influence who is
perceive favoritism. However, if the reward
invited into the in-group (Northouse, 2007: 159).
system does not have a structure and the
The reason why LMX was chosen as a theory to
incentives are being rewarded based on
apply to the favoritism model is because the
supervisor biases, employees who are not
ideologies the theory offers “serves as a good
receiving the rewards may become de-motivated
reminder for supervisors to be fair and equal in
and perceive favoritism by the supervisor.
how they approach each of their subordinates”
(Northouse, 2007: 159). Based on the analysis on expectancy theory,
it was learned that motivation equals expectancy
In the LMX, researchers have found that high-
plus instrumentality plus valence.
quality leader-member exchanges produce less
Instrumentality can be applied to the favoritism
subordinate turnover, more positive performance
model if subordinates perceive that valued
evaluations, and high frequency of promotions,
rewards are distributed by supervisors without
greater organizational commitment, more
following a performance management system,
desired work assignments, better job attitudes,
and then instrumentality is low. For example, if a
more attention and support from the supervisor,
supervisor is known to give everyone in the
greater participation, and faster career progress.
organization rewards regardless of the results of
In addition, if an organization implements LMX
their performance evaluation, and then
properly they will have positive outcomes. Graun
instrumentality is low. Hence, trust, control, and
and Uhl-Bien (1995) positively reflects other
policies are variables that play an important role
important organization variables including job
in subordinate’s instrumentality for outcomes.
climate, innovation, and organizational
Based on expectancy theory, subordinates must
citizenship behavior, and empowerment,
trust their supervisors. When there is an
procedural and distributive justice.
organizational culture or climate where
Application of Favoritism Model to Expectancy subordinates trust their supervisors it is more
Theory likely that subordinates will believe that good
performance will be rewarded. In addition, an
The application of favoritism model to
organization that implements a formalized pay
Expectancy Theory has various strengths and
and reward systems that consists of written
weaknesses. Expectancy theory allows for
policies has an enormous impact on the
supervisors to realize their leadership goals,
subordinate’s instrumentality perceptions. To
because it provides them with tools that impact
prevent favoritism use in supervisor decision-
the psychological processes resident in their
making to distribute rewards it is best for
subordinates, as the latter constantly form
organizations to have formalized policies linking
expectations resulting from perceptions of the
rewards to performance.
culture or climate (Isaac, Zerbe, and Pitt, 2001).
Chaput – Favoritism 20
Overall, organizations use the expectancy The antecedents employed to establish logic
theory of motivation to help understand how regarding the use of favoritism in supervisorial
supervisors make decisions regarding various decision-making includes: transparency, clear and
behavioral alternatives. This model deals with the specific decision-making criteria, ethical climate,
direction aspect of motivation According to Isaac, supervisor accountability for results, and
Zerbe, and Pitt (2001), expectancy theory can be supervisor accountability for process.
linked to leadership concepts to illustrate that Performance, morale, and motivation are
supervisor interactions with subordinates permit consequences that are critical to determining
the establishment of highly motivational working favoritism in supervisor decision-making.
culture or climate. In addition, “in order to
Moreover, three theories were analyzed and
survive the impact of economic, technological,
then applied to the favoritism model. The ethical
environmental and other pressures of the global
decision-making theory can be characterized as
marketplace, we must in trust the fates of our
either moral or amoral and the outcomes of
companies to people, at all levels of the
either decision process as either ethical or
hierarchy, capable of being both managers and
unethical. It was found that moral dimensions
leaders simultaneously” (Isaac, Zerbe, & Pitt,
are part of the decision-making process, whereas
2001: 213). Organizations “need employees
in amoral decision-making, they are not. Hence,
capable of managing their work by planning,
in order for an organization to decrease
organizing, and controlling activities as required.
