Digital Communications

- Spread Spectrum signaling

and CDMA
 Spread Spectrum and CDMA

v Contents
Ø Introduction: Concept

Ø Types of Spread Spectrum

Ø PN Sequence

Ø CDMA

Ø Power control

Ø Jamming Considerations

Ø Synchronization
▪ RAKE Receiver

▪ CDMA Receiver

Ø Summary
 Outline of Spread Spectrum

v SS (Spread Spectrum)
Ø Definition : Transmission bandwidth employed is much greater than the minimum
bandwidth required to transmit the information

Ø In USA , initial application of SS was in the development of military communication

systems (after Second World War)

Ø Since it is inferior to TDMA in the efficiency of user capacity, commercial use of SS

is traditionally not allowed, but is now (since 1980’s) applied to mobile communication
systems (CDMA, W-CDMA, etc.) because of improved SS-CDMA design techniques

Ø After worldwide success of CDMA and W-CDMA, SS/CDMA is slowly losing its
leading role in digital communication design to OFDM, due to its relatively low
transmission capacity compared to OFDM. However, SS will continue to play an
important role in digital communications.
 Outline of Spread Spectrum
v Types of Spread Spectrum
Ø DS (Direct Sequence) spread spectrum
▪ The type of spread spectrum where data is multiplied by spreading code
directly

▪ The most popular method of Spread spectrum

Ø FH (Frequency Hopping) spread spectrum

▪ The type of spread spectrum where the carrier hops randomly from one
frequency to another
 Characteristics of Spread Spectrum

v Features of Spread Spectrum Method

Ø Good security : Spreading Code is working as a Key or Password

Ø Transmission efficiency per BW is degraded due to spreading

[disadvantage]

Ø robust against the exterior interference (anti-jamming, interference

immunity)

▪ No benefit to background noise (AWGN) or wideband interference

Ø Spreading and de-spreading process is required [overhead and

disadvantage]

Ø Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) / Low Probability of Detection (LPD)

 Characteristics of Spread Spectrum

v Features of Spread Spectrum Method (continued)

Ø Robust against fading and multipath (time-delay)

Ø Diversity effect is obtained by wide frequency bandwidth

Ø Ranging is possible by using PN code, reflected from the target

Ø Multiple Access is made possible by CDMA; but CDMA is a non-

orthogonal Multiple Access

▪ TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Orthogonal MA

▪ CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

▪ FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): Orthogonal MA

v Effect of Spread Spectrum on White Noise ?

 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum
v Features of DS-SS Method – Transceiver

Spreading
1 if v > 0
z (t ) = r (t ) g (t ) v Decision
Data
in b(t ) m(t ) = b(t ) g (t ) r (t ) ò dt device
(Threshold = 0)
0 if v < 0

Correlator
PN code g (t ) PN code g (t )

+1
+1
In r (t )
In b(t ) -1
-1

PN code +1
+1
PN code g (t ) -1
g (t ) -1
+1
z (t )
+1
-1
Out m(t )
-1
Out v +N -N -N +N

Spreading Despreading
N = Spreading Factor

f0 Nf 0 Nf 0 f0
<Transmitter> <Receiver>
Processing Gain

v Processing Gain, Gp
Ø Gp = Chip Rate/ Symbol Rate

Ø The definition differs a little bit on different SS methods

Ø In general, Gp is equal to the ratio of BW spread to un-

spread

Ø As Gp becomes bigger, BW economy degrades, but other

characteristics unique to SS (such as anti-jamming)
improves

Ø Typically, Gp > 10 in practice

8
 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum
v Features of DS-SS Method – Multi User

Ø In receiver, original transmitted data is obtained by multiplication with spreading

codes used in the transmitter

▪ If transmitted spreading codes are different, unknown, or its starting point is different,
transmitted data cannot be recovered; DS-SS has good security
 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum
v Features of DS-SS Method – Interference Signal

Ø When transmitted signal and interference signal are received and despread,
transmitted signal despreads and interference signal spreads with result that it’s
amplitude is reduced at the rate of spreading bandwidth

▪ By reducing power density of interference signal by despreading, DS-SS is robust against

narrowband interference

v Effect of Spread Spectrum on White Noise ?

