Kingdom of Hungary

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Kingdom of Hungary
Names
Magyar Kir�lys�g (Hungarian)
Regnum Hungariae (Latin)
K�nigreich Ungarn (German)
1000�1918
1920�1946
Flag of Hungary
Flag (1867�1918)
Coat of arms of Hungary
Coat of arms
Motto: Regnum Mariae Patrona Hungariae[1]
"Kingdom of Mary, the Patron of Hungary"
Anthem: Himnusz
Hymn
Royal anthem
God save, God protect Our Emperor, Our Country!
The Kingdom of Hungary (dark green) and Croatia-Slavonia (light green) within
Austria-Hungary in 1914
The Kingdom of Hungary (dark green) and Croatia-Slavonia (light green) within
Austria-Hungary in 1914
Capital Budapest
Historical capitals:
Esztergom (1000-1256)
Temesv�r (1315�1323)
Visegr�d (1323�1408)
Buda (1256-1315; 1408-1485; 1490-1541; 1783-1873)
Wien (1485�1490)
Pozsony (1536�1783)
Debrecen (temporary: 1849; 1944)
Budapest (1873�1946)
Sz�kesfeh�rv�r (place of diets, royal seat, crowning and burial site from 1000 to
1543)
Official languages
Latin (ceremonial/liturgical/administrative until 1844)
German (1784�1790; 1849�1867)
Hungarian (1836�1849; 1867�1946)
Italian (1871-1918, Fiume)
Other spoken languages:
Carpathian Romani, Croatian, Polish, Romanian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene,
Yiddish
Religion Roman Catholic,[2] Calvinism, Lutheranism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Eastern
Catholic, Unitarianism, Judaism
Government Monarchy
Monarch
� 1000�1038
Stephen I (first)
� 1916�1918
Charles IV (last)
� 1920�1944
Regent Mikl�s Horthy
Palatine
� 1009�1038
Samuel Aba
� 1847�1848
Stephen Francis Victor
Prime Minister
� 1848
Lajos Batthy�ny
� 1945�1946
Zolt�n Tildy
Legislature Diet (from the 1290s)
� Upper house
House of Magnates
(1867�1918; 1926�1945)
� Lower house
House of Representatives
(1867�1918; 1927�1945)
Historical era 2nd millennium
� Coronation of Stephen I
25 December 1000
� Golden Bull of 1222
24 April 1222
� Battle of Mohi
11 April 1241
� Battle of Moh�cs
29 August 1526
� Ottoman occupation
of Buda
29 August 1541
� Treaty of Karlowitz
26 January 1699
� Hungarian Revolution
15 March 1848
� 1867 Compromise
30 March 1867
� Treaty of Trianon
4 June 1920
� Monarchy abolished
1 February 1946
Area
1200[3] 282,870 km2 (109,220 sq mi)
1910[4] 282,870 km2 (109,220 sq mi)
1930[5] 93,073 km2 (35,936 sq mi)
1941[6] 172,149 km2 (66,467 sq mi)
Population
� 1200[3]
2,000,000
� 1790[7]
8,000,000
� 1910[4]
18,264,533
� 1930[5]
8,688,319
� 1941[6]
14,669,100
Currency
Florentinus (1325�1553)
Thaler
Florin (1754�1867)
Forint (1867�1892)
Korona (1892�1918)
Korona (1919�1926)
Pengo (1927�1946)
Ad�pengo (1946)
ISO 3166 code HU
Preceded by Succeeded by
Principality of Hungary
Hungarian Republic (1919�20)
First Hungarian Republic
Second Hungarian Republic
Today part of
Hungary
Slovakia
Romania
Serbia
Ukraine
Austria
Croatia
Slovenia
Poland
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from the
Middle Ages into the 20th century (1000�1946 with the exception of 1918�1920). The
Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the
first king Stephen I at Esztergom around the year 1000;[8] his family (the �rp�d
dynasty) led the monarchy for 300 years. By the 12th century, the kingdom became a
European middle power within the Western world.[8]

Due to the Ottoman occupation of the central and southern territories of Hungary in
the 16th century, the country was partitioned into three parts: the Habsburg Royal
Hungary, Ottoman Hungary, and the semi-independent Principality of Transylvania.[8]
The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Moh�cs until
1918 and also played a key role in the liberation wars against the Ottoman Empire.

From 1867, territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into
Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy
ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, after which Hungary
became a republic. The kingdom was nominally restored during the "Regency" of
1920�46, ending under the Soviet occupation in 1946.[8]

The Kingdom of Hungary was a multiethnic[9] state from its inception[10] until the
Treaty of Trianon and it covered what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania and
other parts of what is now Romania, Carpathian Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine),
Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), Burgenland (now part of Austria), Medimurje (now
part of Croatia), Prekmurje (now part of Slovenia) and a few villages in Poland).
From 1102 it also included Croatia, being in personal union with it, united under
the King of Hungary.