favoritism in supervisor decision-making an
Without such individuals, capable of managing
organization must hold supervisors accountable
the journey towards the achievement of
for business decisions (business results and
organizational goals, expressions of corporate
organizational processes). This can be done using
visions become empty dreams of overly active
ethical decision-making theory through the
presidential imaginations” (Isaac, Zerbe, and Pitt,
implementation of knowledge structures and
2001: 214)
administrative systems that reinforce ethical
behavior, a formal ethical code that provides
CONCLUSION
behavior guidelines for ethical decisions, and
Favoritism is a prevalent phenomenon in the responsible leadership.
workforce. Favoritism does not get a great deal
According to leader-member exchange
of formal attention, but it is an important issue
theory, supervisors who establish in-group
that exists in all organizations. Favoritism takes
relationships with their subordinates will
place when human capital decisions are
accomplish more work in a more effective
established on personal feelings and/or
manner. In-group members are devoted to their
relationships, such as assessments of ability,
work and go above and beyond their scope of
knowledge, skills, and past performance. The
work to increase the group goals. In return, the
majority of literature available on organizational
supervisor gives the in-group members more
favoritism places emphasis on certain human
responsibility and opportunity in addition to time
resources functions where supervisory decision-
and support. In contrast, the out-group members
making could be influenced. The purpose of this
work strictly according to the scope of work in
research is to examine organizational conditions
their job description. In return, the supervisor
that make the use of favoritism more likely
treats them fairly according to the contract,
(antecedents) and the outcomes that occur when
however does not give them any special
high use of favoritism is used within groups and
attention. In the LMX, researchers have found
organizations (consequences).
that high-quality leader-member exchanges
The uses of favoritism in supervisorial produce less subordinate turnover, more positive
decision-making are caused by pre-existing performance evaluations, and high frequency of
conditions that occur within the organization. promotions, greater organizational commitment,
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 21
more desired work assignments, better job their strong performance. Many subordinates
attitudes, more attention and support from the believe the company gives promotions based on
supervisor, greater participation, and faster favoritism or sometimes just at random. This
career progress. In addition, if an organization type of scenario causes subordinates to feel
implements LMX properly they will have positive unmotivated, research and surveys should be
outcomes. done to determine what type of support
subordinates need from their supervisors to
Expectancy theory proposes that although
increase instrumentality, valence, and
individuals may ultimately have a different set of
expectancy.
goals, they can be motivated if they believe that
there is a positive relationship between efforts
Recommendations
and performance, exception performance will
result in a desirable reward, the reward will The biggest impact organizations can make to
satisfy an important need, and the desire to improve or decrease favoritism in supervisor
satisfy the need is encouraging enough to make decision-making is implementing training and
the effort valuable and worth it. Based on development programs for the supervisors. This
expectancy theory, subordinates must trust their is recommended because many supervisors do
supervisors. When there is an organizational not see a direct connection between favoritism in
culture or climate where subordinates trust their decision-making training and development
supervisors it is more likely that subordinates will programs and the effectiveness of performance,
believe that good performance will be rewarded. morale, and motivation. Organizations who
In addition, an organization that implements a implement Supervisor ship Development
formalized pay and reward systems that consists Programs, Culture Training, and Ethical Training
of written policies has an enormous impact on will see less favoritism on supervisor decision-
the subordinate’s instrumentality perceptions. making and high performance, morale, and
To prevent favoritism use in supervisor decision- motivation from subordinates.
making to distribute rewards it is best for Leadership Development Programs.
organizations to have formalized policies linking Leadership Development Programs, often
rewards to performance. referred to as LDPs, are created to enhance
leadership skills in subordinates, supervisors,
Future Research supervisors, and executives. These programs are
The need for future research is always important to organizational success as effective
important. The use of favoritism in supervisor leadership is viewed as critical to performance
decision making does not get a great deal of (Pernick, Robert, 431). As a result, LDPs have
formal attention, but it is an important issue that become prominent in today’s organization
exists in all organizations. Future research should training and development strategies. LDPs are
be done in LMX to address fairness issues designed to change participants’ behaviors, and
affecting the development and maintenance of improve their skills through processes such as
LMX relationships including subordinates formal training programs, coaching and
perceptions of the fairness of pay increases and mentoring, action learning, and developmental
promotional opportunities, decision-making assignments. Recent trends in Leadership
rules, and communications of issues of favoritism Development have an emphasis on combining
within the organization. In addition, future training practices in a real business setting in
research should be done with expectancy theory. order to give trainees the skills that allow them to
Research and surveys should be done in effectively address real-time organizational
organizations to validate why subordinates challenges (Hernez-Broome; Hughes, 27).
