RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION THEORY AND PRACTICE A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS IN COLLEGES AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, AND A HAND-BOOK FOR THE USE OF ENGINEERS | IN FIELD AND OFFICE, BY WALTER LORING WEBB, C.E., Member American Society of Civil Engineers; Member American Railway Engi- neering Association; Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering (Railroad Engineering) in the| University of Pennsyloania, 1893-1901; Major, Engineer Officers’ Reserve Corps, U.S. A., etc. SIXTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED TOTAL ISSUE, THIRTEEN THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Lonpon: CHAPMAN & HALL, Lnorep 1917Copyright, 1899, 1903, 1908, 1913, 1917, BY WALTER LORING WEBB. Press OF BRAUNWORTH & CO. BOOK MANUPAC’ BROOKLYN,y fp J PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION. Tue revision of thé fifth edition has been so extensive that it has almost amounted to a rewriting of the book. Compara- tively few pages have been left without some revision. The last few years have seen a greater advance in the science of railroad construction than any similar period in its previous history. This has been largely due to the combined work of the several Standing Committees of the American Railway Engineering Association. The writer has received special per- mission to quote from the, Association’s publications and has availed himself of the privilege, because he considers that the decisions of such an Association are, in general, the highest authority obtainable. Considerable new matter has been added on the general sub- ject of railroad surveys, and the handling of surveying parties. One feature of the additions has been the emergency medical and surgical treatment which the engineer-in-charge, as respon- sible head of the party, must sometimes supply when regular professional advice is absolutely unobtainable and the engineer must choose between seeing the victim die (or become perma- nently injured), or assuming the unwelcome responsibility of applying simple instructions plus common sense. It usually means choosing the lesser of two evils. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to his’ friends, Dr. G. Victor Janvier and Dr. Henry P. DeForest, for advice and the revision of these sections, which may thus be depended on to be tech- nically correct. Those familiar with the former editions of this work will note that the computations previously given for the unit values of saving one foot (or mile) of distance, one degree of curvature, or one foot of rise-and-fall, have now been omitted. This is due to the belief, as expressed by the Economics Committee of the 307489 bs‘ iv PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION. Am. Rwy. Eng. Assoc., that all previously published methods of making such calculations are unreliable since they ignore certain operating conditions peculiar to each road, and that the application of such unit figures may lead to unwarranted con- clusions. It may be that a method will be sometime devised by which some simple and satisfactory form of unit value may be'used. At present, the most practicable method yet proposed is to compute the costs of operating two suggested routes on the basis of an assumed amount and kind of traffic and compare the results. Watter Lorna WEBB. Purvavetrara, Pa; . Nov., 1916.TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. RAILROAD SURVEYS, RECONNOIS8ANCE. oo . 1. Character of a reconnoissance survey. eral route. 3. Valley route. 4. Cross-country route. tain route. 6. Existing maps. 7. Determination of relative elevations. Barometrical method. 