According to the demographers, about 80 percent of the population was made up of

Hungarians before the Battle of Moh�cs, however the Hungarian ethnic group became a
minority in its own country in the 18th century due to the resettlement policies
and continuous immigration from neighboring countries [11][12]. Major territorial
changes made Hungary ethnically homogeneous after World War I. Nowadays, more than
nine-tenths of the population is ethnically Hungarian and speaks Hungarian as the
mother tongue.

Today, the feast day of the first king Stephen I (20 August) is a national holiday
in Hungary, commemorating the foundation of the state (Foundation Day).[13]

Contents
1 Names
2 Origins
3 Capital cities
4 History
4.1 Middle Ages
4.1.1 High Middle Ages
4.1.1.1 Mongol invasion
4.2 Late Middle Ages
4.2.1 The Anjou Age
4.2.2 The Age of Sigismund
4.2.3 Hunyadi family
4.3 Early modern history
4.3.1 The divided kingdom
4.3.2 The Kuruc age
4.3.3 Age of Enlightenment
4.3.4 Hungarian Revolution of 1848
4.4 Austria-Hungary (1867�1918)
4.5 Transitions (1918 to 1920)
4.5.1 Two short-lived republics
4.5.2 The restoration of the Kingdom
4.5.3 Treaty of Trianon (1920)
4.6 Between 1920 and 1946
4.6.1 Interwar period
4.6.2 During World War II 1941�1945
4.6.3 Transitioning into a republic
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Names
Main article: Name of Hungary
The Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum
Marianum (Kingdom of Mary); or simply Hungaria, were the names used in official
documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s.

The German name K�nigreich Ungarn was used officially from 1784 to 1790[14] and
again between 1849 and the 1860s.

The Hungarian name (Magyar Kir�lys�g) was used in the 1840s, and then again from
the 1860s to 1946. The unofficial Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarorsz�g,
[15] which is still the colloquial, and also the official name of Hungary.[16]

The names in the other native languages of the kingdom were: Polish: Kr�lestwo
Wegier, Romanian: Regatul Ungariei, Serbian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Croatian:
Kraljevina Ugarska, Slovene: Kraljevina Ogrska, Slovak: Uhorsk� kr�lovstvo, and
Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.

In Austria-Hungary (1867�1918), the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes

used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of
the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary,
although this term was also in use prior to that time.

Origins
Main articles: Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and Principality of
Hungary
The Hungarians led by �rp�d settled the Carpathian Basin in 895, established the
Principality of Hungary (896�1000).[17] The Hungarians led several successful
incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor
in Battle of Lechfeld.
Capital cities
Main article: List of historical capitals of Hungary
Name Time period
Sz�kesfeh�rv�r 1000�1543
Esztergom 1000�1256
Buda 1256�1315
Temesv�r 1315�1323
Visegr�d 1323�1408
Buda 1408�1485
Vienna 1485�1490
Buda 1490�1536 (1541)
Lippa (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom) 1541�1542
Gyulafeh�rv�r (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom) 1542�1570
Pressburg 1536�1784
Buda 1784�1849
Debrecen 1849
Buda 1849�1873
Budapest 1873�1944
Debrecen 1944
Budapest 1944�1946
History
Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1000�1301)

King Stephen I of Hungary

The principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the
coronation of St Stephen I (son of principal G�za. Originally called Vajk until
baptized) at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were
from the �rp�d dynasty. He fought against Kopp�ny and in 998, with Bavarian help,
defeated him near Veszpr�m. The Catholic Church received powerful support from
Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians and German knights wanted a Christian
kingdom established in Central Europe. Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a
Catholic saint in 1083 and an Orthodox saint in 2000.

After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the
royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer
Hungary, but they were defeated at V�rtes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman
Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now
called Bratislava, in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy
Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary.[18][19]

The Holy Crown of Hungary along with other regalia

This period of revolts ended during the reign of B�la I. Hungarian chroniclers
praised B�la I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for
his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The second greatest
Hungarian king, also from the �rp�d dynasty, was Ladislaus I of Hungary, who
stabilized and strengthened the kingdom. He was also canonized as a saint. Under
his rule Hungarians successfully fought against the Cumans and acquired parts of
Croatia in 1091. Due to a dynastic crisis in Croatia, with the help of the local
nobility who supported his claim, he managed to swiftly seize power in northern
parts of the Croatian kingdom (Slavonia), as he was a claimant to the throne due to
the fact that his sister was married to the late Croatian king Zvonimir who died
childless.

