Professional Documents
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Rock Anchor
Rock Anchor
WIEN
THER BOOKS ON GEOTECHNICS AND FOUNDATIONS FROM E & FN SPO N
an d
.ound Improvement
ited by M . P . Mosely
)il Mechanics
F . Crai g
A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
3
Acknowledgements Contents
The preparation of this book was commenced as a Tour year research project on the design o f Pag e
sarge underground excavations carried out at Imperial College of Science and Technology betwee n
Chapter 1 : Planning consideration s
1972 and 1976 . The project was sponsored by the following companies :
Introductio n 7
Consolidated Gold Fields Ltd . , Types of underground excavation 8
Gold Fields of South Africa Ltd . , Underground excavation design 9
Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines , 1 2
Bibliography on underground excavation s
Roan Consolidated Mines , 1 3
Chapter 1 reference s
Selection Trust Ltd . ,
Introductio n 87
Components of stres s 87
Two dimensional state of stres s 90
In situ state of stres s 93
Stress distributions around single excavation s 10 1
Stresses around a circular excavatio n 10 3
Calculation of stresses around other excavation shape s 108
Stresses around multiple excavation s 11 2
Three-dimensional pillar stress problems 12 2
4 5
Pag e Page
Stress shadow s 12 4 Chapter 9 : Rockbolts, shotcrete and mes h
Influence of inclination upon pillar stresse s 12 5
Influence of gravit y 12 5 Introductio n 32 9
Chapter 5 reference s 12 7 Organization of a rockbolting programm e 32 9
Review of typical rockbolt system s
33 2
Thapter 6 : Strength of rock and rock masse s Rockbott installatio n 34 2
Wire mes h 35 1
Introductio n 13 1 Shotcret e
35 3
Brittle and ductile behaviou r 13 3 Mix desig n
35 5
Laboratory testing of intact rock sample s 13 4 Engineering properties of shotcret e 360
An empirical failure criterion for roc k 13 7 Placement of shotcret e 360
Survey of triaxial test data on intact rock s pecimens 14 0 Fibre reinforced shotcret e 363
Simplifying assumptions 15 0 Chapter 9 reference s
36 5
Anisotropic rock strengt h 15 7
Strength of rock with multiple discontinuitie s 16 3 Chapter 10 : Blasting in underground excavation s
Strength of heavily jointed rock masse s 16 6
Use of rock mass classifica tions for rock strength predictio n 17 1 Introductio n 36 7
Deformability of rock masses 17 3 Basic nechanics of explosive rock breakin g 36 7
Approximate equations defining the strength of intact rock and heavil y 17 5 Creation of a free fac e
36 8
jointed rock masse s Rock damag e 37 0
Chapter 6 reference s 17 8 Smooth blasting and presplittin g 37 2
Design of blasting pattern s 37 7
Thopter 7: Underground excavation failure mechanisms Damage to adjacent underground excavation s 37 8
Conclusion s
38 0
Introductio n 18 3 Chapter 10 reference s 38 1
Structurally controlled instabilit y 18 3
Computer analysis of structurally controlled instabilit y 19 1 Chapter 11 : Instrumentatio n
O p timum orientation and shape of excavations in jointed roc k 19 4
Influence of excavation size upon structurally controlled instabilit y 19 7 Introdcc tio n
38 2
Influence of in situ stress on structurally controlled instabilit y 19 9 Objectives of underground instrumentatio n
38 2
Pillar failur e 200 Common inadequacies in instrumentation programme s
38 2
Fracture propagation in rock surrounding a circular tunne l 21 1 Instrumentation for the collection of design dat a
38 4
Sidewall failure in square tunnel s 21 7 Monitoring of under g round excavations during constructio n
38 9
Influence of excavation shape and in situ stress rati o 22 1 Monitoring of underground excavations after constructio n 39 3
An example of excavation shape optimisatio n 22 3 Monitoring of trial excavation s 39 3
Excavation shape changes to im p rove stabilit y 230 Conclusio n
39 4
Influence of a fault on excavation stabilit y 23 2 Chapter II reference s
39 5
Buckling of slabs parallel to excavation boundarie s 234
Excavations in horizontally bedded roc k 23 5 Appendix l : Bibliography on large underground excavation s
Stiffness, energy and stability 23 6 39 7
Chapter 7 reference s 24 1
Appendix 2: Isometric drawing chart s
44 9
rapter 8: Underground excavation support design
Appendix 3: Stresses around single opening s 46 7
Introductio n 24 4 Appendix 4: Two-dimensional boundary element stress analysi s
Support of wedges or blocks which are free to fal l 24 6 49 3
Support of wedges or blocks which are free to slid e 24 7
248 Appendix 5: Determination of material constant s
Rock-support interaction analysi s 51 3
Summary of rock-support interaction equation s 25 8 Appendix 6: Underground wedge analysi s
Examples of rock-support interaction analysi s 27 0 51 7
Discussion on rock-support interaction analysi s 28 5
Ap pendix 7: Conversion factor s
Use of rock mass classifications for estimating suppor t 28 6 52 3
Comparison of underground excavation support prediction s 29 8
Index
Pre-reinforcement of rock masse s 31 2 525
Su g g estions for estimating support requirement s 31 9
Additional readin g 32 1
Cha p ter 8 references 325
7
Introductio n
Types of underground excavatio n mining excavations is large and the support costs constitut e
a significant proportion of mining costs, the industry ha s
From the geotechnical engineer's point of view, the mos t tended to establish central research and development organ-
meaningful classification of underground excav a1tions is on e isations which have the task of evolving general desig n
which is related to the degree of stability or 'securit y methods which can be used throughout the industry . Th e
which is required of the rock surrounding the excavation . appropriate divisions of the United States Bureau of Mines ,
This, in turn, is dependent upon the use for which th e the South African Chamber of Mines and the German Steinkoh l -
excavation is intended . Barton, Lien and Lunde l ' sugges t enbergbauverein are typical of this type of organisation .
the following categories of underground excavations :
Underground excavation desig n
A Temporary mine openings .
Given the task of designing an underground excavation or a
B Vertical shafts .
number of such excavations, where does one Start and wha t
C Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydro- steps are involved in carrying the design through to comple -
electric projects (excluding high-Pressure penstocks) , tion 1 A guide to the most important steps in this proces s
pilot tunnels, drifts and headings- for large excava - is set out in the form of a chart on page 10 and the overal l
tions . design philosophy is reviewed hereunder . Detailed discussio n
of each of the steps is given in subsequent chapters .
D Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor roa d
and railway tunnels, surge chambers and acces s
The basic aim of any underground excavation design shoul d
tunnels in hydro-electric projects .
be to utilise the rock itself as the principal structura l
E Underground power station caverns, major road an d material, creating as little disturbance as possible durin g
railway tunnels, civil defence chambers, tunne l the excavation process and adding as little as possible i n
portals and intersections . the way of concrete or steel support . In their intac t
F state and when subjected to compressive stresses, most har d
Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations ,
rocks are far stronger than concrete and many are of th e
sports and public facilities, underground factories .
saure order of strength as steel . Consequently, it does no t
make economic sense to replace a material which may b e
Whereas, in rock slope design the stability of the slope i s
perfectly adequate with one which may be no better .
expressed quantitatively in terms of the factor of safet y 2 ,
it will become clear in later chapters of this book [hat i t
The extent to which this design aim can be met depends upo n
is not practical to assign an equivalent quantitative stabil-
the geological conditions which exist on site and the exten t
ity Index to underground excavations . lt will be evident ,
however, that the stability requirements increase fro m to which the designer is aware of these conditions and ca n
category A to category Fas one progresses through the lis t take them into account . Hence, an accurate interpretatio n
of the geology is an essential prerequisite to a rationa l
given above . For a constant set of geological conditions ,
design .
the tost of support (including geological investigations ,
support design and installation) will be related to th e
lt is not intended, in this book, to deal with the basi c
excavation category in the manner illustrated diagrammatic-
geological interpretation required in this first stage o f
ally in the Sketch opposite .
the design process . This subject matter has been covere d
comprehensively in text books such as that by Krynine an d
In the case of large projects in the E and F categories ,
Judd 3 and it will be assumed that the reader is familia r
there is usually justification for building up a team o f
with this material or [hat he has access to sound geologica l
specialist engineers and geologists to study the wide rang e
advice . The importance of this general geological backgroun d
B C D - of geotechnical and construction problems which are likel y
to be encountered on sitz . An examole of such a project i s in summed up in the following quotation, taken from a pape r
Support eatenory the development of the hydro-electric potential of the Snow y by Wahlstrom"
Mountains region of Australia . During the Tate 1950s an d "Surface studies of geology, geophysical measurements, an d
early 1960s, the team which had been set up to assist i n exploratory drilling yield useful direct information ,
the design of the various underground power-houses involve d but equally important to the geologist may be a knowledg e
in this scheme made major contributions to the genera l of the regional geology and the geologic history of th e
advancement of underground excavation design techniques . area, and a thorough appreciation of the manner in whic h
Many of the design methods described in this book can b e rocks respond to changing geological environments . Suc h
traced back to the activities of such teams . considerations permit him to make a very useful semi -
quantitative estimate of the kinds, but not the exac t
The mining industry, which is normally concerned wit h locations, of the geological Features which will b e
excavations in the A and B categories, cannot justify a encountered at depth . "
high level of investigation and design effort on any on e
particular site . On the other hand, since the number o f Although basic geological principles are not covered, i t
is considered necessary to discuss some of the site inves-
tigation methods which are available for the collection o f
Superscripts refer to the list of references given at th e geological information . The graphical presentation of thes e
end of each chapter . data is also an important part in the communication chain
10 1 1
In hard rock masses with strongly develope d When stability is not likely to be dominate d
inclined structural Features, excavatio n by sliding on structural Features, othe r in a later chapter .
stability may be dominated by gravity fall s factors such as high stress and weatherin g
and sliding along inclined discontinuities . become important and can be evaluâted by mean s The need to make quantitative predictions on the number ,
Rock classification systems inadequate . of a classification of rock quality . inclination and orientation of geological features and o f
the possible mechanical properties of the rock mass contai n -
ing these features has lang been a requirement of geotech-
Use of rock quality index to compare exca- nical engineers . At the risk of offending the geologica l
vation stability and sup port requirement s purists who claim that geology cannot be quantified in th e
with documented evidente from sites wit h
similar geological conditions .