8. Horizontal measurements, bearings, etc. 9. Importance of a good reconnoissance. PRELIMINARY BURVEYB..........0...000c eee ereeeereee Terr reyes 10. Character of a survey. 11. Cross-section method. 12. Cross-sectioning. 13. Stadia method. 14. Form for stadia notes. 15. The reduction of stadia observations. 16. Stadia method vs. cross-section method. 17, “First’’ and ‘‘second” preliminary surveys. LocaTion sURVEYS...... tana sncassccnacesence a becceensees 18. Paper location.” 19. Preparation of the notes. 20. Surveying methods. 21. Form of notes. 22. Number of men required in surveying parties. MAINTENANCE OF SURVEYING PARTIES... 23. Economy and efficiency. 24. houses. 25. Camping outfits. 26. Tent floors. 27. Tent stoves. 28. Dining tables. 29. Cooking utensils, table ware, tools, etc. 30. Drawing tables. 31. Stationery and map chest. 32. Pro- visions. 33. Beds, 34, Transportation. 35. Clothing. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT...... eeeeeree reer reer 36. Responsibility of éngineer-in-charge. 37. Appliances. 38. Antiseptics. 39. Drinking water. 40. Bleeding. 41. Ailments and diseases; medicines. 42. Drowning; electric shock; as- phyxiation. 43. Fractures. 44. Snake or insect bites. 45. ‘Wounds. CHAPTER II. ALINEMENT. 46. Designation of curves. 47. Metric curves. 48. Length ofa subchord. 49. Length of a curve. 50. Curve notation. 51. Elements of a curve. 52. Relation between 7, E, and A. 53. Elements of a 1° curve. 54. Exercises. 55. Curve location by deflections. 56. Instrumental work. 57. Curve location by v 4 24 36 47vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAG two transits. 58. Curve location by tangential offsets. 59. Curve location by middle ordinates. 60. Curve location by offsets from the long chord. 61. Use and value of the above methods. 62. Obstacles to location. 63. Modifications of location. 64. Limita- tions in location. 65. Determination of-the curvature of existing track. 66. Problems. COMPOUND CURVES. 11... cece cece eee e rece ene eeeeteeenetteeeeee 67. Nature and use. 68, Mutual relations of the parts of a compound curve having two branches. 69. Modifications of loca- tion. 70. Problems. TRANSITION CURVES. . oe 71, Superelevation of the outer rail on curves. 72. Practical rules for superelevation. 73. Transition from level to inclined track. 74, Fundamental principle of transition curves. 75. Va- rieties of transition curves. 76. Proper length of spiral. 77. Symbols. 78, Defiections. 79. Location of spirals and circular curve with respect to tangents. 80. Field-work. 81. To replace a simple curve by a curve with spirals. 82. Application of tran- sition curves to compound curves. 83. To replace a compound curve by a curve with spirals. VERTICAL CURVES sees tee . 84. Necessity for their use. 85. Required length. 86. Form of curve, 87, Numerical example. CHAPTER III. EARTHWORK, Form OF EXCAVATIONS AND EMBANKMENTS.......... epeeeneeeceee 88. Usual form of cross-section in cut and fill. 89. Terminal pyramids and wedges. 90. Slopes. 91. Compound sections. 92. Width of roadbed. 93. Form of subgrade. 94. Ditches. 95. Effect of sodding the slopes, etc. EARTHWORK SURVEYS... 0.00 sceeseeeesecnceeee 96. Relation of actual volume to the numerical results. 97. Prismoids. 98. Cross-sectioning. 99. Position of slope-stakes. 100. Setting slope-stakes by means of “automatic” slope-stake ComPuTaTION OF VOLUME...........---- sete cece ee eeeteeeees wee 101. Simple approximations. 102. Approximate volume, level sections. 103, Numerical example, level sections. 104. Equiva- lent sections. 105. Three-level sections. 106. Computation of products. 107. Irregular sections. 108. Volume of an irregular prismoid. 109. Numerical example; approximate volume, irreg- ular sections. 110. Prismoidal correction. 111. Correction for triangular prismoid. 