Module - II

Module - II
 Wheel Gear Boxes: Necessity of gear box, sliding
mesh, constant mesh, synchromesh and epicyclic,
overdrives, and torque converter.
 Wheels and Tyres: of wheels tyre constructional
features and characteristics.
 Front axles and steering : Type Front axles and
steering: Types of front axles and their construction,
front wheel drive, wheel alignment, steering geometry,
steering gear requirement, wheel balance, steering
mechanisms, and characteristics, Types of steering
gears, power starring, steering trouble shooting.
 Brakes: Theory of shoe brakes, shoe factors, weight
transfer, brake power ratio, hydraulic, power air and
vacuum brakes.
Transmission
 It consist of :-
• Clutch
• Gear box
• Propeller Shaft
• Differential and
• Driving Wheels.
Transmission
 Transmission is the mechanism which transmits the
power from the Engine crankshaft to Rear wheels.
 It can also be defined as mechanism which provides us
suitable variation of engine Torque to wheels.

Function of transmission are:-

1. It varies the leverage or Torque ratio between the
Engine and the road wheels as required.
2. It provides Neutral position so that road wheels are
disconnected from engine even when clutch is in
engaged position.
3. Reversing the direction of wheels/ vehicle.
Transmission
Types of resistance to the vehicle in motion:-
1. Resistance due to wind – Its proportional to square
of engine speed
2. Resistance due to gradient – its component of
vehicle weight parallel to the plane of the road. It
remains constant at all speeds.
3. Miscellaneous – These are type of road, tyre friction
etc. It also remains constant at all speeds.
Transmission
Types of resistance to the vehicle in motion may be
represented as shown below-
Transmission
Transmission
Curve 1,2 & 3 represents the tractive effort in 1st 2nd
& 3rd gear respectively.
Transmission
Type of transmission
1. Manual Transmission
2. Automatic Transmission
Types of manual Transmission
1. Sliding mesh gear box
2. Constant mesh gear box
3. Synchromesh gear box
4. Epicyclic gearbox
Transmission
1. Sliding mesh gear box
Transmission
1. Sliding mesh gear box
 It is simplest type of GB.
 Gear on lay-shaft are fixed & are always rotating.
 Simple spur gear are used.
 Power is transmitted from clutch shaft to lay-shaft &
to Main shaft.
Transmission
Transmission
1. Constant mesh gear box
Transmission
1. Constant mesh gear box
 In this type all gears are in constant mesh.
 Gears on main shaft are free to rotate.
 Gears on lay-shaft are fixed.
 Dog clutch are provided which are free to slid in
splined main shaft.
 Helical gears are used which are quieter in running.
 Wear of gear teeth is reduced as All teeth of dog
clutch are involved compared to 2-3 teeth's in case of
sliding mesh gear box.
Transmission
Double Declutching
 For smooth engagement of dog clutch it is necessary
that the speed of main shaft gear and dog clutch
must be equal.
 Thus to obtain lower gear speed of lat shaft ,clutch
shaft & main shaft must be increased.
 This is done by Double Declutching.
 For obtaining higher gears opposite takes place i.e
Speed of lat shaft ,clutch shaft & main shaft must be
Decreased.
Transmission
Synchromesh Gearbox.
 Working is similar to constant mesh GB
 Except there is provision of synchromesh unit which
avoids Double Declutching.
Transmission
Synchromesh Gearbox.
 Working is similar to constant mesh GB
 Except there is provision of synchromesh unit which
avoids Double Declutching.
Transmission
Synchromesh Unit.
Transmission
Selector Mechanism.
 There are 2 Position of gear shift lever.
1. Top of transmission case
2. On Steering column

 Former type have no mechanical linkages, whereas in later

type complicated linkages are employed due to which it
becomes more difficult to feel the gear engagement.
 In case of steering column mounted , there is saving of
space.
Transmission
Selector Mechanism.
Transmission
Lubrication of Gear Box
 Normally splash type of lubrication is employed in
gear box.
 There should be no oil leak from gear box shaft to the
clutch, which will result in improper functioning of
clutch.
 For this proper oil seals must be provided at gear box
shaft bearing, & breather hole is provided at the top of
the gear box to relieve any excess pressure.
Transmission
Transfer Box.
 Transfer box is a type of gear box used to Engage 2WD
& 4WD in vehicle.
 To drive in either High or Low gear.
 High gear 2WD on highways and
 Normally low gears 4WD on cross country operation.
 In transfer box Input shaft is connected to GB.
 Output shaft to Front & real wheels.
Transmission
Planetary Gearsets
 Simple planetary gearsets contain three
components
 Internal (ring) gear / (annulus gear)
 Planet gears (and carrier)
 Sun gear