C way demanded by engineers, some geotechnologists have gon e
ahead and developed rock mass assessment systems whic h
have proved to be very useful in the early stages of under-
Are stability problems anticipated fo r ground excavation design . When it is necessary to desig n
excavations of size and shape under con- a large number of A and B category excavations for a minin g
sideration ? or unde r g round quarrying operation, the use of some form o f
Design of excavations based o n rock quality index to determine the support requirement s
YE S NO operational consideration s may be the only design approach which is practically an d
with provision for minima l economically acceptable . In recognition of this importan t
Support . role, rock mass classification systems have been fully re -
viewed and an entire chapter is devoted to their use i n
underground excavation engineering .
flow can occur in almost any rock nass but it woul d 1. BARTON .N ., LIEN,R .and LUNDE,J . Engineering classificatio
n
normally only reach serious proportions if associate d of rock masses for the design of tunnel support . Roc k
with one of the other forms of instability alread y Mechanics, Volume 6, No . 4, 1974, pages 189-236 .
listed . Redirection of water flow by grouting an d Originally published as Analysis of rock mass quality an d
reduction of water pressure by drainagejare usuall y support practice in tunnelling . Norwegian Geoteehnical Inst .
the most effective remedial measures . Report Mo . 54206, June 1974, 74 pages .
On a typical site, two or more of these forms of instabilit y 2. HOEK,E .and BRAY,J .W . Rock Slope Engineerin g . Institutio n
would occur simultaneously and it may sometimes be difficul t of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 2nd edition, 1977, 402 pages .
to decide upon a rational design method . Indeed, in some
cases, the Optimum design to allow for one form of instabi - 3. KRYNINE,D .P. and JUDD,W .R . Principles of Engineering Geology
lity may be unsuitable in terms of another and the enginee r and Geoieehnics . Mc Craw-Hill Book Co . Inc ., New York ,
is then faced with ehe task of arriving et some practica l 1957, 730 pages .
conpromise .
4. WAHLSTROM,E .E . The validity of geological projection : a
lt is appropriate, at this point, to emhasize the rote o f case history . Economic Geology, Volume 59, 1964, page s
engineering judgement . A rock mass is è complex assemolag e 465-474 .
of different materials and it is very unlikely that it s
behaviour will approach the behaviour of the simple model s 5. HOEK,E .and LONDE,P . The design of rock slopes and founda-
which engineers and geologists have to construct in order t o tions . General Report on These 111 . Proceedings,Third
understand some of the processes which take place whe n Congress of the International Society for Rock Mechanics ,
rock is subjected to load . These models, many of whic h Denver, September 1974, Volume 1, part A, pages 613-752 .
are described in this book, should only be used as an ai d
in the design of underground excavations and the assumption s
upon which the models are based and the limitations of th e
models must be kept in mind at all times . A good engineerin g
design is a balanced design in which all the factors whic h
interact, even those which tonnot be quantified are take n
into account . To quote from a recent review paper 5 : "Th e
responsibility of the design engineer is not to comput e
accurately but to judge soundly" .
Introductio n
the importance of the geolo g ical survey which should be
carried out before a tunnel design is completed and, part -
An underground excavation is an extremely complex structur e
icularly the importance of obtaining information on th e
and the only theoretical tools which the designer has avail-
defects in the rock mass . To quote from his paper :
able to assist him in his task are a number of grossly sim-
From an engineering point of view, a knowledge of th e
plified models of some of the processes whichlinteract t o
type and intensity of the rock defects may be muc h
control the stability of the excavation . These models ca n
more important than the type of rock which will b e
generally only be used to analyse the influence of one part-
encountered . Therefore during the survey rock defect s
icular process at a time, for example, the influence o f
should receive special consideration . The geologica l
structural discontinuities or of high rock stress upon th e
report should contain a detailed description of th e
excavation . lt is seldom possible theoretically to deter -
observed defects in geolo g ical terms . lt should als o
mine the interaction of these processes and the designer i s
contain a tentative classification of the defectiv e
faced with the need to arrive at a number of design decision s
in which his engineering judgement and practical experienc e rock in the tunnel man's terms, such as blocky an d
seamy, squeezing or swelling rock .
must play an important part .
movement will be resisted by friction forces along th e 9 . Swelling rock . Up to 250 feet, irres - Circular ribs are required . I n
lateral boundaries a c and b d and these friction force s pective of the value o f extreme cases use yielding support .
transfer the major Rortion of the overburden weight k' 1 ont o (B + H t )
the material on either side of the tunnel . The roof an d
sides of the tunnel are required only to support the balanc e
which is equivalent to a height H p . The width 8 1 of th e
zone of rock in which movement occurs will depend upon th e he roof of the tunnel is assumed to be locatea below tne Later Labte . if it i s
_T
characteristics of the rock mass and upon the tunnel dim-
Zocated permanently above the water table, the values given . for typen s to ô ca n
ensions H t and B .
be reduced by fifty percent .
Terzaghi carried out numerous mode] tests using cohesionles s -•* Some of the most common rock formations contain Zayers of shaZe .
sand to study the shape of what he termed the "ground arch " In an unveathere d
state, real .shales are no tarse than other stratified rocks
above the tunnel . On the basis of these tests and on hi s . However, the term shaZ e
is offen applied to firm"cy compacted cZay sediments which have not
experience in steel-supported tunnels, he proposed th e yet acquired th e
properties of kack . Such so-caZled shaZe
range of rock Load values listed in Table 1 . The footnote s may behaue in a tunnel like squeezing or
even swelling rock .
which accompanied this table in the original paper ar e
included for completeness . If a rock formation consists of a segnende of horizontal Zayers
of sandstone or lime-
stone and of imnature shaZe, the excavation of the tunnel is
Cording and Deer e 24 report that these criteria haue been commonly associated wit h
a gradual compression of the rock on both sides of the tunnel, involving a do'nuur d
widely used for the Aast 25 years and [hat they have bee n movement of the roof . Furthermore, the relativeZy low resistance against slippag e
found to be appropriate, although slightly conservative , at the boundaries between the so-caZled shaZe and the rock is likeZy to reduce
for steel-supported rock tunnels . However, Cecil - B found very
considerably the capacity of the rock located above the roof to bridge . Hence, i n
that Terzaghi's classification was too general to permi t sch formations, the roof pressure may be as heavy as in very blocky and seamy rock .
an objective evaluation of rock quality and that it provide s
no quantitative information on the properties of the roc k
mass . He recommended that its use be limited to estimatin g
rock loads for steel arch-supported tunnels .
19
The RQD support criteria system has limitations i n ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION - RQD`:
areas where the joints contain thin clay fillings o r
weathered material . Such a case might occur in nea r
surface rock where weathering or seepage has produce d
clay which reduces the frictional resistance alon g
joint boundaries . This would result in unstable roc k 0
although the joints may be widely spaced and the RQ D
high . "
2 .Clean discontinuities, i .e ., without fillings or coat- Inactive clay Slaking and sloughing Squeeze on Supports of linin g
ings . Many of the rough joints or partings will hav e caused by squeeze . Heav y where unprotected, slaking an d
favourable character . Close to the surface, however , squeeze under extreme sloughing due t o environmenta l
conditions . changes .
it is imperative not to confuse clean discontinuitie s
wich " empty " discontinuities whe*@ filling mate r ia l
Chlorire, talc, Ravelling . Heavy loads may develo p due t o
has been leached and washed away doe to surface weather-
ing . graphite or low strength, in particular whe n
Serpentine . wer .
3 .Calcite fillings may, particularly when they are porou s
or flaky, dissolve during the li`etime of the under - Crushed rock Ravelling or running . Loosening loads o n lining, runnin g
g round opening . Their contribution to the strengt h Fragments of Stand-up time may be and ravelling if unconfined .
of the rock mass will then, of course, disappear . Thi s sand-like gon g e . extremely short .
is a Jong term stability (and sometimes fluid flow )
problem which can easily be overlooked during deslg n Porous or flaky Favourable conditions . May dissolve, I•eading to instabil -
and construction . Gypsum fillings may behave the Sam e calcite, gypsum . ity of rock mass .
way .