112. Correctlon for level scctions. 113. Prismoidal correction for “equivalent” sections. 114. Prismoidal correction for three-level sections, 115. Prismoidal correction; irregular sections. 116. Magnitude of the probable error of this method. 117, Numerical illustration of the accuracy of the ap- proximate rule. 118. Cross-sectioning irregular sections. 119. 100 104 112 118FORMATION OF EMBANKMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS. vu ‘ PAGE Side-hill work, 120. Borrow-pits. 121. Correction for curvature. 122, Eccentricity of the center of gravity. 123. Center of gravity of side-hill sections. 124. Example of curvature correction. 125. Accuracy of earthwork computations. 126. Approximate com- putations from profiles. 127. Shrinkage of earthwork. 128. Proper allowance for shrink- age. 129. Methods of forming embankments. COMPUTATION OF HAUL. . 2.0.0... 000. 0ceeeececeeeeneneeeeeeeeees 155 130. Nature of subject. 131. Mass diagram, 132. Properties of the mass curve. 133. Area of the mass curve. 134. Value of the mass diagram. 135. Changing the grade line. 136. Limit of free haul. . ELEMENTS OF THE COST OF EARTHWORK..............00-000 ++. 163 137. Analysis of the total cost into items. 188. Loosening. 189. Loading. 140. Hauling. 141. Choice of method of haul dependent on distance. 142. Spreading. 143. Keeping roadways in order. 144. Trimming cuts to their proper cross-section. 145. Repairs, wear, depreciation, and interest on cost of plant. 146. Superintendence and incidentals. 147. Contractor's profit and contingencies: 148. Limit of profitable haul. 149. Explosives. 150. Drilling. 151. Position and direction of drill-holes. 152. Amount of explosive. 153. Tamping. 154. Exploding the charge. 155. Cost. 156. Classification of ex- cavated material. 157. Specifications for earthwork. CHAPTER Iv. ‘TRESTLES. 158. Extent of use. 159. Trestles vs.embankments. 160. Two principal types. . or seeee seeee » 194 PILE TRESTLES.... - 196 161. Pile bents. 162. Methods of driving piles. 163, Pile- driving formule. 164. Pile-points and pile-shoes. 165. Details of design. 166. Specifications for timber piles. 167. Pile-driving —principles of practice. 168. Cost of pile trestles. FRAMED TRESTLES. 205 169. Typical design. 170. Joints. 171. Multiple-story con- struction. 172. Span. 173. Foundations. 174. Longitudinal bracing. 175. Lateral bracing. 176. Abutments. FLoor sYsTEMs...... ct eeeeeee - 211 177. Stringers. 178. Corbels. 179. Guar . 180. Ties on trestles. 181. Superelevation of the outer rail on curves, 182. Protection from fire. 183. Timber. 184. Cost of framed timber treatles. DESIGN OF WOODEN TRESTLES.......-.-+- esse cece cece eeeeeeeeees 217 185. Common practice. 186. Required elements of strength. 187. Strength of timber. 188. Loading. 189. Factors of safety. 190. Design of stringers. 191. Design of posts. 192. Design of caps and sills. 193. Bracing.viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. TUNNELS. SURVEYING. ....eesscocserccseccccccecscscnssceesessasesesesees Gat 194. Surface surveys. 195. Surveying down a shaft. 196. Underground surveys. 197, Accuracy of tunnel surveying. Desten. 198. Cross-sections. 199. Grade. 202, Drains. t CONBTRUCTION...,.000cccecccereseeecncerereceteeseereeetccctees 237 203. Headings. 204. Enlargement. 205. Distinctive features ~ of various methods of construction. 206. Ventilation during con- struction. 207. Excavation for the portals. 208. Tunnels vs. open cuts. 209. Cost of tunneling. CHAPTER VI. CULVERTS AND MINOR BRIDGES. 210. Definition and object. 211. Elements of the eee wees 245 AREA OF THE WATERWAY. ......0 00.0 e cece ee ceeeeeteeesenesenees 246 212. Elements involved. 213. Methods of computation of area, 214. Empirical formulm. 