 One component will be the drive member, one the

driven, and one will be held (except direct drive
and neutral)
 Unlike other types of gears, planetary gears are
able to operate on one single axis
Planetary Gearsets
Planetary Action
 Direct Drive
 Any two of the components are driven
 1:1 Ratio
Planetary Action
 Underdrive
 Planet carrier is the output
 Minimum reduction
 Ring gear is held

 Sun gear is the input

 Maximum reduction
 Ring gear is input

 Sun gear is held

Planetary Action
 Overdrive
 Planet carrier is the input
 Minimum overdrive
 Ring gear is the input

 Sun gear is held

 Maximum overdrive
 Ring gear is held

 Sun gear is the input

Planetary Action
 Reverse
 Planet carrier is held
 Underdrive
 Ring gear is the output

 Sun gear is the input

 Overdrive
 Ring gear is the input

 Sun gear is output

Sun Carrier Internal Speed Torque Direction
Input Output Held Maximum Maximum Same as
Reduction Increase Input
Held Output Input Minimum Minimum Same as
Reduction Increase Input
Output Input Held Maximum Maximum Same as
Increase Reduction Input
Held Input Output Minimum Minimum Same as
Increase Reduction Input
Input Held Output Reduction Increase Opposite as
Input
Output Held Input Increase Reduction Opposite as
Input
Advantages
 All gears are in constant mesh in order to change
the gears only brake is to be applied for particular
gears.
 compared to conventional gearboxes, this has
smaller dimensions