 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
v Features of FH-SS Method – Transceiver & Strength/Weakness
Mixer
Mixer
Binary
data Received
M-ary FSK Band-pass FH/MFSK signal Noncoherent Estimate
Band-pass
modulator filter signal M-ary FSK of binary
filter
detector data

Carrier Frequency Frequency

synthesizer synthesizer

PN code PN code
generator generator

Ø By hopping transmitted signal at one center frequency to another, frequency

spectrum spreads

Ø Each hop frequency is determined by PN code

Ø A good (fast) frequency synthesizer is required for good frequency hopping and
frequency hopping bandwidth should be large in order to reduce interference
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
v Features of FH-SS Method – FFH vs. SFH

Ø SFH (Slow Frequency Hopping) [4-FSK is assumed]

▪ Symbol rate of M-ary frequency signal is integer times the Hopping rate
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
v Features of FH-SS Method – FFH vs. SFH

Ø FFH (Fast Frequency Hopping) [4-FSK is assumed]

▪ Hopping rate is integer times the symbol rate of M-ary frequency signal
 Tradeoff between DS/SS and FH/SS

v Tradeoff between DS/SS and FH/SS

v Advantages of FH/SS

Ø Easy to get large performance gain against CW interference

Ø Short acquisition time

Ø Tolerant to frequency-selective fading by (frequency diversity characteristic)

Ø Less sensitive to ‘Near-far’ problem → power control not essential

v Disadvantages of FH/SS

Ø Very fast hop rate is usually limited by Synthesizer technology

Ø Difficult to maintain coherency from hop to hop à FSK with non-coherent

demodulation is typical à some performance degradation
 PN Sequence

v PN (Pseudo Noise) sequence

▪ Pseudorandom signal is not random at all; it is a deterministic, periodic signal that is known
to both the transmitter and receiver

▪ Even though the signal is deterministic, it appears to have the statistical properties of
sampled white noise

▪ It appears, to an unauthorized listener, to be a truly random signal

Ø Randomness Properties

▪ Balance Property : Good balance requires that in each period of the sequence, the number
of binary ones differs from the number of binary zeros by at most one digit (because the
length of 1 period (p) is an odd number)

▪ Run property : A run is defined as a sequence of a single type of binary digit(s). The
appearance of the alternate digit in a sequence starts a new run. The length of the run is the
number of digits in the run. Among the runs of ones and zeros in each period, it is desirable
that about one-half of the runs of each type are of length 1, about one-fourth are of length 2,
one-eight are of length 3, and so on.
 PN Sequence
▪ Correlation Property : If a period of the sequence is compared term by term with any cyclic
shift of itself, it is best if the number of agreements differs form the number of
disagreements by not more than one count

Ø Shift Register Sequence

▪ It is made up of registers for storage and shifting, a modulo-2 adder, and a feedback path
from the adder to the input of the register

▪ The shift register generator produces a sequence that depend on the number of states, the
feedback tap connections, and initial conditions

▪ Maximal length sequences have the property that for an n-stage linear feedback shift
register, the sequence repetition period in clock pulses p is given by
p = 2n - 1
 PN Sequence

Ø PN Autocorrelation Function

▪ The autocorrelation function Rx (t ) of a periodic waveform x(t ), with period T0 , is shown

below in normalized form

T /2
1æ1ö 0
Rx (t ) = ç ÷ ò x(t ) x(t + t )dt for - ¥ < t < ¥
K è T0 ø -T0 /2

where T /2
1 0 2
K= x (t )dt
T0 T0ò/2
PN Sequence: Autocorrelation and Power Spectrum

18
 PN Sequence

▪ For a PN waveform of unit chip duration and period p chips, the normalized
autocorrelation function may be expressed as

æ number of agreements less number of disagreements ö

1 ç
Rx (t ) = × ç in a comparison of one full period of the sequence ÷÷
p ç ÷
è with t position cyclic shift of the sequence ø

▪ It is clear that for t = 0, that is, when x(t ) and its replica are perfectly matched, Rx (t ) = 1

▪ However, for any cyclic shift between x(t ) and x(t + t ) with ( 1 £ t < p ), the correlation
function is equal to -1/ p
 PN Sequence

v PN Code Example

< Linear feedback shift register example >

▪ At each clock pulse the contents of each storage in the register is shifted one stage to the
right

▪ Also, at each clock pulse the content of stages X 3 and X 4 are modulo-2 added, and the
result is fed back to stage X 1

