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How does a baby grow from a infant
state to adulthood?
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The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Due to the loss and death of cells
must replace them.
How many cells in your body?
50-100 million trillion
Every minute your body produces
about 300 million new cells
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Cell Cycle
repeating series of events that include
growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division
prokaryotes- simple: the cell grows, its
DNA replicates, and the cell divides
Eukaryotes- the cell cycle is more
complicated.
Cell Division
The ability of organisms to produce more of their
own kind-unique capacity to procreate
Rudolf Virchow
Omnis cellula e cellula
Where a cell exists, there must have been a
preexisting cell
integral part of the cell cycle
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Functions of Cell Division
Cell Division
prokaryotic cell reproduces an entire organism
multicellular eukaryotes to develop from a single
cell, like the fertilized egg that gave rise to the two-
celled embryo
renewal and repair, replacing cells that die from
normal wear and tear or accidents
passing identical genetic material to cellular
offspring
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How long does the cell cycle take?
A typical human cell might take about 24 hours to divide
Cells that line the intestine, can complete a cycle every 9-
10 hours when they're grown in culture
Different types of cells also split their time between cell
cycle phases in different ways. In early frog embryos, for,
cells spend almost no time in G1 and G2 and instead
rapidly cycle between S and M phases—resulting in the
division of one big cell, the zygote, into many smaller cells
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Cell Cycle
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The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Three stages in the cell cycle:
1. Interphase: cell grows carries out normal
functions.
2. Mitosis: nucleus contents duplicated and
divided into
two equal parts.
3. Cytokinesis: separation of two nuclei and cell
contents
into two daughter cells.
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What is a cell's life like?
eukaryotic cell spends most of its "life" in
interphase of the cell cycle ((lasts 15 hrs. –
months).
DNA exists as chromatin rather than
chromosomes
G1, S and G2
cell does what it is supposed to do such as DNA
replication
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Do cells grow even before they
divide?
cells do indeed grow before division
Some cells may intentionally split
themselves up into smaller and smaller
pieces over successive rounds of cell
division
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G1 (Growth/ Gap 1) PHASE
cell grows rapidly, while performing routine
metabolic processes
makes proteins needed for DNA replication and
copies some of its organelles in preparation for
cell division.
cell typically spends most of its life in this phase
Cell decides if it will start the cell cycle
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Cell Cycle
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What happens to the cell when they reach
their limit size?
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G0 Phase
Resting phase
Non-dividing cells in multicellular eukaryotic
organisms enter G0 from G1 (ex. Neurons)
Cells that are completely differentiated
Cellular senescence- DNA damage or degradation,
occurs when normal diploid cells lose the ability to
divide, normally after about 50 cell divisions.
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Neurons and glial cells
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Cell Cycle
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Synthesis Phase (S)
cell’s DNA is copied in the process of DNA
replication
Nucleus becomes larger with twice the
amount of DNA
duplicates centrosome- helps separate
DNA during M phase
cell remains in a diploid state
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Cell Cycle
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Growth / Gap Phase 2 (G2)
shortened growth period in which many
organelles and additional proteins are
reproduced or manufactured
the cell makes final preparations to divide
Parts necessary for mitosis and cell division
are made during G2, including microtubules
used in the mitotic spindle.
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Cell Cycle
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M Phase
Very short and Observable phase in the
microscope
Nuclear division-one nucleus divides and
becomes two nuclei
Cytoplasmic division- cytoplasm divides in half,
producing two daughter cells, each containing
a complete set of genetic material
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Cell Cycle Summary
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What if we have no control of the Cell
Cycle?
cellsmight go from one phase to the next before
they were ready
Regulatory proteins- controls the cell cycle
control the cycle by signaling the cell to either start or
delay the next phase of the cycle
ensure that the cell completes the previous phase before
moving on
control the cell cycle at key checkpoints
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Cyclins
most important core cell cycle regulators
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Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk)
kinases, enzymes that phosphorylate (attach phosphate
groups to) specific target proteins.
lone Cdk is inactive, but the binding of a cyclin activates it
it activates the Cdk as a kinase
directs the Cdk to a specific set of target proteins.