 Greater durability than conventional bikes in gear

 easy to achieve high transmission ratio due to the

size
Disadvantages
 More expensive than conventional production of
gearboxes

 More complex than conventional transmission

Torque Converters
 Purpose
 Allow the vehicle to come to a complete stop
without stalling the engine
 Provide torque multiplication to allow smooth
acceleration from a stop
 House a torque converter clutch which will
eliminate torque converter slippage at highway
speeds
Torque Converters
 Parts of a Torque Converter
 Housing
 Impeller
 Turbine
 Stator
Torque Converters
 Parts of a Torque Converter
Torque Converters
 Principles of Operation
 A torque converter is a type of fluid coupling
 There is no direct mechanical link between the
input (engine flywheel) and the output
(transmission input shaft)
 The impeller (pump of the torque converter) forces
fluid through the turbine, which forces the turbine
to turn
 The turbine is splined to the transmission input shaft
Torque Converters
 Principles of Operation
Torque Converters
 Fluid Coupling Problems
 When there is a large difference in RPM
between the impeller and the turbine in a
fluid coupling, the fluid coming off the
turbine strikes the impeller opposite the
direction of rotation, thus slowing the
impeller down (robbing power)
Torque Converters
Torque Converters
 Fluid Coupling Solutions
 By incorporating a stator into a fluid coupling we
can overcome the problem of turbine discharge oil
slowing down the impeller
Torque Converters
Torque Converters
 Phases of Operation
 Torque multiplication
 Relatively low impeller (engine) RPM’s
 Stator is locked into place by its one-way clutch
 Vortex fluid flow within the converter
 Coupling phase
 Occurs at approx. 35-40 MPH under “normal” driving
conditions
 No torque multiplication
 Stator is freewheeling
 Turbine is spinning at approx 90% of impeller speed
 Rotary flow within the converter
Torque Converters
 Torque Multiplication
 Because the turbine discharge oil is redirected so
that it hits the impeller in the direction of impeller
rotation, it helps the engine “turn” the impeller.
 This is what causes torque multiplication
Torque Converters
 Torque Multiplication
 Because the turbine discharge oil is redirected so
that it hits the impeller in the direction of impeller
rotation, it helps the engine “turn” the impeller.
 This is what causes torque multiplication
Torque Converters
 Torque converters can multiply torque at a 2:1 to 3:1
ratio
 Exact amount depends on the design of the impeller,
stator, and turbine and impeller RPM
 The point at which maximum torque multiplication
occurs is near the stall speed of the converter
 During the torque multiplication phase, turbine
speed is significantly lower than impeller speed
 A torque converter attached to an engine producing
200 ft/lbs of torque would deliver 500 ft/lbs of
torque to the input shaft of the transmission (with a
2.5:1 torque multiplication ratio)
 Fluid flow is vortex
Torque Converters
 Vortex Flow
 During vortex flow the fluid is circulating from the
impeller to the stator to the turbine and then back
to the impeller.
Torque Converters
 Vortex Flow
Stator Operation
Torque Converters
 Coupling Phase
 As turbine (vehicle) speed increases and
approaches the speed of the impeller the turbine
discharge oil is accelerated to the point that it no
longer strikes the front side of the stator blades,
instead it strikes the backside of the stator blade
causing the stator one-way clutch to unlock and the
stator to freewheel
 Since the stator is unlocked, fluid is not redirected and
no torque multiplication occurs
 Fluid flow is rotary
Stator Operation
 Rotary Flow
 As the speed of the turbine approaches the speed of the
impeller fluid flow switches from vortex to rotary
 After the fluid is discharged from the turbine it is not
redirected by the stator, instead it rotates with torque
converter
Stator Operation
 Rotary Flow
 As the speed of the turbine approaches the speed of the
impeller fluid flow switches from vortex to rotary
 After the fluid is discharged from the turbine it is not
redirected by the stator, instead it rotates with torque
converter
Wheels and Tyres
Wheel
Various requirement of Automobile wheel are:-
1. It must be strong enough to take the weight of
the vehicle.
2. It should be balanced both statically as well as
dynamically.
3. It should be lightest so that unsprung weight is
less.
4. Mounting & removal of wheel must be easy.
5. Material should not be deteriorated with
weathering, age & corrosion.
Wheels and Tyres
Types of wheels
 There are 3 types of wheels
1. Pressed steel disc wheel.
2. Wire wheel.
3. Light alloy cast / Forged wheel.
Wheels and Tyres
1. Pressed steel disc wheel.
 Disc wheel consist of 2 parts 1) Rim 2) Disc
 Rim & disc may be integral, Permanently attached or
attachable.
 Normally pressed steel disc is welded to rim.
 Seat of rime where tyre rest usually has taper of 5 - 15˚
 As tyre is inflated, the beads are forced up the taper to
give a wedge fit.
 In case of tubeless tyre the taper helps to make good
seal.
 Steel disc performs function of spokes.
Wheels and Tyres
1. Pressed steel disc wheel.
 A wheel may be Inset , Zeroset or Outset
depending upon the position of the rim in
relation to attachment face of the disc.
 Inset is the dist between Attachment face of the
disc to centre line of the Rim.
 A Zeroset wheel is the one on which rim centre
line coincides with Attachment face of the Disc.
 In outset, Rim centre line is located outbord of
the attachment face of the Disc.
Wheels and Tyres
Inset , Zeroset or Outset.
Wheels and Tyres
1. Pressed steel disc wheel.
 Wheel whose disc can be mounted on either face
to provide inset or outset, thus decrease or Inc
wheel track is called Reversible wheel.
 Wheel constructed in 2 parts ,when fastened
together combined to form a rim having two fixed
flanges, is called a Divided Wheel.
 Fro heavier vehicles, wheel rims are not used ,
instead Flat based Rim are used.
Wheels and Tyres
 2,3,4 or 5 piece construction Rim is used.
 In this lock ring & loose flange is to be removed
first to remove the tyre.
 Hence they can be used only in case of Tubed tyre
because they cannot make air tight seal.
Wheels and Tyres
1. Pressed steel disc wheel.
Wheels and Tyres
1. Pressed steel disc wheel.
Wheels and Tyres
2. Wire wheel.
 It has separate hub, which is attached to rim
through no of wire spokes.
 Each spoke is hooked at hub end & screwed to
rim with tapered nut.
 Spokes caries weight, transmit driving & braking
torques & withstand side forces while cornering.
 They cannot take compressive or bending stresses.
 All types of load is sustained by spoke in tension.
Wheels and Tyres
 Vehicle weight is sustained by spoke above the
hub in tension.
 Driving & braking torque is taken by tension of
spoke in desired direction.
 Side forces on cornering are taken by the spokes
forming triangular arrangement as shown in
figure below.
Wheels and
2. Wire wheel.
Tyres
Wheels and Tyres
3. Light alloy cast / Forged wheel..
 Cast wheels are generally used for car & Forged
wheels for heavy vehicle.
 It has lower weight hence reduces unsprung
weight (30 to 50% weight reduction).
 Light alloys dissipate heat generated hence cooler.
 Wider rims are possible which improves stability
on cornering.
 High impact & fatigue strength so they can
withstand vibration & shock loading.
 Better Appearance but bad corrosion Resistance.
Wheels and Tyres
 The shape of well-based rims is provided by a letter
code, such as J, K, JJ and KK.
 The width of the rim and the diameter is
traditionally stated in inches.
 A rim designated 7 JJ by 14 would refer to a rim
measuring 7 inches across the rim flanges and 14
inches in diameter from bead seat to bead seat,
with the profile conforming to a JJ code.
 Codes are based on rim profile, that is designed to
comply with tyre bead profile.
Wheels and Tyres
Wheels and Tyres
Tyre:-
 Function of Tyre:
1. To support the vehicle load
2. To provide cushion against shocks.
3. To transmit Driving & braking force to the road.
4. To provide cornering power for smooth steering.
Wheels and Tyres
Tyre:-
 Desirable properties of Tyre:
1. Non-skidding
2. Uniform wear
3. Load Carrying
4. Cushioning
5. Power consumption
6. Tyre noise
7. Balancing
Wheels and Tyres
Type of Tyre:-
1. Conventional Tubed tyre
2. Tubeless tyre