▪ The shift register sequence is defined to be the output of the last stage ( X 4 )
 PN Sequence

▪ Assume that the initial state of the register is 1 0 0 0

▪ From the above figure, we can see that the succession of register state will be as follows :

– 1000 0100 0010 1001 1100 0110 1011 0101 1010 1101 1110 1111 0111 0011
0001 1000

▪ The output sequence is obtained by noting the contents of stage at

X 4each clock pulse

– 000100110101111

▪ Test sequence (above example) for the randomness properties

– Balance property ; there are seven zeros and eight ones in the sequence

– Run property ; consider the zero runs – there are four of them. One-half are of length
1, and one-fourth are of length 2. The same is true for the one runs.

– Correlation property : The output sequence, as well as the same sequence with a single
end-around shift, is as follows :
 PN Sequence
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
---------------------------------------------
d a a d d a d a d d d d a a a
( The digits that agree are labeled ‘a’ and those that disagree are labeled ‘d’ )

▪ Following Equation (4), the value of the autocorrelation function for this single one-chip
shift is seen to be

1 1
R (t = 1) = (7 - 8) = -
15 15

▪ Any cyclic shift yielding a mismatch from perfect synchronization results in the same
autocorrelation value, -1/p
 PN Sequence
v PN Sequence for the Cellular Communication (IS-95A CDMA)

Ø Short PN sequence

▪ Code Length : 15 bits

▪ Chip Length : 32,768 chips

▪ Period : 32,768/1,228,800=26.667 ms, 64 chips per bit (Processing gain = 64)

▪ Generating Functions

g I ( x) = x15 + x13 + x 9 + x8 + x 7 + x 5 + 1
gQ ( x) = x15 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x 6 + x 5 + x 4 + x 3 + 1

▪ Offset between the base stations : delay of 64chips of short code offset (PN offset)

▪ The maximum number of base station PN offset : 32768/64 = 512

 Comparison of Spread Spectrum Method
v DS-SS with High Power Jammer

Ø DS-SS modulated/demodulated signal : For high power jammer, interference level

could be too high even after jammer despreading

Special Special
Density Density

High Power Interference

(microwave oven)

Signal
Interference

Signal

Frequency Frequency

before de-spreading after de-spreading

 Comparison of Spread Spectrum Method
v FH-SS with Power Jammer

Ø FH-SS modulated signal: Even with high power jammer, only selected signal is
jammed with no harm to most signal frequencies; the effect is statistical. In general,
FH is robust to narrow band high power jammer
Special
Density

High Power Interference

(microwave oven)

Signal

Frequency
Hop Freq. #1 Hop Freq. #2 Hop Freq. #3 Hop Freq. #4

Ø Result: in this case, only hop freq. #2 is interrupted, and data in Hop Freq. #1 is transmitted
with no damage
 CDMA
v CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

User 1

d1 (t ) s1 (t )
User 1
w1 (t )
r (t )
w1 (t )
d 2 (t ) s2 (t ) User 2
User 2 å

w2 (t ) w2 (t )

d N (t ) sN (t )
User N
User N

wN (t )
wN (t )

Ø CDMA: a Multiple Access technique in which several users share the same
bandwidth but each with different codes (in the code family) by using spread
spectrum, i.e., each user information is divided by PN codes.

▪ In cellular CDMA, the same frequency is used in all cells, and the system is interference-
limited compared to other techniques (FDMA or TDMA).
 Comparison of CDMA with other Multiple Access
Methods

v Comparison of CDMA with other Multiple Access Methods

Ø Orthogonal Multiple Access
▪ FDMA

▪ TDMA

▪ OFDMA

Ø Non-orthogonal Multiple Access

▪ CDMA

▪ (Others)

Ø Comparison: In Orthogonal Multiple Access schemes, channels are mutually exclusive so that
there is no interference between channels. But the number of channels are fixed (channel
capacity is hard-limited). In non-orthogonal Multiple Access schemes, channels are mutually
non-exclusive so that there is some interference between channels. But the number of channels
are not fixed (soft-limited).
 CDMA

In the above figure

r (t ) = s1 (t ) + s2 (t ) + ...... + sN (t ) ( r : received signal , sN : transmitted signal )

where

s1 (t ) = A1d1 (t ) w1 (t )

s2 (t ) = A2 d 2 (t ) w2 (t ) ( AN : signal power , d N : data in formation, wN : PN codes )

sN (t ) = AN d N (t ) wN (t )