Hungary (including Croatia) in 1190, during the rule of B�la III

However, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his
successor Coloman. With the coronation of King Coloman as "King of Croatia and
Dalmatia" in Biograd in 1102, the two kingdoms of Croatia and Hungary were united
under one crown.[20][21] Although the precise terms of this relationship became a
matter of dispute in the 19th century, it is believed that Coloman created a kind
of personal union between the two kingdoms. The nature of the relationship varied
through time, Croatia retained a large degree of internal autonomy overall, while
the real power rested in the hands of the local nobility.[22] Modern Croatian and
Hungarian historiographies mostly view the relations between Kingdom of Croatia
(1102�1526) and Kingdom of Hungary from 1102 as a form of a personal union, i.e.
that they were connected by a common king.[23] Also, one of the greatest Hungarian
jurists and statesmen of the 16th century, Istv�n Werboczy in his work Tripartitum
treats Croatia as a kingdom separate to Hungary.

In 1222 Andrew II of Hungary issued the Golden Bull which laid down the principles
of law.

Mongol invasion
Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe

The Meeting of Ladislaus IV and Rudolf I during the Battle on the Marchfeld,
painting by M�r Than (1873)
In 1241, Hungary was invaded by the Mongols and while the first minor battles with
Subutai's vanguard probes ended in seeming Hungarian victories, the Mongols finally
destroyed the combined Hungarian and Cuman armies at the Battle of Muhi. In 1242,
after the end of the Mongol invasion, numerous fortresses to defend against future
invasion were erected by B�la IV of Hungary. In gratitude, the Hungarians acclaimed
him as the "Second Founder of the Homeland", and the Hungarian Kingdom again became
a considerable force in Europe. In 1260 B�la IV lost the War of Babenberg
Succession, his army was defeated at the Battle of Kressenbrunn by the united
Bohemian forces. However, in 1278 Ladislaus IV of Hungary and Austrian troops fully
destroyed the Bohemian army at the Battle on the Marchfeld.

Local autonomies (including Cumania, Sz�kely Land and Transylvanian Saxons) in the
late 13th century
Late Middle Ages
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1301�1526)
The �rp�d dynasty died out in 1301 with the death of Andrew III. Subsequently,
Hungary was ruled by the Angevins until the end of the 14th century, and then by
several non-dynastic rulers - notably Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor and Matthias
Corvinus - until the early 16th century.

The Anjou Age

King Charles I of Hungary

The administrative divisions of medieval Hungary

When Andrew III's predecessor, Ladislaus IV, was assassinated in 1290, another
nobleman was set up as titular King of Hungary: Charles Martel of Anjou. Charles
Martel was the son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, the sister of
Ladislaus IV. However, Andrew III took the crown for himself, and ruled without
inconvenience after Charles Martel's death in 1295.

Upon Andrew's death in 1301, the throne was claimed by Charles Martel's son,
Charles Robert. After a period of instability, he was finally crowned King Charles
I in 1310. He implemented considerable economic reforms, and defeated the remaining
nobility who were in opposition to royal rule, led by M�t� Cs�k III. The kingdom of
Hungary reached an age of prosperity and stability under Charles I. The gold mines
of the Kingdom were extensively worked and soon Hungary reached a prominent
standing in European gold production. The forint was introduced as a currency,
replacing the denars, and soon after Charles's reforms were implemented, the
economy of the Kingdom started to prosper again, having fallen into a parlous state
following the Mongol invasion.

Charles exalted the cult to Saint Ladislaus I, using him as a symbol of bravery,
justice and purity. He also venerated his uncle, Saint Louis of Toulouse. On the
other hand, he gave importance to the cults of the princesses Saint Elizabeth and
Saint Margaret, which added relevance to the lineage inheritance through the
feminine branches.[24]

Charles restored the royal power which had fallen into feudal lords' hands, and
then made the lords swear loyalty to him. For this, he founded in 1326 the Order of
Saint George, which was the first secular chivalric order in the world, and
included the most important noblemen of the Kingdom.

Louis I of Hungary on Heroes Square, Budapest

Charles married four times. His fourth wife was Elizabeth, the daughter of
Wladyslaw I of Poland. When Charles died in 1342, his eldest son by Elizabeth
succeeded him as Louis I. In the first years of his reign, Louis was advised
closely by his mother, making her one of the most influential personalities in the
Kingdom.