CSWP, classification of jointed rock masse s In order to satisfy these requirements, Bieniawski originall y
proposed that his "Geomechanics classification" shoul d
From the preceding discussion it will have become clea- tha t incorporate the following parameters :
no single simple index is adequate as an indicator of th e
complex behaviour of the rock mass surrounding an under g roun d 1. Rock Quality Desi g nation (RQD) ,
excavation . Consequently, some combination of factors suc h 2. State of weathering ,
as RQD and the influence of clay filling and weatherin g Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock ,
3.
appears to be necessary . One such classification system ha s 4. Spacing of joints and bedding ,
been proposed by Bieniawski 2 ' 26 of the South African Council 5. Strike and dip orientations ,
25
24
1. Strength of intact rock materia l Description Spacing of joints Rock mass grading
Bieniawski uses the classification of the uniaxia l
compressive strength of intact rock proposed by Deere > 3m 10f t Soli d
Very wid e >
and Miller 10 and reproduced in Table 3 . Alternate-
tively, for all but very low strength rocks the poin t - Wide l m t o 3m 3f t to 10f t Massive
load indem (determined as described on page 52 of thi s
Moderatel y close 0 .3 m t o lm lft to 3f t Blocky/seamy
book) may be used as a measure of intact rock materia l
strength . Clos e 50mm to 300mm 2in to lf t Fracture d
3. Spacing of joint s
In this context, the term joint is used to mean al l
discontinuities which may be joints, faults, beddin g
planes and other surfaces of weakness . Once again .
Bieniawski uses a classification proposed by Deer e l 3
and reproduced here in Table 4 .
4. Condition of joints
This parameter accounts for the separation or apertur e
of joints, their continuity, the surface roughness,th e
wall condition (hard or soft), and the presence of in-
filling materials in the joints .
TABLE 6 - THE EFFECT OF JOINT STRIKE AND DIP Figure 6 g ives the stand-up time of an unsupported 3 meir e
tunnel in this rock mass es approximately 1 month .
Strike perpendiculor ,_ tunnel azis
Strike parallel Di p NG : Tunnelling Quality Inde x
Drive with dip to tunnel ozi s 0°-20°
Drive against dip
espech , On the basis of an evaluation of a 'arge number of cas e
r of sinke histories of underground excavation stability, Barton, Lie n
Dip 45'-90° Dip 20°-45° Dip 45'-90° Dip 20°-45' Dip 45°-90' Dis 20°-45 ° and Lunde > of the Norwe g ian Geotechnical Institute (NG' )
proposed an index for the determination of the tunnel 1in g
Very fovourable Favourable Fair Unfavoureble auality of a rock mass . The numerical value of this index Q
Very unfavourable Fair Unfovouroble is defined by :
1
cause softening and possible outwash in the case o f
clay-filled joints . lt has proved impossible to combin e
these two parameters in terms of inter-block effective
wher e normal stress, because paradoxically a high value o f
RQD is Deere's Rock Quality Designation as defined on effective normal stress may sometimes signify les s
page 18 , stable conditions than a low value, despite the highe r
shear strength . The quotient (JW /SRF) is a complicate d
Jn is the joint set number , empirical factor describing the "active Stresses" .
J r is the joint roughness number , lt appears that the rock tunnelling quality Q can no w
Ja is the joint alteration number , be considered as a function of only three parameter s
which are crude measures o f
J, is the joint water reduction factor, an d
1. block size (P,QD/J n )
SRF is a stress reduction factor . 2. inter-block shear strength (J r /J a )
3. active stress (J w /SRF )
The definition of these terms is largejy self-explanatory ,
particularly when the numerical valu e: of each is determine d Undoubtedly, there are several other parameters whic h
from Table 7 . could be added to improve the accuracy of the classifi-
cation system . One of these would be joint orientation .
In explaining how they arrived at the equation used t o Although many case records include the necessary infor-
determine the Index Q, Barton, Lien and Lunde offer th e mation on structural orientation in relation to excava-
following comments : tion axis, it was not found to be the important genera l
parameter that might be expected . Part of the reaso n
The First quotient (RQD/J,), representing the structur e for this may be that the orientations of many types o f
of the rock mass, is a crude measure of the block o r excavation can be, and normally are, adjusted to avoi d
particle size, with the two extreme values (100/0 .5 and the maximum effect of unfavourably oriented major joints .
10/20) differing by a factor of 400 . If the quotien t However, this choice is not available in the case o f
is interpreted in units of centimetres, the extrem e tunnels, and more than half the case records were i n
"particle sizes" of 200 to 0 .5 cms are seen to be crud e this category . The parameters Jn, Jr and J a appear to
but fairly realistic approximations . Probably the larges t play a more important general role than orientation ,
blocks should be several times this size and the smalles t because the number of joint sets determines the degre e
Fragments less than half the size . ( Clay particles ar e of freedom for block movement (if any), and the fric-
of course excluded ) . tional and dilational characteristics can vary mor e
than the down-dip gravitational component of unfavourabl y
The second quotient (J r /J a ) represents the roughnes s
orientated joints . If joint orientation had 'been include d
and frictional characteristics of the joint walls o r
the classification would have been less general, and it s
filling materials . This quotient is weighted in favou r
essential simplicity lost . "
of rough, unaltered joints in direct contact . l t is t o
be expected that such surfaces will be close to pea k
The large amount of information contained in Table 7 ma y
strength, [hat they will tend to dilate strongly whe n
lead the reader to suspect that the NGI Tunnelling Quality
sheared, and [hat they will therefore be especiall y
Index is unnecessarily complex and that it would be difficul t
favourable to tunnel stability .
to use in the analysis of practical problems . This is fa r
When rock joints have [hin clay mineral coatings an d
fillings, the strength is reduced significantly . Never- from the case and an attempt to determine the value of Q
theless, rock wall contact after small shear displace - for a typical rock mass will soon convince the reluctan t
ments have occurred may be a very important factor fo r user that the instructions are simple and unambiguous an d
preserving the excavation from ultimate failure . [hat, with familiarity, Table 7 becomes very easy to use .
Where no rock wall contact exists, the conditions ar e Even before the value of Q is calculated, the process o f
extremely unfavourable to tunnel stability . The "fric- determining the various factors required for its computatio n
tion angles" given in Table 7 are a little below th e concentrates the attention of the user onto a number o f
important practical questions which can easily be ignore d
residual strength values for niest clays, and are pos-
during a site investigation . The qualitative "feel" for th e
sibly downgraded by the fact that these clay bands o r
rock mass which is acquired during this process may be
fillings may tend to consolidate during shear, at leas t
almost as important as the numerical value of Q which i s
if normally consol idated or if softening and swellin g
has occurred . The swelling pressure of montmorillonit e subsequently calculated .
may also be a factor here .
The third quotient (J w/SRF) consists of two stres s In order to relate their Tunnelling Quality Index Q to th e
parameters . SRF is a measure of : 1 . loosening load i n behaviour and support requirements of an underground ex-
the case of an excavation through shear zones and cla y cavation, Barton, Lien and Lunde defined an additiona l
bearing rock, 2 . rock stress in competent rock and 3 . quantity which they cal] the acuivalent dimension De of the
squeezing loads in plastic incompetent rocks . lt ca n excavation . This dimension is obtained by dividing th e
be regarded as a total stress parameter . The paramete r span, diameter or wall height of the excavation by a
J,., is a measure of water pressure, which has an advers e quantity called the excavation support ratio BSR .
effect on the shear strength of joints due to a reduc -
tion in effective normal stress . Watet may, in addition,
30
31
TABLE 7 - CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL PARAMETERS USED IN THE NGI TUNNELLING QUALITY INDE X
TABLE 7 CONTINUE D
become the weakest link, and the stability will then depend on the ratio rock-stress /
rock-strength . A strongly anisotropic stress field is unfavourable for stability and i s
roughly accounted for as in note 2 in the table for stress reduction factor evaiuation .
5. The compressive and tensile strengths (cc and a t ) of the intact rock should be evaluate d
in the saturated conéition if this is appropriate to present or future in situ conditions .
A very conservative estimate of strength should be made for those rocks that deteriorat e
when exposed to moist or saturated conditions .
Chapter 2 references
6. TERZAGHI,K . Rock defects and loads on tunnel supports . 22 . BREKKE, T .L .and HOWARD, T . Stability problems caused b y
In : Rock TunneZling with Steel Sup p orts . Editors R .V .Procto r seams and faults . Proc . First Narr-1z American Ra pid Excava-
and T .White . Published by Commercial Shearing and Stampin g tion and Tunnelling Conference, AIME, New York, -1972 ,
Co ., Youngstown, 1946, pages 15-99 . pages 25-41 .
Also Harvard University, Graduate School of Engineering ,
Publication 418 - Soll Mechanics Series 25 A
23- MERRITT, A .H . Geologic prediction for underground excava -
tions . Proc . First North American. Rapid Excavation an d
7. STINI,l . Tunnelbaugeologie . Sprin g er-Verlag, Vienna, 1950, Tunnelling Conference, AIME, New York, 1972, pages 115-132 .
366 pages .