Conventional Tubed tyre

 Tube tyres require an inner tube to seal the air inside the
tyre.
 It consist of 2 main parts 1) Carcass 2) Tread.
 Carcases takes Various load & consist no of plies to form
cord.
Wheels and Tyres
Wheels and Tyres
Conventional Tubed tyre
 The term ply rating does not indicate exact no of plies in
the tyre. It is only relative index of tyre & load carrying
capacity.
 To prevent tyre from being thrown out off the rim, the
plies are attached to 2 rings of high tension steel wire.
 This steel rings anchor the tyre to rim.
Wheels and Tyres
Tread
 It is a part of tyre that contacts the road surface .
 Its made of synthetic rubber, tread design
depends on properties like Grip, noise & wear.
 It has series of groves & ribs.
 Ribs provide traction edges required for griping
road surface.
 Grooves provide escape of any foreign matter
such as water.
Wheels and Tyres
 Sipes are small grooves moulded into ribs of tyre
tread.
 As tyre flex on road sipes open to provide extra
gripping action
 Sipes acts like sponge by moping up water when
opening on ground & releasing the same when
closing while moving up.
 Side walls are designed to flex & bend without
cracking when in motion.
Wheels and Tyres
Tubeless tyre
 These tyre does not need separate tube, insted air
is filled in tyre itself.
 Non return valve is fitted to the rim.
 Inside of tyre is lined with special air retaining
Liner.
 The bead sits more tightly within the flange of
the rim.
Wheels and Tyres
Tubeless tyre
Wheels and Tyres
Tubeless tyre
 Advantages
1. Lesser unsprung weight.
2. Better cooling
3. Slower leakage of air
4. Simpler assembly
5. Improved safety
Wheels and Tyres
Two types of tyre construction are
1. cross-ply and
2. Radial ply

