The Reflective Practitioner HOW PROFESSIONALS THINK IN ACTION Donald A. Schén Ashgate ARENA Aldershot © Brookfield USA * Singapore * SydneyEn © Copyright Basic Books, Inc. 1983, 1991 Al rights reserv ed in Great Britain 1983 by Lid London WC2H HD Paperback edition first published in Great Britain 1991 by ‘Avebury, Ashgate Publishing Limited ‘This edition reprinted 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999 by ing Limited Aldershot, Hants GULL 34 England ACIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1857423194 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Lid, Guildford and King's Lynn Contents PREFACE Part I PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND REFLECTION-IN-ACTION 1 The Crisis of Confidence in Professional Knowledge 2 From Technical Rationality to Reflection-in- ‘Action Part IT PROFESSIONAL CONTEXTS FOR REFLECTION-IN-ACTION 3 Design as a Reflective Conversation with the SituationPROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND REFLECTION-IN-ACTION ;, and choosing among compet these processes seem mys ing model of professional knowledge. bound to an epistemology of practice which leaves us at a loss to explain, or even to describe, the competences to which we now give overriding importance. 20 > 2 a es . Bi From Technical i: Rationality to He Reflection-in- Action ear Queen Mary's <. The Dominant Epistemology of Practice According to the model af Technical Rationality—the view of professional knowledge which has most powerfully shaped both our thinking about the professions and the institutional of research, education, and practice—professional ac- is rumental problem solving made rigorous of scientific theory and technique. Although are concemed, on this view, with the instru- mental adjustment of means to ends, only the professions prac- 21