And assuming that each signal has the same received power A1 = A2 = ....... = AN
In User 1 case
Multiple access interference term

r (t ) w1 (t ) = A1d1 (t ) w12 (t ) + A2 d 2 (t ) w2 (t ) w1 (t ) + ....... + AN d N (t ) wN (t ) w1 (t )

The first term in right hand side is the desired signal and other terms are multiple access interference
 CDMA
< Example : 2 user case>
s1

Despreading (User 1)
s2 ss22
s1 s1

f (a) f

s1

Despreading (User 1) s2
s2
s1 s1

f f
(b)
Ø Figure (a) is the case when the received power of user 1 and user 2 is same and figure
(b) is the case when the transmitted power for user 2 is larger than user 1

▪ User 2 is interference for user 1.

▪ As shown in Fig. (b), as transmit power for user 2 increases, interference power for user 1
also increases.

Ø Therefore, power control is required for CDMA to minimize MAI (Multiple Access
Interference)
 Power Control of CDMA

v Multiple access interference (1)

Ø Received signal of the K th base station in a cell, J th user is

rJ ( K ) = d J ( K ) ( t ) PJ ( K ) (t ) + w

where, d J ( K ) ( t ) is information signal, PJ ( K ) (t ) is PN sequence, w is AWGN

Ø If there are K 0 cells and J 0 users, received signal rj ( k ) of k th base station in a cell, j th
user for a mobile can be expressed as
K0 J0
rj ( k ) = åå rJ ( K ) (t ) × Pj ( k )* (t )
K =1 J =1 < Interference signals >

J0 K0 J0 K0 J0
*
= d j ( k ) ( t ) Pj ( k ) (t ) × Pj ( k ) (t ) + åd J (K ) ( t ) PJ ( K ) (t ) × Pj ( k ) (t ) + å å d J ( K ) ( t ) PJ ( K ) (t ) × Pj ( k ) (t ) + åå w × Pj ( k )* (t )
* *

J =1 K =1 J =1 K =1 J =1
K ¹k

Desired signal Other user signals in a same cell Other user signals in other cells AWGN
 Power Control of CDMA
v Multiple access interference (2)

Ø Near-far problem

▪ In reverse link, for example, if we assume equal transmitted power from all mobiles, then
mobiles that are close to base station will cause higher level of interference to base station than
mobiles that are far away from base station.

< Near-far problem >

 Power Control of CDMA
v Why power control

Ø Power control is required for CDMA

because CDMA is interference-limited
system

▪ Its system capacity is dependent on MAI

caused by cross-correlation between the
desired user and other users because all
users hold the same bandwidth in common.

v Purpose of power control

Ø Control of transmit power of mobiles such

that optimum transmit power is assigned
for each terminal – equal received power
for all user signals < After power control>

▪ Near-far problem can be avoided

 Power Control of CDMA
v Concept of power control
maintain received power
P1 and P2 are equal

tramsmit power control

commands to each terminal

Ø Estimate transmit signal power based on received signal and control transmit power

▪ SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio) measurement is widely used to estimate transmit signal power

Ø Forward link power control

▪ Controls the forward link power through the reverse link

▪ Not dynamically controlled; determines the cell boundary or cell size

Ø Reverse link power control

▪ Control the reverse link power through the forward link

▪ Generally more important than the forward link power control

 J/S Ratio and Anti-Jam Margin
Ø With jamming, the SNR of interest is changed to

Eb / N 0 ® Eb /( N 0 + J 0 ) where J 0 = Jammer power spectral density in spread bandwidth = J / Wss

Since J 0 ? N 0 in general, we can simplify the SNR of interest as Eb / J 0

Ø It can be shown that

æ Eb ö æ S/R ö Wss / R Gp
ç ÷ =ç ÷ = =
è J 0 ø reqd è J / Wss ø reqd ( J / S )reqd ( J / S ) req
We can let

æJö Gp
ç ÷ =
è S ø reqd ( Eb / J 0 ) reqd

▪ ( J / S ) reqd is a figure of merit that provides a measure of how invulnerable a system is to

interference

▪ The larger the ( J / S ) reqd the greater is the system’s noise rejection capability, since this figure of
merit describes how much noise power relative to signal power is required in order to degrade
the system’s specified error performance
 J/S Ratio and Anti-Jam Margin
Ø The adversary may employ pulse, tone or partial-band jamming rather than wide-band
noise jamming or choose a jamming strategy that force the effective ( Eb / J 0 ) reqd as large as
possible to force the communicator to employ a larger processing gain to increase ( J / S ) reqd

