Cell Cycle

One of the basic characteristics of all living organisms is the ability to

reproduce. It is either asexually in unicellular organisms or sexually in a multicellular
organism. Sexual reproduction requires fertilization resulting in a fertilized egg cell
called the zygote. All the cells in our body came from the division of the pre-existing
ones.
In prokaryotes, cell division can be observed through binary fission. While in
eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of two distinct phases: The interphase and the
Mitotic phase. The cell cycle is a means for the continuity of life. Before the cell divides
it spends most of its life in the period of cell growth called Interphase with three sub-
stages: G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase followed by the M phase or Mitotic phase.
The cell cycle is the series of events that occur in a cell to prepare for cell
division and to produce two new daughter cells.
Phases of the cell cycle include two major activities:
1. Interphase
2. M-phase (Mitotic phase)

The interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle process. It is also known
as the resting phase. Although the cell is at rest but it is metabolically active. The
metabolic activities of the cell can be observed through cell growth, production of
nutrients and enzymes and replication of DNA.
Interphase has 3 sub-stages:
1. G1 phase (Gap1 phase/Growth 1 phase)
2. S-phase (Synthesis phase)
3. G2 phase (Gap2 phase/Growth 2 phase)

G1 phase (Gap1 phase/Growth 1 phase) the cell increases in size; protein

synthesis also occurs enabling the cell to increase the amount of cytosol.
Synthesis phase is the longest and the most essential stage of the interphase.
It is due to the complexity of the replication of genetic material which results in the
duplication of DNA prior to the cell division process.
 G2 phase (Gap2 phase/Growth 2 phase) is the final stage where the cell
prepares itself for the cell division process, and also ensures that the DNA replication
completes.

Cell cycle checkpoints verify whether all the cellular activities are accurately
completed at each stage of the interphase.
In eukaryotic cells, there are three major checkpoints that control the cell cycle
process. They are:
1. G1 checkpoint at the G1/S transition
2. G2 checkpoint at the G2/M transition
3. Spindle checkpoint, transition from metaphase and anaphase

G1 checkpoint checks the following:

a. Cell’s size (Does the cell large increase its size or large enough for cell
division?)
b. Nutrients (Does the cell have enough reserve energy and nutrients for cell
division?)
 c. DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
d. Molecular signals (Does the cell receives growth factors and other signals
from the neighboring cell?)
If the cell does not comply with the following factors, the cell cycle will stop and
enters the G0 phase called the resting state. Some cell stays in the G0 phase
permanently, while others proceed to divide if the condition of the cell improves.
G2 checkpoint checks the following:
a. DNA integrity (Is any part of the DNA damaged?)
b. DNA replication (Is the DNA replication completed in the S phase?)
If there is an error, the cell will pause at the G2 phase and allow for some
repairs. If the damage is within the DNA, the cell cycle will pause and let the cell
complete the DNA replication or repair it. But if the damaged cell is irreparable, the
cell will undergo apoptosis or cell death. It is the self-destruction mechanism of the
cell to ensure that the damaged DNA is not passed on to the daughter cells and is
also important in preventing cancer. There are some cells that never or rarely divide
like matured cardiac muscle and nerve cells that permanently retains in G0.
The metaphase checkpoint or Spindle checkpoint occurs at the metaphase
stage of mitosis. It is regulated by an Anaphase-promoting complex (APC). It checks
whether all chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle fibers and its
alignment at the metaphase plate. If there are mistakes, the cell delays its anaphase
process.
 Cancer is the result of the unregulated process of the cell cycle due to the
breakdown of the mechanisms that controls the entire process. It happens during the
synthesis phase, wherein the cell cannot determine the changes in the DNA sequence
that code for the specific regulatory molecules.
Oncogenes are the genes that cause the cell to become cancerous.
Proto-oncogenes are the genes that code for positive regulators during the cell
cycle. When these normal genes are altered by mutation it can be an oncogene leading
to cancer cell formation.
Tumor suppressor genes are healthy normal genes that slow down cell
division, helps to repair DNA mistakes and also cell apoptosis or cell death. It codes
for the negative regulator protein, when activated can prevent the cell from
uncontrolled division. But when the tumor suppressor gene does not work properly,
cell division will be out of control and it can also lead to cancer.