Charles had arranged the marriage of his second son, Andrew, with his cousin
Joanna, the granddaughter of King Robert of Naples, in 1332. Robert died in 1343,
bequeathing his kingdom to Joanna but excluding the claim of Andrew. In 1345, a
group of noble Neapolitan conspirators murdered Andrew at Aversa. Almost
immediately, Louis declared war on Naples, conducting a first campaign in 1347�1348
and a second in 1350. He eventually signed a peace with Joanna in 1352. Louis also
waged wars against the Serbian Empire and the Golden Horde, restoring the Hungarian
monarchs' authority over territories along the frontiers which had been lost during
the previous decades.

In 1370 Louis's uncle, Casimir III of Poland, died without male issue. Louis
succeeded him, thus establishing the first union of Hungary and Poland. This lasted
until 1382, when Louis himself died without male issue; his two daughters, Mary and
Jadwiga, then ascended the thrones of Hungary and Poland respectively.

The Age of Sigismund

King Sigismund of Hungary

Louis I of Hungary always kept good and close relationships with the Holy Roman
Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg and finally proclaimed Charles's son Sigismund of
Luxembourg to succeed him as King of Hungary. Sigismund became a renowned king who
created many improvements in the Hungarian law system and who rebuilt the palaces
of Buda and Visegr�d. He brought materials from Austria and Bohemia and ordered the
creation of the most luxurious building in all central Europe. In his laws can be
seen the traces of the early mercantilism. He worked hard to keep the nobility
under his control. A great part of his reign was dedicated to the fight with the
Ottoman Empire, which started to extend its frontiers and influence to Europe. In
1396 was fought the Battle of Nicopolis against the Ottomans, which resulted in a
defeat for the Hungarian-French forces led by Sigismund and Philip of Artois, Count
of Eu. However, Sigismund continued to successfully contain the Ottoman forces
outside of the Kingdom for the rest of his life.

Losing popularity among the Hungarian nobility, Sigismund soon became victim of an
attempt against his rule, and Ladislaus of Anjou-Durazzo (the son of the murdered
King of Naples Charles II of Hungary) was called in and crowned. Since the ceremony
was not performed with the Hungarian Holy Crown, and in the city of Sz�kesfeh�rv�r,
it was considered illegitimate. Ladislaus stayed only few days in Hungarian
territory and soon left it, no longer an inconvenience for Sigismund. In 1408 he
founded the Order of the Dragon, which included the most of the relevant monarchs
and noblemen of that region of Europe in that time. This was just a first step for
what was coming. In 1410 he was elected King of the Romans, making him the supreme
monarch over the German territories. He had to deal with the Hussite movement, a
religious reformist group that was born in Bohemia, and he presided at the Council
of Constance, where the theologist founder Jan Hus, was judged. In 1419 Sigismund
inherited the Crown of Bohemia after the death of his brother Wenceslaus of
Luxembourg, obtaining the formal control of three medieval states, but he struggled
for control of Bohemia until the peace agreement with the Hussites and his
coronation in 1436. In 1433 was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope and ruled
until his death in 1437, leaving as his only heir his daughter Elizabeth of
Luxembourg and her husband. The marriage of Elizabeth was arranged with the Duke
Albert V of Austria, who was later crowned as King Albert of Hungary in 1437.

Hunyadi family

Matthias Corvinus as depicted in Johannes de Thurocz's Chronica Hungarorum

Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus

The Hungarian kingdom's golden age was during the reign of Matthias Corvinus
(1458�1490), the son of John Hunyadi. His nickname was "Matthias the Just". He
further improved the Hungarian economy and practised astute diplomacy in place of
military action whenever possible. Matthias did undertake campaigning when
necessary. From 1485 until his death, he occupied Vienna, aiming to limit the
influence and meddling of the Holy Roman Empire in Hungary's affairs.

Matthias died without legitimate heir, and was thus succeeded by Vladislaus II
Jagiellon (1490�1516), the son of Casimir IV of Poland. In turn, Vladislaus was
succeeded by his son Louis II (1516�26).

At the time of the initial Ottoman encroachment, the Hungarians successfully

resisted conquest. John Hunyadi was leader of the Crusade of Varna, in which the
Hungarians tried to expel the Turks from the Balkans. Initially, they were
successful, but later at the Battle of Varna, the Ottomans won a decisive if
Pyrrhic victory. Wladyslaw III was decapitated during this battle.

In 1456, John Hunyadi delivered a crushing defeat of the Ottomans at the Siege of
Belgrade. The Noon Bell commemorates the fallen Christian warriors. In the 15th
century, the Black Army of Hungary was a modern mercenary army, with the Hussars
the most skilled troops of the Hungarian cavalry. In 1479, under the leadership of
P�l Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the
Battle of Breadfield. The army of Hungary destroyed its enemies almost every time
when Matthias was king.