Introductio n
information and the staff of such departments are usuall y
very willing to help in this early but important data col-
The warst type of problem with which an underground excava-
lection process .
tion designer can be faced is the unexpected problem . With-
in the confined space of a tunnel or mine, it is both diffi-
Many parts of the world have been photographed from the -ai r
cult and dangerous to deal with stability Hr water problem s
for military or civilian purposes and good quality air photo-
which are encountered unexpectedly . On the other hand ,
graphs can provide very useful information on structura l
given sufficient warning of a potential problem, the enginee r features and on some sub-surface phenomena . Faults and othe r
can usually provide a solution by changing the location o r
major linear Features are usually fairly easy to identif y
the geometry of ehe excavation, by sup porting or reinforcin g
but a skilled photogeologist may also be able to locat e
the rock mass around the opening or by draining or divertin g
subsidence areas or caving cracks from old underground mine s
accumulations of groundwater .
or the surface reflection of solution cavities which hav e
slightly altered the total drainage, resulting in sligh t
While it is impossible to anticipate all ehe geologica l
changes in the colour or distribution of surface vegetation .
conditions which can give rise to problems during the excava-
tion of an underground opening, it is . .clearly necessary tha t
Stereoscopic examination of adjacent pairs of air photo g raph s
every reasonable effort should be made' to obtain a complet e
is useful in areas of significant topographic relief sinc e
picture of the rock mass characteristics at an early stag e
it may be possible to locate old Landslips or other surfac e
in any project . This means that sufficient resources, bot h
features which may be important in the Overall design o f
financial and manpower, and enough time must be allowed fo r the project . Contour maps of the area can also be prepare d
the geological dato collection and site investigation Phas e
from air photographs and figure 8 illustrates an inexpensiv e
of an underground excavation project . Failure to do s o
stereoviewer which can be used for the approximate measure-
will result in an inadequate basis for the design and Goul d
ment of surface elevation differences . Accurate contou r
be very costly when unexpected p roblems are encountered a t
mops can usually be prepared by specialist survey organisa-
a later stage in the project .
tions which have sophisticated equipment for elevation
measurement and, in many cases it is worth placing a contrac t
In this chapter, techniques which can be used for geologica l
for air photography and contour map preparation of a part-
data collection are reviewed in a general manner . Sinc e
icular site with such an organisation .
zach site will have its own peculiarities and since th e
site investigation equipment available Iocally may diffe r
The reader who is interested in learning more about photo-
from that described in this chapter, the reader will hav e
geology and the interpretation of air photographs is refer -
to adapt the information given to suit his own requirements .
red to the book on this subject by Miller' n .
Any, but primarily for overbur - Exploration for ore bodies, Results offen ambiguous Inter -
ELECTRICAL Measures relative electrical me di a l e .
RESIS - conductivity of rocks in ohrns den and groundwater evaluation . aquifer location, grave )
Effective depth to 3000 fee t deposits and bedrock profilos .
fIVIT Y fron 3 x 10 -3 to iü ohrns, gen -
erally 12 x 10 -1 sensitivity . depend ing upon type of sed iment s
used .
Coverage linear over short dist . and Instrument
Restricted application , Low t o
ELECTRO - Ileasures amplitude and phas e Any . Effective depth surficial . Aquifer location .
ambiguous results . i nter -
MAGNETI C angle of electromagnetic Field . mediate .
Neasurement in scale readings .
Point coverage .
Low ,
Any . Effective depth surficial . Prospecting for radioactive ore . Measures nur Face mini -
RADIOMETRIG Measures gamma-ray radiation - festatlons only . Often increas i n g
Can yield data on shale consti -
(SCINTILL O - 2 . 5 x 10 -0 to 5 milliroentgens/ used in boreholes . w i r b area .
tuency .
METER) hour, at up to 4000 counts/sec .
Point coverage .
Measuring depth to bedrock along Velocity calibration High, bu t
SEISMIC Measures t rave l timen of induced Sedimentary , igneous or meta -
extended 'Ines . Determination of reguired for depth der - cover s
REFRACTION energy f ron' exp losives , vibrator morphin rocks . Effective depth
S and P-wave veloci•t5es in ref - erminations . Poor fo r 'arge area .
in 1 0 -3 secon d s . Accurac y 12 x 0 - 500 Feet . Greater depth s steep dies . Uneconomi -
racting zone for derivation o f
10 -3 sec = 110 to 30 feet . require 'arge horizontal exten - cal for_small jobs .
sion of operation . rock properties . Configuratio n
Coverage is linear at any desir-
and continuity of rock surfaces .
ed horizontal spacing .
hleasures depth and continuit y Velocity calibratio n High .
' SEISMI C Neasures trave l ti m en of induced Primarily sedimentary rocks . reguired for determina -
of rock layers . Cocares discon -
REFLECTION energy fron var i ous so urces in - 3 Effective depth i 500 Feet t o tion of depth .
unlimited depth . tinuities such as Fauns . Pro -
10 -3 secon d s . A ccu rac y 12 x 10
vieles dato on stratigraphic co n -
sec . = 5 to 25 Feet, decreasin g
Bitions .
with depth . Coverage linear a t
any desired horizontal spacing .
❑
•
z
47
46
Drillin g machines
WifreZine driZZing
Phillips 4y and Ragan LS have described methods for establish- More elaborate core orientation systems involve drillin g
ing the orientation and inclination of strata from recognis- a small diameter hole at the end of the hole left by th e
able marker bands or bedding planes which are intersecte d previous drill run . A compass can be bonded into this hol e
by two or more non-parallel boreholes . These technique s for recovery in the next core run 45 or an oriented rod ca n
are familiar to most geologsits and can bb very useful i n be grouted into the hole to provide reinforcement for th e
certain circumstances . Engineering readers should consul t core as well as orientation . This latter technique, know n
PhilllP5 cO for details . as the integral sampling method, has been described b y
Rocha 50 and can be used to produce high quality oriente d
Orientation of core from a single borehole usually depend s core in very poor rock . However, it is both expensive an d
upon the use of some form of orientation device which i s time consuming and would only be used to evaluate extremel y
used during the drilling programme . The Christensem-Huge l critical areas in the rock mass .
method utilises a scribing mechanism which marks paralle l
lines on the core as it is forced into the inner barrel o f Examination of the walls of boreholes by means of cameras 5 1
the dri11 49 . The Atlas Copco-Craelius core orientatio n or television systems has been used for core orientatio n
system uses a tool which is clampedjin the core barrel a s but the results obtained from these devices are seldo m
this is lowered into the hole at the 'start of a drillin g satisfactory . A great deal of time can be wasted as a
run . A number of pins parallel to the drill axis projec t result of mechanical and electrical breakdowns in equipmen t
ahead of the drill bit and take up the profile of the cor e which was not originally designed to operate under suc h
stub left by the previous drilling run, as illustrated i n severe conditions . A more promising borehole inspection too l
figure 14 . The orientation of the device is determine d is the Televiewer which was originally developed by the oi l
relative to the drill rod position at the collar of th e industry 52 . This instrument, which works in a mud-fille d
hole or, in an inclined hole, by means of a ball bearin g hole, produces a television type picture as a result of th e
marker which defines a vertical plane through the bore- attenuation of a sonic signal by fractures in the roc k
hole axis . When the core has been recovered, the Firs t surrounding the hole . The high tost of this instrumen t
piece of core is matched to the profile of the pins and th e limits its application to special studies and it could rie t
remainder of the core is pieced together to obtain th e be considered for routine site investigation work .
orientation of other structural features in relaticn to th e
First piece . An inexpensive tool for obtaining an impression of th e
inside of a diamond drilled hole has recently been develope d
by Hinds 5u , 04 . Figure 15 is a reproduction of en impressio n
taken in a 3 inch diameter hole in sandstone and this show s
the coarse grain of the rock as g rell as several open fissures .
The impression material is a thermoplastic Film called Para-
film Mi which is pressed against the borehole wall by a n
inflatable rubber packer . Linking this device to some for m
of orientation system or borehole survey instrument orovide s
information on the orientation of fractures in the roc k
mass which is independent of disturbanc-e of the core .
Is n P/P2 Figure 16 . A Point Load testing machine used for strength inde x
testing in the Field . This apparatus is manufactured by Engineerin g
where P is the load required to break the s p ecimen an d Laboratory Equipment Ltd ., Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, England .
D is the diameter of the core .
Pfote that the length of the core piece should be at leas t
1 .5 times the diameter of the core .
cc = (14 ± 0 .175 D ) I s
m* tnin crushed E
mi
t *sholte.^^d
CC
111[1
RIO -
-^' .- r '- 1e
wo
NO C _ ,e/
/_ /
L LIB
_ HG B '/ toralt 5
+llered /CY
1111 rcvrf =E li
1 11 ppp
* '* a lo _ __ I . s nc t.ere ., é '.
fault 7'21
mit = l _arerr*ed _Ly Mo
I''
1 IB I I Isocr_ - - shorrered Cp ,
H
- _ min fault
j 3C tiWelded F/aworeocrs-!_,_ TG -* s `^
,- *tL Cn(nfrusive/canrac!dias-TO° -- * L-3 u
shcr,'aO ed
F-. 111 :_ - i" 1 1 core is stored in such a way that it is protected from th e
h 1
weather and from vandals and that it is possible to gai n
_.1 sratrerd_cne é access to any particular core tray without major physica l
effort . Laying the core out for inspection is reasonabl e
> Pole, grey-eu P/e , fin e t ^* ' c
crystel/ine, nasstve to ies0'
`i rushtdsee.-r p ô4 aô / ,q
during the drilling operation, as shown in the photograp h
fainfly ; lowbande O ( opposite, but it cannot be considered adequate for perma-
* 3 _ nent core storage . The storage racks illustrated in figur e
_
-- 2 shcrtered* v considered necessary on a major project .
1990 - C P Cl1
tl _-
111 /oo,- ` _ Grat .ered cS _ * /"a ) I
Exploratory adits and shaft s
. Q
Ô
t
Figure 25 : Stereographic projection of a grea H i g h quality computer drawn meridional and polar stereographi c
circle and its pole . nets are reproduced in figures 28 and 29 . Photographit o r
machine copies of these nets can be used for the plottin g
and analysis of structural data, as discussed later in thi s
chapter . Note [hat some photocopy machines introduce signifi-
cant distortion in prints and care should be taken to ensur e
that any copies used for geological data analysis are fre e
of such distortion .