Ø On the other hand, the system designer (communicator) tries to choose a signaling
waveform such that the jammer can gain no special advantage by using a jamming
strategy other than wideband Gaussian noise

Ø Anti-Jam Margin : The safety margin against a particular jamming threat

æE ö æE ö æE ö Gp
M AJ (dB ) = ç b ÷ (dB ) - ç b ÷ (dB ) where ç b ÷ =
è J 0 ø recd è J 0 ø reqd è J 0 ø recd ( J / S ) recd

Ø Finally, anti-jam margin can be derived as

Gp Gp
M AJ (dB ) = - (dB )
( J / S ) recd ( J / S ) reqd
æJö æJö
= ç ÷ (dB ) - ç ÷ (dB )
è S ø reqd è S ø recd
 CDMA performance in terms of Interference rejection

Ø Multi-user interference in CDMA can be considered as Interference (or Jamming)

problem; Other users are considered as Interfererers

Ø Note: Anti Jamming Margin in the previous page contradicts the Textbook Formula

Ø (Example)

ØInter-cell interference: limits the number of reverse channels

ØIntra-cell interference: limits the capacity of CDMA cell and system

 JAMMING CONSIDERATIONS
- The Jamming Game
v The Jamming Game

Ø Goal of Jammer

▪ To deny reliable communications to his adversary and to accomplish this at minimum cost

Ø Goal of Communicator

▪ To develop a jam-resistant communication system under the following assumptions

(1) Complete invulnerability is not possible

(2) The jammer has a priori knowledge of most system parameters such as frequency band,
timing, traffic, and so on

(3) The jammer has no a priori knowledge of the PN spreading or hopping codes

Ø Fundamental design rule of jam-resistant system

▪ Make it as costly as possible for a jammer to succeed in jamming the system

 JAMMING CONSIDERATIONS
- Tools of the Communicator

Ø The design goal for an anti-jam (AJ) communication system

▪ To force a jammer to expend its resources over

(a) for a wide-frequency band

(b) for a maximum time

(c) for a diversity of sites

▪ The most prevalent design options are

(1) frequency diversity : the use of direct-sequence and/or frequency-hopping spread spectrum
techniques

(2) time diversity : the use of time hopping

(3) spatial discrimination : the use of a narrow-beam directive antenna

 Multipath Rejection

v Multipath Rejection
Ø DS-SS : Can be immune to multipath component of the received signal
▪ Multipath : due to atmosphere and geometry (reflections, refractions)

Ø Mathematical model : when multipath is delayed by τ and attenuated by α,

r (t ) = Ad (t ) g (t ) cos w0 t
+ a Ad (t - t ) g (t - t ) cos( w0 t + q ) + n(t )

▪ Assuming 0 < τ < T , the received signal is synchronously demodulated by

T
z (t = T ) = ò éë Ad (t ) g 2 (t ) cos 2 w0 t + a Ad (t )d (t - t ) g (t ) g (t - t ) cos w0 t cos( w0 t + q ) ùû
0

+ n(t ) g (t ) cos( w0 t + q )]dt

T
▪ Thus, z (t = T ) = ò
0
[ Ad (t ) + n(t ) g (t )] ; Ad (T ) + n0 (T )
and we can reject the multipath component.
 Multipath Rejection

Ø Limitation : for a very small τ, Tc must also be very small, i.e., Tc < τ, for this to be
effective è results in large bandwidth since BW ; 1 Tc

Ø FH-SS
▪ Also effective for multipath signal component but by different mechanism

▪ FH receiver can avoid multipath losses by rapid changes in the transmitter frequency band,
thus avoiding the interference by changing the receiver band position before the arrival of the
multipath signal.