G1/S cyclins send Cdks to S phase targets (e.g.,
promoting DNA replication), while M cyclins send Cdks to
M phase targets (e.g., making the nuclear membrane
break down).
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Checkpoints
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Checkpoints
ensure that the cell is ready to proceed before it moves on
to the next phase of the cycle
G1 checkpoint- makes the key decision of whether the
cell should divide.
S checkpoint- determines if the DNA has been replicated
properly.
mitotic spindle checkpoint -occurs at the point in
metaphase where all the chromosomes should have
aligned at the mitotic plate.
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Parts of the Cell Cycle
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Mitosis
one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new
cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to
itself
DNA of the cell's nucleus is split into two equal sets
of chromosomes.
replaces old, worn-out cells with new ones
form of reproduction, adding new individuals to the
population.
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Purpose of Mitosis
make more diploid cells by copying each
chromosome, and then separating the copies to
different sides of the cell
each new cell gets its own copy of each
chromosome..
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Phases of Mitosis
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Chromosomes
As the nucleus Chromosome
prepares to divide,
replicated DNA in Chromatids
interphase joins to
form sister
Centromere
chromatids, joined
by a centromere.
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Chromosomes
A chromosome is a thread-like object
made of a material called chromatin.
Chromatin is made of DNA and special
structural proteins called histones.
beads on a string
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Inside the Chromosome
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Do all species have the same
chromosomes?
The basic construction of chromosomes
(made of chromatin) and structure is the
same in all animals.
The difference is that each species has its
own set number of chromosomes.
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Mitosis Overview:
Mitosis is the shortest stage of the cell
cycle where the nuclear contents divide,
and two daughter nuclei are formed.
It occurs in 4 stages:
1. Prophase (Early Prophase and Pro
metaphase)
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
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Interphase
the DNA strand of a chromosome is copied and this
copied strand is attached to the original strand at a
spot called the centromere called a bivalent
chromosome.
bivalent chromosome consists of
two sister chromatids
Monovalent chromosome - chromosome exists as
just one chromatid,
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Interphase (late G2 phase)
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Late Interphase cont’d.
Chromatin is in its loosely coiled
form so that DNA can be copied into
RNA for proteins to be made in
preparation for cell division.
At the end of interphase, the cell
continues to grow and make
proteins in preparation for mitosis
and cytokinesis.
Reminder, most (~95%) of the time
the cell is in interphase
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Early Prophase
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Early Prophase
chromosomes start to condense
mitotic spindle begins to form
organizethe chromosomes and move them
around during mitosis
grows between the centrosomes as they move
apart.
nucleolus disappears.
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Late Prophase
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Late Prophase / Prometaphase
Mitoticspindle begins to capture and organize
the chromosomes.
The chromosomes finish condensing
The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing
the chromosomes.
The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of
the microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes. 54
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kinetochore, a patch of protein found on the centromere of each
sister chromatid
Centromeres are the regions of DNA where the sister chromatids
are most tightly connected
Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called kinetochore
microtubules.
Microtubules that don’t bind to kinetochores can grab on to
microtubules from the opposite pole, stabilizing the spindle. More
microtubules extend from each centrosome towards the edge of
the cell, forming a structure called the aster.
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Mitosis - Prophase
Chromosomes start to coil
and become visible.
Pairs of centrioles start to
separate.
The nuclear membrane
disappears.
Spindle fibers start to form
between the centriole pairs.
Chromosomes move more
evenly throughout the
nucleus.
Metaphase
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Metaphase
the spindle has captured all the chromosomes
and lined them up at the middle of the cell,
ready to divide.
All the chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate
two kinetochores of each chromosome should
be attached to microtubules from opposite
spindle poles.