66 67
A counting net For use in conjunction «ith a polar stereo- Figure 28 : Meridional stereographic net for the analysis o f
graphic net is reproduced in Figure 30 . For eractical appli - structural geology data .
cations, the most convenient form in which this countin g
net can be used is as a transparent overlay and the reade r Computer drin cy Dr . C .M .St Sohn of the Roy al Schooi of Mines ,
is advised to have a number of such overlays prepared . Onc e Imp erial Co":le g e, London. .
again, care should be taken to ensure that the copies ar e
not distorted . The use of this counting net for the analysi s
of structural data is discussed later in this chapter .
Figure 29 : Polar stereographic net an ohich the poles o f Figure 30 : Counting net for use in conjunction with the pola r
geological planes can be plotted . stereographic net given in figure 29 .
Domauter drawn Dr . :-'!.St john of the Schcoi of .','ihes , Reprodueed with permission of Fierre Zonde, Coyne Bei:Zier, Paris .
Imseria3 b'oZ :ege, Don-:oh .
Figure 31e : A transparent copy of th e
Figure 31a : Meridional and polar stereo-
counting net reproduced in figure 30 i s
graphic Weis can be mounted on either sid e
placed over the pole plot and a piece o f
of a piece of hardboard or plywood by mean s
tracing paper placed over the countin g
of transparent adhesive Cape . Transparen t
net . The counting net is free to rotat e
plastic sheet coveri n g s will help to protec t
about the centre pin but the tracing pape r
the net for field application .
is fixed with respect to the pole plot .
The number of poles falling in each 10 are a
square is counted and noted on the tracin g
paper . Rotation of the counting net allow s
maximum pole concentrations to be locate d
more accurately than using a fixed countin g
net .
Firgure 31d : The poles of planes are plotte d Figure 31h : Great circles representing th e
onto the tracin g paper from Field Logs . most important structural Features ar e
Different symbols should be used to repre- constructed by rotating the tracing aroun d
sent different types of structural features . the centre pin until the pole of each plane ,
represented by the centre of each pol e
concentration, falls on the east west axi s
of the net . The corresponding great circl e
is traced as shown .
72
Remove the tracing paper from the net and rotate it so tha t
the north point is again vertical . The final appearance o f
the stereographic projection of the great circle and it s The tracing is now rotated until the north point on th e
tracin g paper coincides with the north point on the net .
pole is illustrated in the lower mar g in sketch .
The trend of the line of intersection is found to be 20 1 0 ,
measured clockwise from north .
Plotting and analysis of field measurements
Relationship between true and apparent di p
The First step in the analysis is to count all the poles a n Computer processing of structural dat a
the net and this is done by keeping the counting net in e
fixed position and counti n g the number of poles falling i n Consulting org anisations and individuals involved in th e
each counting cell . These numbers are noted in pencil o n processing of large volumes of structural geology date hav e
the tracing paper at the centre of each Gell . In the cas e turned to the computer as an aid . Details of some of thes e
of figure 32, the pole count will be 350 since the singl e computer techniques have been published by Spencer an d
66
fault is treated separately and should not, be included i n Clabaug h 62 , La m 53 , Attewell and Woodmen 64 and Mahtab et a 1
the pole population . Many of these techniques utilise the coordinates of the pol e
on the surface of the sphere and so eliminate the distortio n
Once the total pole pop ulation has been established, th e which is inherent in any of the projections which reduc e
numbers of poles which make up different pereentages of th e this spherical surface to a two dimensional plane . Th e
total are calculated . In the case of this example, thes e reader who is likely to become involved in a large amoun t
numbers are noted in figure 33 . of structural geology processing is advised to explore th e
possibility of using these computer techniques in his ow n
The counting net is now rotated to centre the deesest pol e work .
concentrations in counting cells and the maximum percentag e
pole concentrations are located . By further small rotation s 5ources of error in structural data collectio n
of the counting net, the contours of edecreasing percentag e
which surround the maximum pole concentrations can quickl y Before leaving the subject of structural g eology interpr e -
be established . With practice, this counting techniqu e tation, two common sources of error are worthy of brie f
will produce rapid results which are of comparable accurac y mention .
to most other manual pole contouring techniques .
A frequent source of error in joint surveys is the inclusio n
In discussing early drafts of this chapter with geologica l on the same plot of poles from different structural domains .
colleagues, the authors encountered very strong oppositio n Hence, in mapping a tunnel, a geologist may pass from on e
to the use of the stereographic projection for pol e set of geological conditions into another . Working unde r
contouring . Most of these g eologists had been trained t o poor visibility conditions, this transition may be misse d
use the equal area projection for [his task and feit that , unless the geologist has carried out a preliminary recon-
because of the distortion of the stereographic projection , naissance to establish the Limits of each structural domain .
severe errors would be introduced in using it for pol e lt is very important that only those poles representin g
contouring . This opposition forced the authors to conduct a geological features within one domain should be plotted o n
number of comparative studies which persuaded them that thes e the same stereonet .
fears were groundless, et least when the analysis was par i
of the solution of an engineering problem in which one i s A second source of error lies in the direction of the fac e
not concerned with the precise shape of low percentage being mapped relative to the orientation of the structura l
contours . features in the rock mass . If mapping is confined to a
single edit, a major Feature running parallel to the edi t
The sceptical reader is invited to carry out the followin g may never be detected until it appears unexpectedly in th e
comparison for himself . The date plotted in figure 32 an d face of an excavation which is larger than the edit . Thi s
used to generate the contours presented in figure 33 wec e problem of joint sampling was discussed by Terzaghi 56 wh o
also presented in Rock Eti ope Engineerin g (Second edition ) 2 suggested a method of correcting for the error by weightin g
but, in that case, viere p lotted and contoured on equa l joint measurements in favour of those almost parallel to th e
area projection grids . The reader is invited to contou r direction of the exposure on which measurements are made .
both sets of pole plots, using the methods recommended i n The authors consider that the Terzaghi correction is appro -
each book and he will find, as the authors have done, tha t priate for joint measurements on borehole core and when th e
the significant pole concentrations fall within `_1 degre e oniy access underground is a sin g le strai g ht tunnel wit h
of each other on the two types of net . This degree o f smooth walle . A preferred method for minimising this erro r
accuracy is certainly adequate for the analysis of an y is to carry out the mapping in tunnels driven in differen t
enginesring problem . directions or to supplement the tunnel ma p p ing with boreholes
drilled et right en g les to the tunnel direction . In thi s
The reader is also referred to the detailed discussion b y way, most of the structures which exist in the rock mas s
Stauffer 61 who considered the levels of pole concentratio n will be exposed and the danger of encountering unexpected
which should be regarded as significant in a pole populatio n features will be minimised .
of a given size . Stauffer concluded that most g eologist s
attempt to contour pole populations which are far to o Isometric drawings of structural plane s
small and he offered a set of guidelines an the choice o f
pole population size . These g uidelines are too detailed t o Many engineers find it extremely difficult
to visualis e
justify inclusion in this discussion but, briefly, Stauffe r structural Features when these are presented in the form o f
sug g ests that contouring should not be attempted on pol e great circles or poles on e stereographic projection .
populations of less than 100 and that, for very weak pre- Frequently, important points are missed by these engineer s
ferred orientations, as many as 1000 poles may be require d when working on the design of en underground excavatio n
to give e reliable result . A full discussion of Stauffer' s because the geologist has failed to present his date in a
recommendations is given in Rock Slope Engineerina 2 . form which can be understood by the engineer . This proble m
can become acute when the date are being reviewed by a non-
80
65. MAHTAB, M .A., BOLSTAD, D .D ., ALLDREDGE, J .R .an d The subject of stress in solid bodies has been dealt with i n
SHANLEY, R .J . Analysis of fracture orientations fo r great detail in numerous books and papers and the enthusias t
input to structural models of discontinuous rock .
could fill a modest library with publications on this subject .
U .S . Bureau of Mines Report of =nvestigations, No .7669 ,
A few of the books which the authors have found to be usefu l
1972 . in their own studies are listed as references 67-73 at th e
end of this chapter . lt would be impossible to condense thi s
66. TERZAGHI, R .D . Sources of error in joint surveys . material into a single chapter and, hence, the treatmen t
Géotechnique, Vol . 15, 1965, p ages 287-30 4 . presented in this book is very much simplified and i s
intended to be introductory only . The discussion i s
restricted to the use of elastic theory which means i n
practical terms that it is limited to use in excavatio n
design in hard rock . The reader who is concerned with excav-
ations in weak ground and in materials such as salt or potas h
which have time-dependent properties, is advised to consul t
publications which deal specifically with the behaviour o f
these types of materials .