In 1526, at the Battle of Moh�cs, the forces of the Ottoman Empire led by Suleiman
I, annihilated the Hungarian army. In trying to escape, Louis II drowned in the
Csele Creek. The leader of the Hungarian army, P�l Tomori, also died in the battle.

Early modern history

Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1526�1867)
The divided kingdom
See also: Ottoman�Hungarian Wars, Ottoman Hungary, Royal Hungary, Eastern Hungarian
Kingdom, and Principality of Transylvania (1570�1711)
Due to a serious defeat by the Ottomans (Battle of Moh�cs) the central authority
collapsed. The majority of Hungary's ruling elite elected John Z�polya (10 November
1526). A small minority of aristocrats sided with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor,
who was Archduke of Austria, and was related to Louis by marriage. Due to previous
agreements that the Habsburgs would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without
heirs, Ferdinand was elected king by a rump diet in December 1526.

Although the borders shifted frequently during this period, the three parts can be
identified, more or less, as follows:

Royal Hungary, which consisted of northern and western territories where Ferdinand
I was recognized as king of Hungary. This part is viewed as defining the continuity
of the Kingdom of Hungary. The territory along with Ottoman Hungary suffered
greatly from the nearly constant wars taking place.
Ottoman Hungary The Great Alf�ld (i.e. most of present-day Hungary, including
south-eastern Transdanubia and the Banat), partly without north-eastern present-day
Hungary.
Eastern Hungarian Kingdom under the Szapolyai. Note that this territory, often
under Ottoman influence, was different from Transylvania proper and included
various other territories sometimes referred to as Partium. Later the entity was
called Principality of Transylvania.

The Battle of Buda (1686): Hungarians and the Holy League (1684) reconquer Buda.
On 29 February 1528, King John I of Hungary received the support of the Ottoman
Sultan. A three-sided conflict ensued as Ferdinand moved to assert his rule over as
much of the Hungarian kingdom as he could. By 1529 the kingdom had been split into
two parts: Habsburg Hungary and the "eastern-Kingdom of Hungary". At this time
there were no Ottomans on Hungarian territories, except Srem's important castles.
In 1532, Nikola Juri�ic defended Koszeg and stopped a powerful Ottoman army. By
1541, the fall of Buda marked a further division of Hungary into three areas. The
country remained divided until the end of the 17th century.

In the following centuries there were numerous attempts to push back the Ottoman
forces, such as the Long War or Thirteen Years' War (29 July 1593 � 1604/11
November 1606) led by a coalition of Christian forces. In 1644 the Winter Campaign
by Mikl�s Zr�nyi burnt the crucial Suleiman Bridge of Osijek in eastern Slavonia,
interrupting a Turkish supply line in Hungary. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard
(1664), Austrians and Hungarians defeated the Turkish army.

After the Ottoman siege of Austria failed in 1683, the Habsburgs went on the
offensive against the Turks. By the end of the 17th century, they managed to invade
the remainder of the historical Kingdom of Hungary and the principality of
Transylvania. For a while in 1686, the capital Buda was again free from the Ottoman
Empire, with the aid of other Europeans.

The Kuruc age

Main article: R�k�czi's War for Independence

Kuruc-Labanc battle

Counties of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen around 1880

R�k�czi's War for Independence (1703�1711) was the first significant freedom fight
in Hungary against absolutist Habsburg rule. It was fought by a group of noblemen,
wealthy and high-ranking progressives who wanted to put an end to the inequality of
power relations, led by Francis II R�k�czi (II. R�k�czi Ferenc in Hungarian). Its
main aims were to protect the rights of the different social orders, and to ensure
the economic and social development of the country. Due to the adverse balance of
forces, the political situation in Europe and internal conflicts the freedom fight
was eventually suppressed, but it succeeded in keeping Hungary from becoming an
integral part of the Habsburg Empire, and its constitution was kept, even though it
was only a formality.
After the departure of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs dominated the Hungarian Kingdom.
The Hungarians' renewed desire for freedom led to R�k�czi's War for Independence.
The most important reasons of the war were the new and higher taxes and a renewed
Protestant movement. R�k�czi was a Hungarian nobleman, son of the legendary heroine
Ilona Zr�nyi. He spent a part of his youth in Austrian captivity. The Kurucs were
troops of R�k�czi. Initially, the Kuruc army attained several important victories
due to their superior light cavalry. Their weapons were mostly pistols, light sabre
and fokos. At the Battle of Saint Gotthard (1705), J�nos Botty�n decisively
defeated the Austrian army. The Hungarian colonel �d�m Balogh nearly captured
Joseph I, the King of Hungary and Emperor of Austria.