cross-ply:-
 It is also called a bias-ply or conventional tyre.
 It is constructed of 2 or more plies or layers of
textile casing cords, positioned diagonally from
bead to bead.
 criss-crossed structure is formed, with alternate
layers crossing over each other
Wheels and Tyres
cross-ply:-
 Ply cords are woven at an angle 30 - 40˚ to the tyre
axis.
 It is constructed of 2 or more plies or layers of
textile casing cords, positioned diagonally from
bead to bead.
 Latticed criss-crossed structure is formed, with
alternate layers crossing over each other.
 cord angles in opposite directions.
Wheels and Tyres
cross-ply:-
 This provides a strong, stable casing, with
relatively stiff sidewalls.
 However during cornering, stiff sidewalls can
distort the tread and partially lifting it off tyre
from the road surface.
 This reduces the friction between the road and the
tyre.
 Stiff sidewalls can also make tyres run at a high
temperature, as the tyre rotates, the cords in the
plies flex over each other, causing friction and
heat.
Wheels and Tyres
cross-ply:-
Wheels and Tyres
Radial Ply Tyres:-
 Flexible sidewalls due to their construction.
 They use 2 or more layers of casing plies, with the
cord loops running radially from bead to bead.
 The sidewalls are more flexible because the casing
cords do not cross over each other.
 2 or more bracing layers must be placed under
the tread.
 The cord plies flex and deform only in the area
above the road contact patch.
Wheels and Tyres
Radial Ply Tyres:-
 Less heat is generated as there is no heavy flexing
of tyre cord.
 Its life is higher than cross ply tyre.
Wheels and Tyres
Radial Ply Tyres:-
What Information’s you must
know about your Car Tires
• Temperature Resistance

• Traction
• Tread wear
• Max. Load Capacity /tire
• Speed Symbol
• Manufacturing Date
Where you can find these information ?
Temperature Resistance
These letters indicates a tire's
resistance to heat.
From highest to lowest, a
tire's resistance to heat is
graded as "A", "B", or "C".

Symbol Area
A Hot Area
B Normal Weather Area
C Cold Area
Treadwear Number
This number indicates the
tire's wear rate.
The higher the treadwear
number is, the longer it
should take for the tread
to wear down.
For example, a tire graded
400 should last twice as
long as a tire graded 200.
Traction
This letter indicates a tire's
ability to stop on wet
pavement. A higher graded
tire should allow you to stop
your car on wet roads in a
shorter distance than a tire
with a lower grade. Traction
is graded from highest to
lowest as "AA","A", "B", and
"C".
 Max. Load Capacity & tire Speed Symbol
Number indicates the max. load that can be carried
by the tire. Symbol indicates the max. Speed at
which a tire is designed to be driven for extended
periods of time.
 Manufacturing Date

37 05
Week No. 37 Year 2005

This Tire has been made in Week 37

from year 2005
Steps for Maintaining
Proper Tire Condition
Reduces irregular wear
Front Axle & Steering
FRONT AXLE
 Front wheels of the vehicle are mounted on front axles.
Its Functions are:

(a) It supports the weight of front part of the vehicle.

(b) It facilitates steering.

(c) It absorbs shocks which are transmitted due to road

surface irregularities.

(d) It absorbs torque applied on it due to braking of vehicle.

Front Axle & Steering
FRONT AXLE
 Construction and Operation
 Front axle is made of I-section in the middle portion
and circular or elliptical section at the ends.
 I-section of the axle makes it able to withstand
bending loads due to weight of the vehicle and torque
applied due to braking.
 Main Axle is connected to stub axle by means of king
pin.
 The wheels are mounted on stub axles.
 Front Axle & Steering
TYPES OF FRONT AXLES
There is two types of front axles :
(a) Dead front axle, and
(b) Line front axle.
Dead Axle
Dead axles are those axles, which donot rotate. These axles have
sufficient rigidity and strength to take the weight. The ends of
front axle are suitably designed to accommodate stub axles.
Live Axle
Live axles are used to transmit power from gear box to wheels.
Maruti-800 has live front axle.
 Front Axle & Steering
STUB AXLE
 Stub axles are connected to the front axle by king pins.
 Front wheels are mounted on stub axles arrangement for
steering is connected to stub axles.
 Stub axle turns on king pins.
 King pins is fitted in the front axle beam eye and is located and
locked there by a taper cotter pin.
Stub axles are of four types :
(a) Elliot
(b) Reversed elliot
(c) Lamoine
(d) Reversed lamoine
 Front Axle & Steering
STUB AXLE
 In modern cars king pin have been replaced by Ball joints at
the end of stub axle.
 Front Axle & Steering
WHEEL ALIGNMENT.
 Positioning of the steered wheel to achieve following is
termed as wheel Alignment.
1. Directional Stability during straight ahead position.
2. Perfect rolling condition on steering.
3. Recovery after completing the turn.
 Front Axle & Steering
FACTORS OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT

1. Factors pertaining to wheel

2. Steering Geometry
3. Steering linkages
4. Suspension system

 Factors pertaining to wheel

a) Balance of wheels:- If wheels are not in dynamic balance,
the wheel wobble may result, which influences steering
control.
 Front Axle & Steering
 Factors pertaining to wheel
b) Inflation of tyre:- Steering system is designed for particular
rolling radius of Tyre. Variation of air pressure will change the
rolling radius.
c) Brake Adjustment :- Brake should be adjusted properly, if
its not vehicle try to drag i.e Pull on one side while braking.
 Front Axle & Steering
STEERING GEOMETRY
Camber
 Camber is tilt of the car wheel from the vertical.
 Camber is positive if wheel is outwards at the top & Negative if
inwards.
 Camber is also called as “wheel Rake”

EFFECTS:-
 Initial +ve camber is provided to the wheel so that when
Vehicle is loaded they automatically come to vertical position.
 +ve camber will cause wheel toe out, i.e vehicle will move out
on side where there is higher camber.
Front Axle & Steering
STEERING GEOMETRY
Camber
Front Axle & Steering
STEERING GEOMETRY
Camber
 Front Axle & Steering
Caster
 The angle between the king pin centerline & the verticle in the
plane of wheel is known as caster.
 If king pin centerline meets the ground at a point ahead of ve
 While king pin centerline meets the ground at a point behind
the vertical wheel center line is called negative caster.
EFFECT
 Since in positive caster steering axis would meet the ground
ahead of the center of tyre print , thus the later would always
follow the former.
 Thus positive caster on car wheels will provide directional
stability.
Front Axle & Steering
Caster
 Front Axle & Steering
CORRECT STEERING ANGLE
 The perfect steering is achieved when all 4 wheels are rolling perfectly
under all condition of running.
 While taking a turns the condition of perfect rolling is satisfied if the axis of
the front wheels when produced meets the rear wheel axis at one point.
 This point is the instantaneous center of the vehicle.
 Inside wheel is required to turn through greater angle then outer wheels.
 Larger the steering angle smaller is the turning radius.
 Steering angle can have maximum value of 44˚.
Front Axle & Steering
CORRECT STEERING ANGLE
Front Axle & Steering
CORRECT STEERING ANGLE
Front Axle & Steering
ACKERMAN STEERING MECHANISM
Front Axle & Steering
ACKERMAN STEERING MECHANISM
Front Axle & Steering
ACKERMAN STEERING MECHANISM
Front Axle & Steering
UNDERSTEER & OVERSTEER
Front Axle & Steering
UNDERSTEER & OVERSTEER
Front Axle & Steering
STEERING LINKAGE FOR RIGID AXLE SUSPENSION
Front Axle & Steering
STEERING LINKAGE FOR RIGID AXLE SUSPENSION
 Front Axle & Steering
STEERING GEARS
It converts turning motion of the steering wheel into the To-
and-Fro motion of the link rod o the steering linkage.
It also provide the necessary leverage so that the driver is able to
steer the vehicle without fatigue.
Different types of steering gear:-
1. Worm & wheel steering gear
2. Worm & nut steering gear
3. Recirculating Ball type steering gear
4. Rack & pinion type Steering gear etc.
 Front Axle & Steering
1.Worm & wheel steering gear
 The steering wheel rotation turns the worm which in turn
drives the worm wheel.
 Drop arm is rigidly attached to worm wheel spindle, which
imparts linear motion, it is connected to link rod.
 Front Axle & Steering
Worm & nut steering gear
 In this the steering wheel rotation rotates the worm which inturn moves
the nut along its length.
 This causes the drop arm end to move linearly, further moving the link rod
thus steering the wheels.
 Front Axle & Steering
Recirculating Ball type steering gear
 In consist of worm at the end of steering rod, A nut is mounted on the
worm with 2 sets of balls in the grooves of the worm, in between the nut &
the worm.
 The balls reduces friction during the movement of the nut & the worm.
 The nut has teeth on its outer diameter which meshes with the teeth on
worm wheel sector, on which further drop arm is mounted which in turn
steers the road wheel.
 The balls which are in 2 sets recirculated through guides.
Front Axle & Steering
Recirculating Ball type steering gear
 Front Axle & Steering
Rack & Pinion steering gear
 This type of steering gear is used on light vehicles like cars.
 It is simple light & responsive.
 It occupies very small space & uses less number of linkages.
 The circular motion of the pinion is transferred into linear rack
movement.
Front Axle & Steering
Rack & Pinion steering gear
 Front Axle & Steering
STEERING RATIO
 It is the ratio of the angle turned by the steering wheel to the
corresponding turning angles of the stub axle.
 The steering ratio normally used vary from 12:1 for cars & 35:1
for heavy vehicles.