Components of stress e
Surface force s
Surr ce traction s
vaz
The values of the six components of stress at a point wil l Ex = E Y = (7 )
vary with the orientation of the axes to which they ar e
referred . Whatever the state of stress at a point, it i s where v is the Poisson ' s ratio of the material, and compre s -
always possible to f in d a particulâr orientation of th e sive strains are taken as positive .
z* /y
co-ordinate axes for which all shear stress component s
vanish . These axes are called the principal axes of stress , Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio are material propertie s
and the corresponding planes parallel to the faces of th e generally referred to as the eZastic constants . For typica l
volume element are called the principal p lanes . Th e hard rock materials, Young's modulus lies in the range 5 t o
stresses on the faces of the element are purely normal, an d 15 x 10 6 lb/in 2 (35 to 105 x 10 3 MPa), and Poisson's rati o
are called the prineipaZ stresses . They are customaril y varies from about 0 .15 to 0 .30 .
denoted by the symbols a l ,c 2 and c 3 . By convention, o l i s
chosen for the largest positive or major prineip aZ stress , If instead of belog free to deform laterally, the cube o f
c 3 is chosen for the smallest positive or minor prineipa Z rock is restrained in the x direction by the application o f
stress, and o 2 for the intermediate prineipaZ stress . Thu s a normal stress, ox, the linear strains will b e
al g ca = a 3
(5 )
Ex =
É ( a x - Vag) (8 )
= i(cx + a,) I(ax - o z )cos2a + ' ' x sin2c (19 ) As noted in the introduction to this chapter, the rock i n
the earth's crust is subjected to an in situ state of stres s
cm = :(cx + a,) - i(ax - az)cos2a - Tzx sin2a (20) and when an excavation is made in the rock, these stresse s
are disturbed and re-distributed in the vicinity of the
" 7m = T zx cos2a - )(ox - z)sin2a (21 ) excavation . Therefore, before the distribution of stresse s
around any man-made excavation in rock can be calculated ,
The magnitudes of the corresponding principal stresses ar e the pre-existing state of stress must be measured or estimat -
found by determining the value of a at which Tlm = 0 and o Z ed .
and a m take maximum and minimum values . lt is found tha t
the principal stresses are Tersaghi and Richart's approac h
vertical stress a
z and lateral compressive stresses an d ax
ay as shown in the margin sketch . The vertical and latera l
direct strains associated with these stresses are given by
Heim's ruZ e
AUSTRALI A
UNITED STATE S
SCANDINAVI A
SOUTHERN AFRIC A
OTHER REGION S
0 0 .5 1 .0 1 .5 2 .0
0 3. 5 available, it may be useful to consider the significance o f
9'9 39 e - -' 0 A9 these individual stresses rather than their avera g e . l t
_ mm
n e
® v must also be remembered that a number of stress measurement s
have been omitted from figure 41 . In particular, a numbe r
f/ *❑ e GD 0
of in situ stress measurements carried out in the Caledonia n
/
/ p e 0 ❑ wA mountains in Norway 100 have not been included in this plot .
/ ° These measurements show that the ratio of horizontal t o
*M O
® O vertical stress varies from zero to approximately 10 an d
500
O that the horizontal stresses are aligned parallel to an d
I AAS
normal to the trend of the mountain chain . These measure-
/ 0
dD
O_ ments viere omitted from fi g ure 41 because the influence o f
both topography and tectonic activity was considered to b e
1
such that the results could not be regarded as typical o f
O 0* OO in situ stresses in undisturbed rock masses . However, th e
1 0 k = 1 + 0 . 5
F 100 0
o z wide variation in these measured stresses emphasises th e
uncertainty which is inherent in any attempt to predic t
Se 0 in situ horizontal stresses on the basis of simple theoretica l
/ 0 concepts and the necessity for in situ stress measurements .
C is essential to carry
//
In fact, the authors believe that it
1 C I out in situ stress measurements as part of the site inves -
tigation programme . for any important underground excavatio n
/ project .
C7
1500 1
C Stress distributions around single excavation s
7 / 0 AUSTRALI A The streamZine analogy for principal stress trajectories
'* UNITED STATE S When an underground excavation is made in a rock mass, th e
// stresses which previously existed in the rock are disturbed ,
/ A CANADA
200 0 I4 /
and new stresses are induced in the rock in the immediat e
vicinity of the opening . Ono method of representing thi s
/ O SCANDINAVI A new stress field is by means of principal stress trajectories
1 which are imaginary lines in a stressed elastic body alon g
0 SOUTHERN AFRIC A which principal stresses act . Reform considerin g in detai l
1
the distribution of stresses around si n g le underground exc a -
M /1 ❑ OTHER, REG I ON S vations of various cross-sections, it may be helpful to th e
/ realer to visualise the stress field by making use of th e
250 0
1 ap p roximate analogy which exists between principal stres s
trajectories and the streamlines in a smoothly flowing strea m
_ 10 0 T
k 0 . 3 of water .
aa = pz(3k - 1) (34 )
ca = p z(3 - k) (35 )
Pz
Jfttit }
t L In a biaxial stress Field, the tangential boundary stresse s
at the ends of the axes of an elliptical opening are give n GA = 5P P
by the following equations :
gp = T0 z
cA = P z ft + 2W/H - k} (36 )
Boundary stresses in an elliptical opening can b e e . the aueraee pillar stress which depends upon th e
reduced to a minimum if the axis ratio of the openin g ratio of the total area excavated to the tota l
area remaining in the pillars, an d
can be matched to the ratio between the in sit u
stresses . b . the stress concentration which is a function o f
the shape of the pillar between adjacent excavations .
• Under applied stress conditions in which the value o f
. is very low, tensile stresses occur on the boundarie s lt is convenient to treat these two effects separately an d
of all excavation shapes . These tensile stresses ar e they will be dealt with in turn in the text which follows .
replaced by compressive stresses as the value of k In the interests of simplicity, this discussion will b e
increases above a value of approximately 1/3 as illustrat - confined to a set of uniform pillars in a single horizonta l
ed, for a circular excavation, in figure 45 . plane . The influence of multiple layers of pillars an d
of inclination of the entire System will be discusse d
Stresses around multiple excavation s toter in this chapter .
,Utnirum boundary a- , Consider the analo gy of a smoothly flowing stream obstructe d Auerase pilier stresse s
by three brid g e piers as illustrated in figure 49 . In orde r
o :' Zo i to accommodate the flow through the gaps between the piers , Figures 50 illustrates a typical square room and pilla r
oen.inas au a
are the streamlines are crowded to g ether and the flow velocity Layout used in mining horizontally bedded deposi ts o f
in situ stress rot increases through these gaps . The extent to which the flow materials such as cool . Assuming that the pillars show n
velocity increases depends upon the ratio of the width o f are part of a large array of pillars and that the roc k
the stream to the sum of the distances between piers . The load is uniformly distributed over these pillars, the averag e
shape into which the streamlines are distorted depends upon pillar stress is given by :
the shape of the piers . Smoother streamlines will be asso -
ciated with piers of circular or elliptical shape (wit h o p = p z(1 + Wo/Wp) 2 = y z(l .4-wo/Wp)2 (40 )
the major axis parallel to the flow direction) than wit h
the square piers illustrated in fi g ure 49 . where y is the unit weight of the rock, z is the depth below
surface and W o and Wo are the widths of the opening and th e
A close analogy exists between this flow behaviour and the pillar respectively .
transmission of stress through the pillars between a serie s
of parallel tunnels . This analogy gives rise to the ter m Ave rage pillar stresses for different pillar Layouts ar e
Tr^butazy theory which is used by some authors 116 , 119 to summarised in figure 51 and, in all cases, the value of s p
describe the branching of stress trajectories and the is g iven by the ratio of the weight of the rock column carrie d
by an individual p illar to the plan area of the pillar .
1 14 11 5
ap = (1 + Wo/Wp)Pz (41 )
Unit Ien g th+-- Wp I . c p =3 P -< Obert and Duvall's results, for different ratios of W / W
1 J i9ci(ip =
1; are summarised in the margin drawings . These show that the
_I average pillar stress up increases as the pillar become s
narrower . On the other hand, the maximum boundary stres s
concentration e b /a p decreases as the tunnels are moved close r
together .
= y, Rock column are a Up to this point, the discussion has been restricted t o
Pilier are a the distribution of stress in rib pillars between paralle l
excavations . In the case of square pillars, such as thos e
illustrated in figure 50, it is necessary to consider th e
13
ap
influence of grevity
In situ stresse s
In ehe preceding discussion it has been assumed that th e
applied stresses p, and kp z are uniform as illustrated i n
figure 44 . These conditions are equivalent to those in a
Figure 60 : Distribution of major principal stresses on the boundarie s uniformly loaded plate model and they are based upon th e
of two intersecting underground excavations . assumption that the excavation under consideration i s
far enough below the ground surface that the influence o f
stress gradients due to gravitational loading can be ignored .
Denkhaus 114 examined the errors associated with this assump-
tion and concluded [hat these errors are less than 5 ; whe n
Stress shadow s
the depth of the excavation below surface exceeds 10 time s
the span of the excavation .
Returning, for a moment, to the stream flow analogy discusse d
earlier in this chapter, figure 49 illustrates the effec t Obviously, for shallow tunnels or for very large excavation s
of three bridge piers upon ehe flow pattern in a smoothl y at shallow depth, the influence of gravitational stresse s
flowing stream . If, instead of running across the river , must be taken into account in calculating the stresse s
these piers were to be aligned parallel to the axis o f induced in the rock around the excavations . A Full dis-
the river, the effect on the flow pattern would be entirel y cussion on this topic would exceed the scope of this chapte r
different . Stagnant flow areas would occur between th e
but allowance has been made for gravitational stresses i n
piers duz to the shielding effect of the first pier see n the boundary element program presented in Appendix 4 a t
by the water flow .
the end of this book . An example of the stresses induce d
:Obree s in the rock surrounding a shallow excavation has bee n
/ decr as_o Similar effects occur in stress Fields as illustrated i n included in this appendix .
the margin sketch . When two or more excavations are aligne d
along a major principal stress trajectory, the stress i n
the pillar between the two excavations decreases becaus e
it lies in the 'shadow' cast by the two excavations . Hence ,
when considering the stresses in a pillar which is part o f
a room and pillar layout, such as that illustrated i n
figure 50, the vertical applied stress pz will have the mos t
significant effect upon the pillar stress . Horizonta l
1 26 12 7
Chapter 5 references
Figure 62 : Principal stres s 81. HERGET, G . Variations of rock stress with depth at a
distributions in the rock sur- Canadian iron mine . Ins . J . Rock Mechanics and Minira g
rounding two adjacent excavation s Sciences,Vol . 10 , 1973, pages 35-51 .
inclined at 45° with respect t o
the ap p lied stress directions . 82. BUCHBINDER, G .G .R ., NYLAND, E . and BLANCHARD, J .E .