In 1708, the Habsburgs finally defeated the main Hungarian army at Battle of
Trencs�n, and this diminished the further effectiveness of the Kuruc army. While
the Hungarians were exhausted by the fights, the Austrians defeated the French army
in the War of the Spanish Succession. They could send more troops to Hungary
against the rebels. Transylvania became part of Hungary again starting at the end
of the 17th century, and was led by governors.[25][26]

Age of Enlightenment
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1526�1867)

Distribution of Hungarians in the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-

Slavonia (1890)

Ethnographic map of Hungary without Croatia and Slavonia (1910). The population of
areas under 20 persons/km2 is represented in the nearest area above that level, and
the area is left blank.
In 1711, Austrian Emperor Charles VI became the next ruler of Hungary. Throughout
the 18th century, the Kingdom of Hungary had its own diet (parliament) and
constitution, but the members of the Governor's Council (Helytart�tan�cs, the
office of the palatine) were appointed by the Habsburg monarch, and the superior
economic institution, the Hungarian Chamber, was directly subordinated to the Court
Chamber in Vienna.

The Hungarian language reform started under the reign of Joseph II. The reform age
of Hungary was started by Istv�n Sz�chenyi a Hungarian noble, who built one of the
greatest bridges of Hungary, the Sz�chenyi Chain Bridge. The official language
remained Latin until 1836, when Hungarian was introduced[27][28]. Between 1844 and
1849, and from 1867 onward, Hungarian became the exclusively used official
language.

Hungarian Revolution of 1848

Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The European revolutions of 1848 swept into Hungary, as well. The Hungarian
Revolution of 1848 sought to redress the long suppressed desire for political
change, namely independence. The Hungarian National Guard was created by young
Hungarian patriots in 1848. In literature, this was best expressed by the greatest
poet of the revolution, S�ndor Petofi.

As war broke out with Austria, Hungarian military successes, which included the
campaigns of the Hungarian general, Art�r G�rgey, forced the Austrians on the
defensive. One of the most famous battles of the revolution, the Battle of P�kozd,
was fought on 29 September 1848, when the Hungarian revolutionary army led by
Lieutenant-General J�nos M�ga defeated the troops of the Croatian Ban Josip
Jelacic. Fearing defeat, the Austrians pleaded for Russian help. The combined
forces of the two empires quelled the revolution. The desired political changes of
1848 were again suppressed until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.

Population 1910 (without Croatia-Slavonia)[29]

Ethnicity Number Percentage
Hungarian 9 944 627 54.44 %
Romanian 2 948 186 16.14 %
Slovak 1 946 357 10.65 %
German 1 903 357 10.42 %
Ruthenian 464 270 2.54 %
Serbian 461 516 2.52 %
Croatian 194 808 1.06 %
Other 401 412 2.19 %
All 18 264 533 100 %
Austria-Hungary (1867�1918)
Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1867�1918)

Coronation of Francis Joseph I and Elisabeth at Matthias Church, Buda, 8 June 1867
Following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Habsburg Empire became the
"dual monarchy" of Austria-Hungary. The Austro-Hungarian economy changed
dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change
accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The capitalist way of production
spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence and obsolete medieval
institutions continued to disappear. By the early 20th century, most of the Empire
began to experience rapid economic growth. The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.45%
per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of
other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany
(1.51%).

The lands of the Hungarian Crown (comprising the Kingdom of Hungary proper, into
which Transylvania was fully incorporated, and the Kingdom of Croatia�Slavonia,
which maintained a distinct identity and a certain internal autonomy) were granted
equal status with the rest of the Habsburg monarchy. Each of the two states
comprising Austria-Hungary exercised considerable independence, with certain
institutions, notably the reigning house, defence, foreign affairs, and finances
for common expenditures, remaining under joint management. This arrangement lasted
until 1918, when the Central Powers went down in defeat in World War I.

Transitions (1918 to 1920)

Two short-lived republics
Main articles: Hungarian Democratic Republic and Hungarian Soviet Republic
The Hungarian Soviet Republic or Hungarian Republic of Councils (Hungarian:
Magyarorsz�gi Tan�csk�zt�rsas�g[30] or Magyarorsz�gi Szocialista Sz�vets�ges
Tan�csk�zt�rsas�g[31]) was a short-lived independent communist state established in
Hungary.