215. Value of empirical formule. 216. Results based on observation. 217. Degree of accuracy required. Pips cULvERTS. 218. Advantage: 221. Tile-pipe culverts. BoX CULVERTS. ........00cceeeeeeeeenees te ee cece eeccerecs see e es Ok 222. Wooden box culverts. 223. Stone box culverts. 224. Old rail culverts. 225. Reinforced concrete culverts. onstruction. 220. Iron-pipe culverts. ARCH CULVERTS.......0 ccc ec ccseccenscenecceneseeenes ween eee 258 226. Influence of design on flow. 227. ‘Examples of arch-cul- vert design. MINOR OPENINGS... 0.0.6 e occ e eee ee ene eee tenet eee eet eeennee 260 228. Cattle-guards. 229. Cattle-pasees. “230. Standard stringer and I-beam bridges. CHAPTER VII. BALLAST. 231. Purpose and requirements. 232. Materials. 233. Crosse sections. 234. Classification of railroads. 235. Recommended sections for the several classifications. 236. Proper depth of ballast. 237. Methods of laying ballast. 238, Cost.....-sesscesseceees 265 CHAPTER VIII. ‘TIES AND OTHER FORMS OF RAIL SUPPORT. _ 239. Various methods of supporting rails. 240. Economics of 241. Choice of wood. 242. Durability. 243. Dimensions. 244, Spacing. 245. Specifications. 246. Regulations for laying and renewing ties. 247, Dating nails. 248. Cost of ties.TABLE OP CONTENTS. ix / PAGE PRESERVATIVE PROCESSES FOR WOODEN TIES.....s.seseeeeee cesses 282 249. General principle. 250. Creosoting. 251. Burnettizing. 252, Kyanising. 253. Zinc-tannin ‘process. 254. Zinc-creosote emulsion process, 255. Two-injection zinc creosote process. 256. Cost of treating. 257. Economics of treated ties. 258. Extent of use. 259. Durability. 260. Form and dimen- sions of metal cross-ties. 261. Fastenings. 262. Cost. 263. Bowls or plates. 264. Longitudinals. 265. Reinforced concrete ties.’ CHAPTER IX. RAILS. 266, Early forms. 267. Present standard forms. 268. Weight for various kinds of traffic. 269. Effect of stiffness on traction. 270, Length of rails. 271. Expansion of rails. 272. Rules for allowing’ for temperature. 273. Chemical composition. 274. Proposed standard specifications for steel rails. 275. Rail wear on tangents. 276. Rail wear on curves. 277, Experimental deter- mination of rail wear. 278. Cost of rails...........0esees005 206 CHAPTER X. RAIL-FASTENINGS, Ran-sornrs. wee 279. Theoretical requirements for a perfect joint. ciency of the ordinary angle-bar. 281. Effect of rail-gap at joints. 282, Supported, suspended, and bridge joints. 283. Failures of rail-joints. 284, Standard angle-bars, 285. Specifications for steel splice-bars, Tre-PLaTEs. «0.04... 314 “201. Screw spikes. 292. Wooden spikes. ‘TRACK-BOLTS AND NUT-LOCKS.......00.000ssceeeeeeee eee en seen 330 293. Essential requirements. 294. Design of track-bolts. 2 Design of nut-locks. CHAPTER XI. SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS. Swirce consTRUcTION. . seceeeceses 335 296. Essential elements of a switch. . Frogs. 298. To find the frog number. 299. Stub switches. 300. Point switches. 301. Switch-stands. 302. Tie-rods. 303. Guard-rails. MATHEMATICAL DESIGN. OF BWITCHES.........------+5 Pelee eet 342 304. Design with circular lead rails. 305. Standard design, using straight frog-rails and straight point-rails. 306. Design for ® turnout from the oureR side of a curved track. 307. Designx - TABLE OF CONTENTS. for a turnout from the INNER side of a curved track. 308. Con- necting curve from a straight track. 309. Connecting curve from a curved track to the ovrsipe. 310, Connecting curve from a curved track to the rvsrpE. 311. Crossover between two parallel straight tracks. 312, Crossover between two parallel curved tracks. 313. Practical rules for switch-laying. 314. Slips. CRossiNnas...... SEE EEE Ee een eee Gece eee 315. Two straight tracks. 