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Mitosis - Metaphase
Centriole pairs move to
opposite ends of the cell.
Spindle fibers are still
attached to the centriole
pairs.
Chromosomes line up
along the midline of the
cell and are attached to
the spindle fibers.
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Spindle Checkpoint
the cell will check to make sure that all the
chromosomes are at the metaphase plate
with their kinetochores correctly attached
to microtubules
helps ensure that the sister chromatids will
split evenly between the two daughter cells
when they separate in the next step.
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What would happen if there is no
spindle checkpoint?
Cell would keep going through cell cycle
and the daughter cells might die because
spindle fibers help in organization and
movement in the cell, the cell wouldn’t
have the compliment of DNA to function
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Anaphase
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Anaphase
The sister chromatids separate from each other and are
pulled towards opposite ends of the cell.
The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together
is broken down, allowing them to separate.
The chromosomes of each pair are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell.
Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and
push apart, separating the poles and making the cell
longer.
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Mitosis - Anaphase
The pair of chromatids split at the
centromere and move to opposite
ends of the spindle.
Now there are twice the number of
chromosomes within the cell
membrane.
Movement of the chromosomes
towards the opposite ends of the
cell membrane is aided by the
spindle fibers.
Telophase
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Telophase
The mitotic spindle is broken down into its
building blocks.
Two new nuclei form, one for each set of
chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and
nucleoli reappear.
The chromosomes begin to decondense and
return to their “stringy” form.
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Mitosis - Telophase
Nuclear membranes form
around the two new sets of
chromosomes.
The spindle fiber disappears.
Chromosomes start to uncoil
(chromatin) and become less
visible.
Cell starts to make a groove
(furrow) in the middle to
eventually split into two
identical cells.
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Cytokinesis
The division of material outside of the nucleus.
Occurs after telophase.
Divides the organelles and other substances in the
cytoplasm into roughly two equal halves.
Animal cells furrow while plant cells form a cell plate
# chromosomes in daughter cell = the #
chromosomes in parent cell.
Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent.
Cytokinesis
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Animal Cell Cytokinesis
contractile ring contracts inward and
pinches the cell in two, a process called
contractile cytokinesis.
The indentation produced as the ring
contracts inward is called the cleavage
furrow.
Cells can pinched in two because they’re
relatively soft and squishy.
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Plant Cells Cytokinesis
much stiffer than animal cells; they’re
surrounded by a rigid cell wall and have high
internal pressure.
divide in two by building a new structure down
the middle of the cell- cell plate, is made up of
plasma membrane and cell wall components
delivered in vesicles, and it partitions the cell in
two.
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Early G1 Phase
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Cell Cycle Problems
Checkpoints in the cell cycle will
prevent cell division if:
If the cell is short of nutrients
If the DNA within the nucleus
has not been replicated
If the DNA is damaged
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Cell Cycle Problems
Mutations in genes involving checkpoints can
result in an out-of-control cell cycle. The result
can be uncontrolled cell division: cancer
Cancer cells have large, abnormal nuclei.
Cancer cells are not specialized, so they serve no
function.
Cancer cells attract blood vessels and grow into tumors.
Cells from tumors can break away to other areas of the
body.
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Cancer and the Cell Cycle
disease that occurs when the cell cycle is
no longer regulated
cell’s DNA becomes damaged
and cells generally divide much faster
than normal cells.
Form a mass of abnormal cells called
a tumor
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Meiosis
the production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and
eggs
goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as
many chromosomes as the starting cell.
is a division process that takes us from a diploid
cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid
cells—ones with a single set of chromosomes
Provides genetic variation in organisms
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Phases of Meiosis
needs to separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a
duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must also
separate homologous chromosomes, the similar but
nonidentical chromosome pairs an organism receives from its
two parents
cell division occurs twice
Meiosis I- Homologue pairs separate during a first round of
cell division
Meiosis II- Sister chromatids separate during a second round,
four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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Meiosis I
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Before Entering Meiosis I
Interphase
G1- cell grows
S Phase –copies all the cells chromosomes
G2 –prepares cells for division
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Prophase I
the chromosomes begin to condense,
but they also pair up.
each chromosome carefully aligns with
its homologue partner so that the two
match up at corresponding positions
along their full length.