Measurement of stress in boreholes . Canadian Geol .
(k = 0 .5) .
Su_rvey Paper 66-13, 1966 .
. In sit u
83, EISBACHER, G .H . and BIELENSTEIN, H .U . HOCKER, V .E ., BICKEL, D .L . and AGGSON, J .R
Elastic strai n determination of stresses in mountainous topography .
recovery in Proterozoic rocke near Elliot Lake, Ontario
J . Geophys . Research, Vol . 76, . U .S . Bur. Mines Rept . Invn . 7654, 1972 .
1971, pages 2072-2021 .
. and SHUTER,E .
84. COATES, D .F . and GRANT, F 98 . BREDEHOFF, J .D ., WOLFF, R .G ., KEYS, W .S
. Stress measurements a t Hydraulic fracturing to determine the regional stres s
Elliot Lake . Canadian Min . Metall,
Bulletin., Vol . 59 , field, Piceance Basin, Colorado . Bull . Geol . Soc . Am .
1966, pages 603-613 .
Vol . 87, 1976, pag es 250-258 .
85. BEN50N, R,P ., KIERANS, T .W s
. and SIGVALDSON, 0 .T . MYRVANG, A .M . Practical use of rock stress measurement
In situ and induced stresses at the Churchill Fall s 99. Stres s
in Norway . Proc . ISR .! Symp . on. Investigation of
underground power house, Labrador . Proc . 2nd . Congres Measurement . Sydney ,
s in Rock - Advances in Stress
Inc. See . Rock Mech ., Bet g rade, Vol
. 2, 1970, page s Australia, 1976, pages 92-99 .
821-832 .
t
86. IMRIE, A .S . and JORY, 100. LI, B . Natural stress values obtained in differen
Behaviour of the undergroun d parts of the Fennoscandian rock mass . Proc . 2nd Congr . ,
powerhouse arch at the W .A .C . Bennett dam during exca- 1-28 .
vation . Prot . 5th Canadian Rock Mecn Int . Soc. Rock Mech ., Bet g rade, 1970, Paper
. Symp ., Toronto ,
1968, pages 19-39 - e
101. HAST, N . The stete of stress in the upper part of th
87. Earth's crust . Eneng . Geol ., Vol . 2, 1967, pages 5-17 -
IMRIE, A .S . and CAMPBELL, 0 .D . Engineering geolog
y
at the Mica underground plant . Proc k
. 1976 Rapid Emcavn . DENKHAUS, H .G . The significance of stress in roc
e Turm. . Conj,,R .J .Robbins and R 102.
.J . Conlon, ade ., ATME , ., Madrid, 1968 ,
New York, 1976, pages 534-549 . masses . Proc . Int . Symp . Rock Mech
pages 263-271 .
88, HAIMSON, B .C
. Earthquake related stresses et Ran g ely , n
Colorado- Proc . 2=eh Rock Meck . Symp ., H .R .Hardy an 103. GAY, N .C . 1n-situ stress measurements in Souther
d . 29, 1975, pages 447-459 .
R .Stefanko, eds ., ASCE, New York, 1973, pages 689-708 Africa . Tectonophysics, Vol
.
.S .I .R .
89. HAIMSON, B .C ., LACOMB, J ., 104. VAN HEERDEN, W,L . Practical application of the C
JONES, A .H . and GREEN, S .J . triaxial strain cell for rock stress measurements .
Deep stress measurements in [uff at the Nevada test site . Investigation of Stress in Rock -
Proc . 3rd Congress, Ins . Sec. Rock Mech ., Proc . ISRM Symp . on
Advances in Stress ,Measurement,
Denver, Vol . Sydney, Australia ,
2A, 1974, pages 557-561 .
1976, pages 1-6 .
90. HAIMSON, B .C, Design of underground powerhouses an
d . and SHARP, J .C .
105. BOWCOCK, J .B ., 80Y0, d .M ., HOEK, E
the importance of pre-excavation stress measurements . Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheure - rock e n g ineerin g
Proc . 26th Rock Mech . ., C . Engineerin g,
Symp Fairhurst and S .L . Crouch , aspects . Proc . Symp . Emploration for Rock
eds ., ASCE, New York,
1977, pages 197-204 . . 2 ,
Z .T,Bieniawski ad ., A .A .Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol
91. HAIMSON, B .C . The h y 1977, pa g es 121-139 .
drofracturine stress meanurin g
method and recent Field results . Intnl
. J. Rock t'ec%^.a n acs n
and Miring Seienteeei, Vol . 106. GAY, N .C . Principal horizontal stresses in Souther
page s
Africa . Pure Ap pl . Geophys ., Vol . 115, 1977,
15, 1978, pages 167-778 .
171 . LE FRANCOIS, P .
In situ measurement of rock stres s
for the Idikki hyd
roelectric project . Proc . ôth
Canadian. Bock Mech . Symp The stability of an underground excavation depends upon th e
., Montreal, 1970, pages 65-90 .
structural conditions in the rock mass, as discussed i n
112. KIRSCH, G .
Die theorie der elastizität und die bedUr - chapter 2, and also upon the relationship between th e
fnisse der fe stigkeitslehre
. Veit . Verl. Deut . Ing. , stress in the rock and the strength of the rock . Shallo w
Vol . 42, No . 28, 1898, pages excavations such as most road and rail tunnels or the nea r
797-807 .
surface workings in mines are most strongly influenced b y
113. HOEK, E . A p
hotoelastic technique for the determinatio the structural conditions and the degree of weathering o f
n
of potential fracture zones in rock structures the rock mass . On the other hand, the stability of dee p
8th Rock . Mech . Symp . , C . Fairhurst ed . Proc .
., AIME, Ne w excavations depends more upon the response of the rock mas s
York, 1967, pages 94-112 . to the stress field induced around the excavations . The
different types of instability which occur under these tw o
714 . DENKHAUS, H .G
. The application of the mathematica l extremes will be discussed in the next chapter .
theory of elasticity to problems of stress in hard roc
at greet depth . Papers and k
Discussions Assn . Min e In order to utilise the knowledge of stresses induced aroun d
Managers of South .4frica, 1958, pa ges 271-310
. underground excavations discussed in the previous chapter ,
it is necessary to have available a criterion or a set o f
rules which will predict the response of a rock mass to a
115. GREENSPAN, M
. Effect of a small hole on the stresse s given set of induced stresses . Such a need has Jong bee n
in a uniformly loaded plate . Quart . ?ppi . Maths . , recognised and a large prooortion of rock mechanics liter a -
Vol . 2, 1944 , pages
50 -7 1 - ture is devoted to the search for a suitable failure cri -
116. terion .
HELLER, S .R ., BROCK, J .S
. and BART, R . The stresse s
around a rectangular opening with rounded corners i The difficulty of finding a realistic failure criterion fo r
n
a uniformly loaded platz . Trans . 3rd US rock masses is emphasised in figure 63 which shows th e
Mech ., 1958, p age 357 . Gong . Appi .
transition from intact rock material to a heavily jointe d
13 7
(43 )
in
p g oorotest eresults en can result in the p
roduction of ver y where , is the major principal stress at failure ,
c 3 is the minor principal stress applied to th e
The authors favour the use of a diemond impregnated wheel specimen ,
mounted on a lathe tool-post grinding , a c is the uniaxial compressive strength of th e
in the margin pho a ttachmen t
tograph, for the as show n intact rock material in the specimen ,
of the sp ecimen for prep aration of the end
u s m and s are constants which depend upon the propertie s
mountleg the core sp niaxial and triaxial testing .
By
it at appro ximately ecimen in the lathe chuck an
di rection to the 20 revolutions p er o f n
di rection of r th e
d r e tat s
th
o of the rock and upon the extent to which it ha s
been broken before being subjected to the stresse s
o e(runig t e and c 3 .
at about 3000 per the diamond
revolutions
cooling), a clean square s p per minute with h w
a wat [e r This relationship can be represented g raphically by mean s
ecimen edge is f
wheel is run past the centre of the ormed . If th e of a diagram such as that presented in the upper left han d
sp ecimen, a flat en
a very good surface Finish can be produced quickl d
wichecon portion of figure 67 .
and omically y
end of the sp . The use of spherical seats at eithe
r
Ioading ecce ecimen, as shown in figure 66, will The uniaxial compressive strength of the specimen is give n
minimis by substituting c 3 = 0 in equation 43, giving :
sp ntricity due to the fact that the ends of th e
ecimen may not be absolutely e
p arallel .
of a diamond impr eanaae, A modi (44 )
o. ing Eikeal mounyad d
_ o! t} e fication to the
il lustrated in figure loading platens of the
.__ -pos- g ..nder , a 66 p apparatu s For intact rock, °cs = 0c and s = 1 . For previously broken
';,a ra0, cia with internal pore pr ermits the testing of rock
essure . sp ecimen s rock, s o 1 and the strength at zero confining pressure i s
o o` ise
- la _ of spe_ -' (shown in contact with the rockIf the domed spherical seat s given by equation 44, where ° c is the uniaxial compressiv e
.for unier sp ecimen) are drille
_ rirxial c_sding accept high pressure d to strength of the pieces of i' :caes rock material making u p
. *** between c ouplings an d u specime are
These seats and the ends o te r the specimen .
under p f p the
ressure can be introduced into r
The signi th specimen wl wate
ubeco The uniaxial tensile stre n g th of the s p ecimen is given b y
ficance of this
obvious later in this chapter th p ressure
e pressure wil l
effect Substitution of c l = 0 in equation 43 and by solving th e
stress is discussed . "°2° th e et p rincip le of
resulting quadratic equation for c3 ;
ive
a t = _.°c (m - /m 2 ± 4s ) (45)
1 3 8
13 9
Relaiionship between shearl¢nd norma Mohr envelope as illustrated in the lower diagram in figur e
l 67 . As will be shown later in this chapter, this assumptio n
Ssresses and prineipaZ stresses is probably an over-simplification . lt has been included i n
this discussion because of its historical importance i n
T = - a3)Sin 2 8 rock mechanics literature and also because it does provid e
a rough guide to the inclination of the failure surface o r
a = A(ai+a3) - #(a, -a 3 surfaces under some stress conditions .