believe they have little chance at getting the
Organizations that implement LDPs take
available promotion at the organization despite
several factors into consideration in the design
Chaput – Favoritism 22
and implementation of this strategy. LDPs expected to play a major role in influencing the
provide “measurable, challenging, and time- culture of an organization (Taormina, 86).
bounded developmental activities for Corporate culture was not only found to be a
participants” (Pernick, Robert, 435). These useful concept for understanding what went on
activities are geared primarily towards in organizations, but supervisors also discovered,
developing skills and competencies in areas of or were told by management gurus, that “strong”
needed improvement. Typically, leadership corporate cultures supported by appropriate
development occurs in three related areas: socialization practices would lead to much better
technical, conceptual, and interpersonal (Pernick, performance (Schein, 63).
Robert, 425). The training is conducted in the
Therefore, culture training within
work setting as often as possible, which allows
organizations is often focused on a process
participants to gain applicable real-time
through which subordinate’s learns to adapt to
experience. In doing so, participants understand
an organizational culture, also known as
that they are making meaningful contributions to
organizational socialization. Organizational
the organization and towards improving their
socialization is the process of “learning the
leadership skills.
ropes,” the process of being indoctrinated and
Evaluation of LDP participants come trained, the process of being taught what is
consistently throughout the training. In order to important in an organization or some subunit
assess the candidates and the program properly, thereof (Schein, 54). Organizational socialization
there needs to be clear, defined program goals. influences subordinates to understand the
According to Pernick, there are five levels that values, abilities, expected behaviors, and social
LDPs can be evaluated by: reaction (level 1), knowledge of the organization, and therefore
knowledge and skill transfer (level 2), on-site facilitates an appreciation for the organization
behavioral change (level 3), business impact and their role as a subordinate. As a result,
(level 4), and return on program investment when subordinates are exposed to culture
(level 5). Evaluation is critical of LDPs because trainings that include development of new skills,
they are often extremely costly to initiate. knowledge, abilities, attitudes, values, and
Although leadership is thought of as an important relationships, and the development of
resource to resolve organizational problems, appropriate sense-making frameworks, they will
many organizations look to development integrate into the organizational culture
programs as a place to reduce their budget successfully.
(Scholl; Brownell, 487). A successful program,
Furthermore, the effectiveness of
determined through accurate evaluation, can
socialization within an organization will
suffice as hard evidence as why not to cut costs in
determine subordinate loyalty, morale,
training and development.
motivation, commitment, productivity, and
Culture Training. Culture within an turnover. In theory, socialization is very
organization is influenced by the beliefs, important to the effectiveness of an
attitudes, and priorities of the subordinates. The organization’s subordinates, and thus all
culture of an organization is typically created socialization domains should be positively
unconsciously, based on the values of supervisors present in every culture (Taormina, 99).
and the organizational strategy. Establishing a However, in some organizations there is a lack of
culture of quality within an organization, starting significant relationships among subordinates
supervisors, creates an environment that inspires resulting in the organization’s failure to
subordinates to take pride in their work and, emphasize some critical socialization domains.
therefore, follow good practices (Markovitz, 20). Looking at the overall pattern of relationships
Supervisors have considerable freedom to decide within organizations, the model of organizational
how their organizations will run, and can thus be socialization success proposes that role
Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 23
performance, extra-role performance, social not misusing these resources, about work place
cohesion, internal stability, and external romance etc. are an integral part of the training
representation will positively influence an program. The ethics program has more benefits
organizational culture by providing opportunities when it is designed as a group.
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