It lasted only from 21 March until 1 August 1919. The state was led by B�la Kun and
was not recognized by France, the UK or the US.[32] It was the second socialist
state in the world to be formed after the October Revolution in Russia brought the
Bolsheviks to power. The Hungarian Republic of Councils had military conflicts with
the Kingdom of Romania (see Hungarian�Romanian War), the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats
and Slovenes and the evolving Czechoslovakia. It collapsed on 1 August 1919 when
Hungarians sent representatives to negotiate their surrender to the Romanian forces
and B�la Kun, together with other high-ranking Communists, fled to Austria.[33]

A 1919 attempt to form a federation with the Kingdom of Romania also failed, when
the Romanian King ultimately refused to accept the Hungarian Crown.[34]

The restoration of the Kingdom

After the pullout of occupation forces of Romania in 1920 the country went into
civil conflict, with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists purging the nation
of communists, leftists and others by whom they felt threatened. On February 29,
1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, the Kingdom
of Hungary was restored, a coalition of right-wing political forces united and
reinstated Hungary's status as a constitutional monarchy. Selection of the new King
was delayed due to civil infighting, and a regent was appointed to represent the
monarchy, former Austro-Hungarian navy admiral Mikl�s Horthy.

Treaty of Trianon (1920)

The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 72% of its territory, its sea access, half of
its 10 biggest cities and all of its precious metal mines; 3,425,000 ethnic
Hungarians found themselves separated from their motherland.[35][36][37]
The new borders set in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon ceded 72% of the territory of
the Kingdom of Hungary to the neighbouring states. The main beneficiaries were
Romania, the newly formed states of Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes, but Austria, Poland and Italy also gained smaller territories.
The areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them
separately) possessed a majority of non-Hungarian population, but more than 3.3
million ethnic Hungarians were left outside the new borders of Hungary. Many[who?]
view this as contrary to the terms laid out by US President Woodrow Wilson's
Fourteen Points,[citation needed] which were intended to honour the ethnic makeup
of the territories. As President Wilson left the conference to emphasize his
disagreement, and because the U.S. Congress did not ratify the treaty, the United
States of America and the Kingdom of Hungary signed a separate peace treaty on 29
August 1921.[38]

Between 1920 and 1946

Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1920�46)
Interwar period
Main articles: Hungary between the World Wars and Hungarian interwar economy

Mikl�s Horthy was regent of Hungary.

The new international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources
of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products.
Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its
iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and
printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% iron was
retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of canals, 62%
of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial
plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and 67% of credit and
banking institutions of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of
Hungary's neighbors.[39][40][41]

Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest,
Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population and 56% of its industry.
Horthy appointed Count P�l Teleki as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government
issued a numerus clausus law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements"
(these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent,
took initial steps towards fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing
about 3,850 km2 from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government
resigned, however, after Charles IV unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's
throne in March 1921. The return of King Charles produced split parties between
conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing
radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count Istv�n Bethlen, a non-
affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming
a new Party of Unity under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime
minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne
in October 1921. (For more detail on Charles's attempts to retake the throne, see
Charles IV of Hungary's conflict with Mikl�s Horthy.)
Istv�n Bethlen, the Prime Minister of Hungary
As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He
fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the
expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas.
Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries
payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror
against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and
trade unions (called Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to legalize
their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain
from spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing
the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the League of Nations in 1922 and out
of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1927.
The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda
and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and
building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad
backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of
his economic, social, and political policies.

The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard of living and the political
mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a
new prime-minister, Gyula G�mb�s, who changed the course of Hungarian policy
towards closer cooperation with Germany. G�mb�s signed a trade agreement with
Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on
the German economy for both raw materials and markets. On 2 November 1938, as the
result of the First Vienna Award parts of Czechoslovakia - Southern Slovakia and a
part of Carpathian Ruthenia - were returned to Hungary, an area amounting to 11,927
km2 and a population of 869,299 (86.5% of which were Hungarians according to the
1941 census). Between 5 November and 10 November, Hungarian armed forces peacefully
occupied the newly transferred territories.[42] Hitler later promised to transfer
all of Slovakia to Hungary in exchange for a military alliance, but his offer was
rejected. Instead, Horthy chose to pursue a territorial revision to be decided
along ethnic lines. In March 1939, the Czecho-Slovak Republic was dissolved,
Germany invaded it, and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was established. On
14 March, Slovakia declared itself to be an independent state.

On 15 March, Carpatho-Ukraine declared itself to be an independent state. Hungary

rejected the independence of Carpatho-Ukraine and, between 14 March and 18 March,
Hungarian armed forces occupied the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia and ousted the
government of Avgustyn Voloshyn. By contrast, Hungary recognized the Nazi puppet
state of Slovakia led by the Clerical Fascist Jozef Tiso.[43] In September 1940,
with troops massing on both sides of the Hungarian-Romanian border, war was averted
by the Second Vienna Award. This award transferred the northern half of
Transylvania to Hungary, with a total area of 43,492 km2 and a total population of
2,578,100 with a 53.5% Hungarian majority according to the 1941 census. By dividing
Transylvania between Romania and Hungary, Hitler was able to ease tensions in
Hungary. In October 1940, the Germans initiated a reciprocity policy between
Romania and Hungary which was continued until the end of World War II. The region
of Sub-Carpathia was given special autonomous status with the intention that
(eventually) it would be self-governed by the Ruthenian minority.