REVERSIBILITY
Steering gear is said to be reversible if by turning the stub axle, it
is possible to turn the steering wheel.
It can be made irreversible by making the pitch of the screw very
less.
 Irreversibility has its both Adv & Disadvantage.
 Front Axle & Steering
 Irreversibility has its both Adv & Disadvantage.

Advantage.
 The road shocks are not transmitted to steering wheel.

Disadvantage
 Due to large amount of friction, forward efficiency is very low
& thus steering operation becomes quite heavy.

Present day all steering are semi-reversible.

Front Axle & Steering
SPECIAL STEERING COLUMNS

1. Energy absorbing steering column

2. Tilt wheel steering column
3. Tilt and telescopic steering column
4. Steering column with anti-theft lock
Front Axle & Steering
SPECIAL STEERING COLUMNS
1. Energy absorbing steering column
Front Axle & Steering
SPECIAL STEERING COLUMNS
1. Energy absorbing steering column (Corrugated
deformation section)
Front Axle & Steering
SPECIAL STEERING COLUMNS
1. Energy absorbing steering column (Telescopic safety
steering column)
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
 Power steering system provides Automated hydraulic
assistance to the turning effort applied to manual steering.
 It becomes operative when the effort at the wheel exceeds
predetermined valve.
 The system is so designed that driver is able to steer by
manual steering in case of failure of power steering.
 The oil is used under pressure of viscosity rating SAE 5W ,
10W etc.
 System operates high pressure which may be as high as 7
MPa
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
 Principle of working
 Slight movement of steering wheel actuates the valve so that the
fluid under the pressure from the reservoir enters on the
appropriate side of cylinder, thereby applying pressure on one
side of a piston to operate the steering linkage.
 In electro hydraulic power steering system , the fluid pump is
electrically by a motor.
 Pump speed is controlled by electric controller to vary pump
pressure & flow.
 Direct electric steering uses electric motor connected to steering
GB, A microprocessor controls steering dynamics & driver effort.
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
They are classified into 2 categories:-
 The integral type.
 The linkage type

 In integral type, power steering assembly is an integral part

of the steering gear whereas in linkage type its part of
linkage.
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
Working
 When force at the wheels exceeds a predetermined value,
the spool turns through a small angle.
 Now when return line is closed and the fluid under
pressure goes to one side of the rack piston & moves it to
effect the steering in desired direction.
 The rotation of steering in opposite direction connects the
other side of steering gear to pressure line.
 In neutral position both sides of piston are at same
pressure but return line is open, hence there is no steering
effect.
Front Axle & Steering
ELECTRIC POWER STEERING
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
Electric Power Steering System.
 It consist of 2 Sensors.
1. Torque sensor Which converts steering torque input &
its direction into Voltage signal.
2. Rotation sensor :- which converts rotation speed &
direction into voltage signal.

 It is located on the input shaft of the steering gear box.

 This input is fed to a Microprocessor where it is compared
with programmed force assistant map.
 The control units sends signal to current controller which
supply current to electric motor.
Front Axle & Steering
POWER STEERING
 The motor pushes the rack to right or left depending on
direction of current flow.
 Increasing current increases power assistance.