▪ Generally, less effective on multipath signal than DS system, especially on small multipath
time delay τ
 Synchronization: Acquisition
Ø Direct-sequence parallel search acquisition

▪ Considers all possible code position in parallel and uses a maximum likelihood algorithm
for acquiring code (each branch is spaced ½ -chip apart)

▪ Code length is chosen as a compromise between minimizing the probability of a

synchronization error and minimizing the time to acquire
 Synchronization: Acquisition
Ø Frequency hopping (parallel) acquisition scheme

▪ Acquisition can be accomplished rapidly because all possible code offsets are examined
simultaneously
 Synchronization: Acquisition
Ø For DS-SS parallel acquisition, acquisition time can be obtained

▪ During each correlation, l chips (each chip having a duration of Tc ) are examined, the
maximum time required for a fully parallel search is

(Tacq ) max = lTc

▪ The mean acquisition time ( PD is probability of detection)

-
T acq = lTc PD + 2lTc PD (1 - PD ) + 3lTc PD (1 - PD ) 2 + ×××
lTc
=
PD

Ø For FH-SS parallel acquisition, acquisition time can be obtained

▪ The mean acquisition time ( is probability of detection)

 Synchronization: Acquisition
Ø Direct-sequence serial search acquisition

▪ A considerable reduction in complexity, size, and cost can be achieved by a serial

implementation that repeats the correlation procedure for each possible sequence shift

▪ Correlation output is compared to a preset threshold. If the output is below the threshold,
the phase of the locally generated code signal is incremented by a fraction of a chip and the
correlation is re-examined. When the threshold exceed, the PN code is assumed to have been
acquired
 Synchronization: Acquisition
Ø Frequency hopping serial search acquisition

▪ The maximum time required for fully serial DS search, assuming that the search proceeds in
half-chip increments, is (where the uncertainty region to be searched is N c )

(Tacq ) max = 2 N c lTc

 Synchronization: Acquisition
1
▪ The acquisition time of a serial DS search system can be shown, for N c ? chip
2
- (2 - PD )(1 + KPFA )
T acq = ( N c lTc )
PD

Where lTc is the search dwell time, PD is the probability of correct detection, and PFA is the
probability false alarm
 Synchronization: Tracking
Ø Delay-locked loop for tracking direct-sequence signals

▪ Before in the absence of noise and interference, the received waveform can be expressed as

r (t ) = A 2 Px(t ) g (t ) cos( w0t + f )

▪ The output of each envelope detector is given approximately by

ì æ T öü æ T ö
ED » E í g (t ) g ç t ± c + t ÷ ý = Rg çt ± c ÷ Rg : autocorrelation function of PN waveform
î è 2 øþ è 2ø
 Synchronization: Tracking

DLL feedback signal Y (t )

▪ When t is positive, the feedback signal Y (t ) instructs the VCO to increase its frequency,
thereby forcing t to decrease, and when t is negative, Y (t ) instructs the VCO to decrease,
thereby forcing t to increase

▪ When t is a suitably small number, g (t ) g (t + t ) » 1 yielding the despreading signal Z (t ),

which is then applied to the input of a conventional data demodulator
 RAKE Receiver: Wideband channel model

v Channel model for Spread Spectrum

Ø Spread BW >> coherence BW of the channel

Ø Slow fading frequency selective channel (frequency selective channel, slow fading)
(the reason for adoption of QPSK modulation in Spread spectrum)

v TDL model for DS-CDMA

Ø Td = Tc

Ø Tap Weight : Ci (tk ) = ai e jqi

( ai is Rayleigh distributed random variable)

L
Ø Received signal : r (t ) = å ai e jqi s (t - ti ) + n(t )
i =1
( phase value qi is uniformly distributed)

Ø Maximum # of multi-paths that can be considered : L = t d W + 1

(W is signal BW, t d is delay variance)

RAKE Receiver: Wideband channel model

<TDL(Tapped Delay Line) model >

 Concept of RAKE Receiver
v Concept of RAKE receiver
Ø Received signal after multipath fading channel is a sum of each path signal with
different amplitude and phase

Ø RAKE receiver is a structure to collect all (or most) multipath signal in the path

Ø Can be considered as a kind of path diversity scheme

Ø More popular with DS than FH method

< RAKE 수신기의 개념도 >

 Concept of RAKE Receiver

v Coherent-RAKE Receiver
Ø After dividing signal into each multipath component, then combine them by
multiplying complex conjugate for each component

Ø Synchronized with respect to phase component

Ø SNR increase due to synchronous RAKE

2
SNR increment (dB) = 10 log ak
åk a1

v Problem with RAKE receiver

Ø Need more H/W than single path receiver; Limit on the # of parallel receiver

Ø Performance degrades if more # of parallel receivers than the # of multipaths

Ø Exibit best performance if the power level between multipaths are similar
 Channel Estimation

v Channel estimation
Ø For effective RAKE performance, estimate tap coefficients Ci (tk ) continuously