During World War II 1941�1945

Main article: Hungary during World War II

The Kingdom of Hungary in 1942, during World War II

After being granted part of southern Czechoslovakia and Subcarpathia by the Germans
and Italians in the First Vienna Award of 1938, and then northern Transylvania in
the Second Vienna Award of 1940, Hungary participated in their first military
maneuvers on the side of the Axis powers in 1941. Thus, the Hungarian army was part
of the invasion of Yugoslavia, gaining some more territory and joining the Axis
powers in the process. On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in
Operation Barbarossa. Hungary joined the German effort and declared war on the
Soviet Union on 26 June, and entered World War II on the side of the Axis. In late
1941, the Hungarian troops on the Eastern Front experienced success at the Battle
of Uman. By 1943, after the Hungarian Second Army suffered extremely heavy losses
at the river Don, the Hungarian government sought to negotiate a surrender with the
Allies. On 19 March 1944, as a result of this duplicity, German troops occupied
Hungary in what was known as Operation Margarethe. By then it was clear that
Hungarian politics would be suppressed according to Hitler's intention to hold the
country in the war on the side of the Nazi Third Reich because of its strategic
location. On 15 October 1944, Horthy made a token effort to disengage Hungary from
the war. The Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and Horthy's regime was
replaced by a fascist puppet government under the pro-German Arrow Cross leader
Ferenc Sz�lasi, thus effectively ending the possibility for independent actions in
the war. However, the form of government was only changed to a republic two years
later.

Transitioning into a republic

Following its occupation of Hungary in 1944, the Soviet Union imposed harsh
conditions allowing it to seize important material assets and control internal
affairs.[44] After the Red Army set up police organs to persecute class enemies,
the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support the
communists in the coming elections.[45] The communists fared poorly, receiving only
17% of the vote, resulting in a coalition government under Prime Minister Zolt�n
Tildy.[46] Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded
Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and
repressive measures, including banning the victorious Independent Smallholders,
Agrarian Workers and Civic Party.[45] In 1945, Soviet Marshal Kliment Voroshilov
forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a
nominee of the Hungarian Communist Party. Communist Interior Minister L�szl� Rajk
established the �VH secret police, which suppressed political opposition through
intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.[47] In 1946 the form of
government was changed to a republic. Soon after the monarchy was abolished, the
Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader M�ty�s R�kosi to take a "line of more
pronounced class struggle."[48] What emerged was a communist state lasting until
October 23 1956 when the Soviet Russian occupation was swept away by the Hungarian
uprising, victorious until November 10 1956. Soviet occupation was restored lasting
until 1989 when the Communists agreed to give up their monopoly on power, paving
the way for free elections in March 1990. In today's free republic, the Kingdom is
regarded as one long stage in the development of the state. This sense of
continuity is reflected in the republic's national symbols such as the Holy Crown
of Hungary and the Coat of arms of Hungary, which are the same as when the monarchy
was still in place. Several holidays, the official language (Hungarian), and the
capital city Budapest have also been retained. The official Hungarian name of the
country is Magyarorsz�g (simply Hungary) since 2012;[16] it was also the common
name of the monarchy.[15] The millennium of the Hungarian statehood was
commemorated in 2000 and codified by the Millennium Act of 2000.[49]

See also
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
List of Hungarian rulers
Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary
Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary
Demographics of the Kingdom of Hungary
Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)
Holy Crown of Hungary
Coat of arms of Hungary
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"Slovakia".
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Further reading
Engel, P�l. The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526.
(2001).
Frucht, Richard. Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the
Fall of Communism (2000) online edition
Hoensch, J�rg K., and Kim Traynor. A History of Modern Hungary, 1867�1994 (1996)
online edition
Hanak, Peter et al. A History of Hungary (1994)
Kontler, Laszlo. A History of Hungary (2006) excerpt and text search
Moln�r, Mikl�s, and Anna Magyar. A Concise History of Hungary (2001) excerpt and
text search
Palffy, Geza. The Kingdom of Hungary and the Habsburg Monarchy in the Sixteenth
Century (East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 2010)
406 pages; Covers the period after the battle of Mohacs in 1526 when the Kingdom of
Hungary was partitioned in three, with one segment going to the Habsburgs.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kingdom of Hungary.
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