Advantages of Electric Power steering

 No problem of leakage of fluid.
 Energy being consumed only while steering.
 Steering assistant is available even when the engine is not
running.
 While manual steering lesser force is required since there
is no fluid to be farced through valves.
BRAKES
PRINCIPLE
 Brakes are required to stop the vehicle within the smallest
possible distance whenever desired & this is done by
converting kinetic energy of the vehicle into the heat
energy due to friction which is dissipated into the
atmosphere.
BRAKES
BRAKING REQUIREMENT
 The brake must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within
the smallest possible distance in Emergency & with safety.
Also driver must have proper control of vehicle during
braking without skidding of the vehicle.
 The brakes must have good Antifade characteristic, i.e The
efficiency of the brake should not decrease with constant
prolonged application of Brakes e.g while on descending
hills. Thus brake cooling must be very efficient.
BRAKES
BRAKE EFFICIENCY & STOPPING DISTANCE:-

 Force applied by the brakes at the wheel (F) depends upon

the coefficient of friction (μ) Between road and tyre surface
& component of weight of vehicle (W)
F= μW
 If unity coefficient of friction is achieved total retarding
force produced at the wheels is equal to vehicle weight
itself.
 Thus in this case vehicle experiences a Deceleration equal
to acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ & the brake are said to be
100 % efficient.
BRAKES
BRAKE EFFICIENCY & STOPPING DISTANCE:-

 Thus theoretical limit for brake efficiency is 100%.

 In actual practice Efficiency of 100% is rarely used for ordinary
vehicle.
 Highly efficient brakes giving large de-acceleration might injure
the passenger due to sudden stopping of the vehicle.
 In heavy vehicle efficient braking would cause the load to slide
forward when the brakes are applied tending to brake drivers
cabin.
 Highly efficient brake leads in rapid wear of the tyre & brake
lining & also loosing the control of vehicle when brakes are
applied due to skidding of the vehicle.
 Thus brake efficiency vary from 50-80%.
 Allowable limit is 50% for foot brake & 30% hand brakes.
BRAKES
BRAKE EFFICIENCY & STOPPING DISTANCE:-

 Total stopping distance in case of emergency braking is

divided into 3 Parts
1. Distance transversed during reaction time of driver.
2. Distance transversed during the time elapsed between the
driver pressing the brake & being actually applied at the
wheels.
3. Net stopping distance depending upon deceleration.
BRAKES
BRAKE EFFICIENCY & STOPPING DISTANCE:-

Actual stopping distance depends upon

 Vehicle speed
 Condition of road surface
 Condition of tyre tread
 Coefficient of friction between tyre tread & road surface.
 Coefficient of friction between Brake drum & brake lining.
 Braking force applied by driver etc.
BRAKES
FADING OF BRAKES.
With prolonged application of brakes,their effectivenss
decreases. This is called fading of brakes.

 This happens due to reversible changes in the friction

properties of brake lining on account of high temperature
produced due to prolonged application of brakes.
BRAKES
WEIGHT TRANSFER
 The inertia force acts at centre of gravity of vehicle,While
the retarding force due to brake application acts at the road
surface.
 These two forms overturning couple increasing
perpendicular force on front wheels & reduces from rear
wheel.
 Some of vehicle weight is thus transferred from rear to
front axle.
 Thus breaking effect has to be more on front wheel for
efficient breaking.
 Thus 55-60% of braking effort is applied on front wheels.
BRAKES
WEIGHT TRANSFER
BRAKES
Types of Brakes.
 Brakes may be classified according to following
consideration.
1. Purpose
2. Location
3. Construction
4. Method of actuation
5. Extra braking effort

Purpose
They may be classified as Service or Primary Brakes
& Parking & secondary brakes.
BRAKES
Types of Brakes.
Location
 Brakes may be located at Transmission or Wheels
 Wheels brakes are better from heat dissipation point of
view
Construction
 They are Drum Brakes & Disc Brakes.
Method of actuation
1. Mechanical brakes
2. Hydraulic brakes
3. Electric brakes
4. Vacuum brakes
5. Air brakes
BRAKES
Drum Brakes.
BRAKES
Drum Brakes.
BRAKES
Drum Brakes.
BRAKES
Disc Brakes.
Disc brake with fixed
calliper
BRAKES
Disc Brakes.
Disc brake with
Swinging calliper
BRAKES
Disc Brakes.
Disc brake with
Sliding calliper
BRAKES
 Mechanical Expander brakes Cam & toggle operated
BRAKES
 Hydraulic Brakes