Ø In wideband CDMA, frequency selective fading happens slowly, but estimation of

Ci (tk ) is essential anyway

v Channel estimation for CDMA

Ø Is made possible by transmitting pre-agreed (designed) PN sequence

Ø In commercial CDMA system design, Pilot Carrier scheme is usually adopted

 CDMA의 개요

v 상용 CDMA의 출현 배경 (1990년대 Qualcomm사)

Ø 이동 전화 가입자 수의 폭발적인 증가에 따른 아날로그 시스템의 한계

Ø 음성 통신 이외의 데이터와 관련된 부가적인 서비스에 대한 사용자의 요구

Ø TDMA 방식(GSM)에 대항하여 CDMA 방식(IS-95)를 cellular system 방식으로 제

안

Ø 원래 CDMA는 TDMA에 비해 사용자 용량이 열세이었으나, CDMA를 cellular 방식

에 적용함으로써 상황이 반전됨- 용량이 커짐.
 CDMA의 통신 방식 및 특징

v CDMA의 통신 방식 (IS -95)

Ø 상용 CDMA는 DS-SS (Direct Sequence Spread-Spectrum) 방식을 사용
▪ DS-SS 방식 : 확산 코드를 데이터에 직접 곱해서 확산 신호를 얻는 방식

▪ Walsh code 사용하여 채널 구분

Ø Cellular CDMA 방식의 특징

▪ 대용량 - 동일한 주파수를 여러 셀에서 사용할 수 있기 때문에 수용 용량이 아날로그
(FDMA) 방식보다 9배~10배, GSM(TDMA)보다 3~5배 큼

▪ 우수한 통화 품질 - 다중 경로 신호를 분리하여 양호한 신호 선택

- Handover 시 통화의 절단이 없는 soft handover 방식 사용

▪ 고품질의 데이터 서비스 - 모든 신호를 디지털로 처리함으로써 데이터 서비스가 용이

 CDMA의 진화

v Cellular CDMA 의 분류

Ø Cellular CDMA 은 무선 접속 표준인 서비스 방식에 따라 유럽 방식인 비동기식(W-

CDMA)과 북미 방식인 동기식 (cdma2000) 으로 구분됨

▪ 비동기식 – 위성을 거치지 않고 기지국과 중계국을 거쳐 데이터를 전송

▪ 동기식 – GPS 위성을 이용해 송신측과 수신측의 시간대를 맞춰 데이터를 전송

Ø 비동기식과 동기식의 비교
구분 비동기 방식 동기 방식
주도 지역 유럽/일본(기존 GSM 사용 지역) 북미(기존 CDMA 사용 지역)
기술 표준 단계 3GPP 3GPP2
일반적 표현 WCDMA(또는 UMTS) cdma2000
핵심망 규격 GSM-MAP(유럽 GSM망 규격) ANSI-41(미국 CDMA 망 규격)
기지국마다 상이한 GPS를 통한 기준 시간을 이용, 같은
기지국간 동기
PN code를 갖는 비동기 PN code를 사용하여 기지국간 동기
대역폭 5MHz 1.5MHz
전송 속도 최대 2Mbps 최대 2Mbps
 CDMA의 진화

v 진화 과정
2G 2.5G 3G / IMT 2000

14.4kbps 55.6kbps 171.2kbps 384kbps 14.4kbps

WCDMA
GSM HSCSD GPRS
UMTS

EDGE

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO

CDMA2000 1xEV-DV
64kbps

CDMA CDMA CDMA2000 CDMA2000

IS-95A IS-95B 1xRTT 3xRTT

Ø GSM은 중간단계를 거쳐 WCDMA로 이행 과정에 있음 → HSPA

Ø CDMA는 cdma2000 기술을 도입하고 있으며, cdma2000 1xEV-DO, cdma2000 1xEV-

DV등을 거쳐 cdma2000 3xRTT 기술로 진화할 것으로 예상됨
 References

v References
Ø Bernard Sklar, Digital Communications, 2-nd Ed., Prentice Hall, Chapter 12.

Ø Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, 4-th Ed., Wiley, Chapter 7