316. One straight and one curved track, 317, Two curved tracks. CHAPTER XII. MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES AND BUILDINGS. WATER STATIONS AND WATER SUPPLY... 318, Location. 319. Required qualities of water. ical cleaning. 321. Chemical purification. 322. priming. 323. Boiler compounds. 324. Tanks. 326. Track tanks. 327. Stand pipes. Buripinas 328. Station platforms. 329. Minor sta 333. Platforms. 334. Floors. 335. Doors. 336. ing over platforms. 337. ighting. 338. Scales. 320. Mechan- Foaming and 325. Pumping. Freicut HOUSES. 330. Two types. 331. Fire risk. 332. Dimensions. Roofs project- 339. Ramps. 340. Section houses. ENaine Houses. 341. Form. 342. Doors. 343. Length. 344. Materials of construction. 345. Engine pits. 346. Smoke jacks. 347. Floors. 348. Drop pits. 350. Window lighting. 351. Electric lighting. 349, Heating. 352. Piping. 353. Tools. 354. Hoists. 355. Turntables. Locomotive coaL- ING stations. 356. Hand shoveling. 357. Locomotive crane. 358. Coaling trestle. 359. Coal conveyors. 360. Oil houses. 361. Section tool houses. 362. Sand houses. 363. Ash pits. SNOW STRUCTURES........--. eee e eee ence seen e eee e ee een ee eeees 364. Snow fences. 365. Snow sheds, EONS Gretel etl eee eee eee eee ei 366. Wire fences, 367. Types. 368. Posts. 369. Braces. 370. Concrete posts. 371. Construction details. 372. Highway signs. 373 Trespass signs. 374, 375. Bridge warning. CHoaPTER XIII. YARDS AND TERMINALS. Marker posts. AGE 301 +. 393 376. Value of proper design. 377. Divisions of the subject.... 400 FREIGHT YARDS. 378. Gene 1 principles. “370, Hump yards. ‘380 Relation of 382. Transfer yard to main tracks, 381. Minor freight yards. cranes. 383, Track scales. ENGINE YARDS. . 384. General principles. » 401 seeeeees Beene ee een cOcaeTABLE OF CONTENTS. x1 CHAPTER XIV. BLOCK SIGNALING, . PAGE GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 500.50 bese e este eet ct eereseeeeneescescs 412 385. Two fundamental systems. 386. Manual systems. 387. Development of the manual system. 388. Permissive blocking. 389. Automatic systems, 390. Distant signals. 391. Advance signals. MECHANICAL DETAILS, 392. Signals. 393, . 418 for automatic signaling. CHAPTER XV. ROLLING STOCK, WHEELS AND BATS... 6.000 ccccees esse ccc eeeceeettserecerscceees 425 395. Effect of rigidly attaching wheels to their axles. 396. Effect of parallel axles. 397. Effect of coning wheels. 398. Effect of flanging locomotive driving wheels. 399. Action of a locomotive pilot-truck. 400. Types of locomotive wheel bases. . LOCOMOTIVES. GENERAL BTRUCTURB....... ee eee eee e cece cee eeteeeteteseneeccees 433 401. Frame. 402. Boiler. 403. Fire box. 404. Area of grate. 405. Superheaters. 406. Reheaters. 407. Coal consumption. 408. Oil-burning locomotives. 409..Heating surface. 410. Loss of efficiency of steam pressure. 411. Tractive power. Rowniva azar... sees seeeeees 444 412, Equalizing levers. 413. Counterbalancing. 414, Mutual relations of the boiler power, tractive power and cylinder power for various types. 415. Life of locomotives. cars, 416. Capacity and size of cars. 417. Stresses to which car frames are subjected. 418. The use of metal. 419. Draft gear. 420. Gauge of wheels and form of wheel tread. TRAIN-BRAKES, 421, Introduction. 422. Laws of friction as applied to this problem......... Mecuanism OF BRAKE! eee . 423, Hand-brakes. 424. “Straight” air brakes. 425. Auto- matic air brakes. 426. Tests to measure the efficiency of brakes. 427. Brake shoes. CHAPTER XVI. TRAIN RESISTANCE, 428. Classification of the various forms, 429. Resistances inter- nal to the locomotive. 430. Velocity resistances. 431. Wheel resistances. 432. Grade resistance. 433. Curve resistance. 434. Brake resistance. 435. Inertia resistance. 436. Dynamometer