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Crossing over
Process in which
homologous
chromosomes trade
parts
synaptonemal
complex - protein
structure that holds the
homologues together.
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Chiasmata
Cross over as seen on the microscope
cross-shaped structures where homologues are
linked together
keep the homologues connected to each other after
the synaptonemal complex breaks down,
It's common for multiple crossovers (up to 25!) to
take place for each homologue pair
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Metaphase 1
the spindle begins to capture chromosomes and
move them towards the center of the cell
(metaphase plate).
Each chromosome attaches to microtubules from
just one pole of the spindle, and the two
homologues of a pair bind to microtubules from
opposite poles.
homologue pairs—not individual chromosomes—
line up at the metaphase plate for separation.
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Anaphase I
homologues are pulled apart and move
apart to opposite ends of the cell. The
sister chromatids of each chromosome,
however, remain attached to one another
and don't come apart.
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Telophase I
chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of
the cell
In some organisms, the nuclear membrane
re-forms and the chromosomes
decondense, although in others, this step
is skipped—since cells will soon go
through another round of division, meiosis
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Cytokinesis
usuallyoccurs at the same time as
telophase I, forming two haploid daughter
cells.
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Meiosis II
Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying
their DNA
shorter and simpler process than meiosis I
“mitosis for haploid cells."
cells are haploid—have just one chromosome from each
homologue pair—but their chromosomes still consist of two
sister chromatids
the sister chromatids separate, making haploid cells with
non-duplicated chromosomes.
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Meiosis II
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Prophase II
chromosomes condense and the nuclear
envelope breaks down, if needed. The
centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms
between them, and the spindle microtubules
begin to capture chromosomes
two sister chromatids of each chromosome are
captured by microtubules from opposite
spindle poles
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Prophase II
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When did the centrosomes
duplicate?
Some centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and
II, even though DNA is not copied during this period
duplicate between meiosis I and II during
spermatogenesis, sperm production, in
In other organisms, however, the centrosomes do
not duplicate at all, instead, the two centrioles that
make up a single centrosome separate, and each
acts as a separate spindle pole during meiosis II-
insect spermatogenesis
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Metaphase II
chromosomes line up individually along
the metaphase plate
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Metaphase II
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Anaphase II
the sister chromatids separate and are
pulled towards opposite poles of the cell
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Anaphase II
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Telophase II
nuclear membranes form around each set
of chromosomes, and the chromosomes
decondense.
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Telophase II
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Cytokinesis
splits the chromosome sets into new cells,
forming the final products of meiosis: four
haploid cells in which each chromosome
has just one chromatid. In humans, the
products of meiosis are sperm or egg
cells.
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Does meiosis always produce 4
gametes?
Nope. In some cases, meiosis does produce
four functional gametes:
spermatogenesis, or sperm production, in
human males yields four sperm cells.
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Does meiosis always produce 4
gametes?
oogenesis, egg cell production, in human females, only
one functional egg cell is mad
end of meiosis I, only one of the two daughter cells
continues down the egg cell pathway, while the other
becomes a non-egg cell called a polar body.
meiosis II, one will become a functional egg cell, while
the other will become a second polar body. The polar
bodies are not normally fertilized by sperm cells, and
they typically undergo programmed cell death, or
apoptosis, within 24 hours of being produced
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How meiosis "mixes and matches"
genes?
Crossing over. The points where homologues cross over
and exchange genetic material are chosen more or less at
random, and they will be different in each cell that goes
through meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as in
humans, crossovers will happen at many different points.
Random orientation of homologue pairs. The random
orientation of homologue pairs in metaphase I allows for
the production of gametes with many different assortments
of homologous chromosomes.
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