)Cos 2 8
obere ß is tke angle be ueen s he failur Balmer 135 derived a g eneral relationship between the shea r
surface and irre direction of e
the mcmimur„ and normal stresses and the principal stresses at whic h
principal stresso, . failure of an isotropic rock specimen occurs . Substitutio n
of equation 43 into Salmer's equations gives :
(46 )
Tm+ mag
✓6
T _ (a - a 3 ) ✓ 1 + mac ✓ lT m (47 )
where Tm = b(a i - a 3 )
Sin 28 = (48)
Tm
3rittle-ductile transitio n
a i = 3 .4 a 3 (49 )
Transition. from brist-1e t o
ductile failure illustrated
Figure 67 : This transition is illustrated in the margin drawing in whic h
Graphical rep by lest data obtained by
resentation of stress condition s the results obtained by Schwartz 137 from a series of triaxia l
for failure of intact rock . Schoartc 137 for Indiana
tests on Indiana limestone are presented .
limestone .
The authors have used equation 49 in their analysis o f
14 1
1 40
In select ing these data, care has been taken to ensure tha t
the test conditions used in the generation of the data wer e
comparable to those described earlier in this chapter .
Wherever possible, the authors have gone back to the ra w
experimental date in order to avoid using information whic h
may already have been adjusted to fit some other failur e
criterion .
cc s 0
Oo C C = 1
a' = Y
4 L
Y
o a
s
m ô 4-
O
o
.5 _
Y c 0 o
* ,< u u _ - u a
4
0 0
C n
N N ô v y * N * *aau-G
\ H _ __=
O 0
-N
C =
U 1
J * u t e
J
i --i
O o CC 2 G 22,
- O C c y U -2 N P 2 U ..C '
t y
Shear strengt h
■ * - compressive strength oc
iz *
Uniaxial
' 111
A
ea
1
1"-
10
-.
0
1_}
-
T _
_
I
__
IL.J *
_ 1
rf .
_
-Lr - i
- *1 - ]1rf-i
- ' - --' -
■ ■ mg
Ma i
rin
j 1 111 IW O:O» 1_
m
-ABrj
i8,
" 'Il
111 _11 -2 - - - x2 _
1 3_
IP • B
Lt_ ~
M lll
,^=, u,erw '^ ` Shear ""'"n '^ `
i 1 _ _,_
1 9 41 2
11 -1 - 1l n- = 11 1-
, L
L
- •3 a
" - - F-
kpL 11 o !A J. J
m -i 9:d :e ky'
11 - 4
2,
3 _7 'i‘ _ ___
= ir r
1.1
=
°
loi foi
°
_ 1 l
j
o
P-5,
i;I
nQ
1 g
Q
..
e *
:..
*Q ha' :. 69 . - - 9 _:
Shear strength T Shear strength T
Uniaxial compressive strength O, g■gg*gg. Uniaxial compressive s[ren 1 ac
1
'* a6 iI 666 _= ** ■■ €g n
_ I n99 ge '-
gg Q g
Su x6 6 9966 69 8
r
_ I96
•- e *, • .. g:g : .
T 6
-L _ r* ■ g»dN :.g g: g T
*: : _ ___ = Q *-:
*1{
I==Tl= 9 9 699
_ _
w... .ii Ee
pa/ * * é*■• 6
■ g * QQ l.
.. 6 .4.9. p* 9
1 9 9*
.o CC*:
n i Q. ■
ow _n : ■9:9 Q.
Q g* *e
■■■
6 ■ .9* : Eg 96g:
iIt _ : .' .9 *CC*gg Q
i @96 9.:89:g_. 8
g :gg:
1 :® = -4
nie%. lhe
.4im 4 Rd
1 !* /" , ',/"^'~ ` ",^" ` 01
o
-11 71! _ e
° -j
o° Uniaxia S^w'
l "'"n ^^ ` Uni a xi a lShearcompr"^=,
e ssi ve.^ T m '^ oc
° ° Si . ~
91 w =1,
1_ 1 1
E =~
>
11 AALT _ _
~
1_, F 11 - i 11 11 n
fou s 1 211
i -Au - 1 HA (
n- 1
1 1111 711 :
- -
1 11
1 = 111
150 15 1
of a rock type such as granite, these factors are reasonabl y causes an area reduction, the onset of region V is associate d
uniform, irrespective of the source of the granite . Hence , with an increase in the true average stress in the sample .
the fracture characteristics of a Westerley granite from th e Spalling proceeds during regions V and VI due to bucklin g
instability of thin near surface layers of rock . In region
USA are similar to those of a Mount Sorrel granite from the
15 3
1 52
Efieetive stres s
VI small, steeply inclined shear fractures are formed ; thes e
grow into an open fault in region VII . In region VIII th
e The influence of internal fluid pressure or pore pressure
deformation results in a Loose mass of broken material hel
d on the strength of rock has been a controversial topic fo r
together by friction . In 1923, Terzaghi 15O revolutionised soil mech -
many years .
anics by thz introduction of his principle of effectiv e
This description emphasises the complexity ôf the prccesse s stress which stated that the strength and volume chang e
of fracture initiation and propagation in rock and th
e behaviour of saturated soils is governed not by the tota l
difficulties which haue been associated with attempts t o or applied stress but by the effective stress c' given b y
derive failure criteria based on simple crack models e7 . the difference between the applied stress a and the por e
s
pressure u . Terzaghi himself later suggested that thi
Wawersik and Brace 143 measured the inclination of the shea definition of effective stress may be incorrect for lo w
r
fractures and faults formed in Westerley granite in region
s porosity materials such as rocks and concrete, and that th e
VI, VII and VIII . The results of these measurements ar e effective stress governing the behaviour of the materia l
plotted in figure 68 together with the relationship betwee n should be writte n
fracture plane inclination and confining pressure calculate d
by means of equation 48 ( using m = and s = 1 .00) . o' = a - (1 - n b) u (53 )
In spite of the !arge amount of scatter', there is a genera l
similarity between the measured and predicted trends whic h where nb was termed the boundary porosity .
suggests that equation 48 can be used to give a rough guid e
-
to the inclination of shear fractures and faults in rock . Many authors have argued stron g ly that the original expres
sion for effective stress (o' = c- u) is the correct on e
The formation of cracks parallel to the direction of th e for rock while others argue, equaliy strongly, that it doe s
major principal stress (i .e B = 0) is mentioned in th e r
not apply . This controversy has Seen discussed by Jaege
.
description of fracture formation by Wawersik and Brac, 14 3 and Cook e7 (pages 219-225) and need not be reviewed here
and has been noted by many other authors . These types o f On balance, the authors take the view that the origina l
fractures occur most frequently under conditions of lo w definition of effective stress is satisfactory for practica l
confining stress, for example, near the free surfaces o f purposes . lt will be applicable to rock provided that th e
underground excavations . Fairhurst and Cook 155 sugges
t pore structure of the rock is sufficiently interconnected
that rock splitting or slabbing is an important fractur e and the loading rate is sufficiently slow to permit interna l
process in the rock surrounding underground excavations an d fluid pressure to equalise during testing . Ir, the case o f
this suggestion can be confirmed by many practical miner s low permeability rocks, this may require extremel y
very 5 '
wich experience in hard rock mines . slow loading rates as found necessary by Brate and Martin -
r
in their tests on crystalline silicate rocks . On the othe
hand, in the case of porous rocks such as sandstones, th e
loading rate required to satisfy effective stress condition s
appears to be within the range of normal laboratory test s
and the original definition of effective stress is readil y
1158) .
shown to appiy (see, for example, Handin et a
a1 ' = c1 - u
(54)
a 3' = c3 - u
t' = c - u
• .!r•* Las predicted -rom Note that the shear stress r is not affected since, as show n
e4?u aZion e
in figure 67 on page 138, it is a function of the differenc
between the major and minor principal stresses and substitu -
d
tion of the e f fective stresses in place of the applie
0 stresses does not give rise to any difference in the shea r
0 1 5 10 15 20 25 stress .
Figure 68 : Inclination of shear fractures and faults i n In addition to the effects of internal fluid pressure in th e
specimens of Westerley granite tested b y pores of the rock, discussed above, there is strong evident e
Wawersik and Brace 143 to suggest that the presence of pore fluid without pressur e
can have a significant influence upon the strength of rock .
d
Colback and Wii d 139 showed that the presence of water cause
1 54 155
the strength of samples of shale and sandstone to reduce b y concluded that the intermediate principal stress has a
a factor of 2 from oven dried to saturated specimens . The h
negl i g ible influence upon the failure of the rocks whic
s
following ratios between the uniaxial compressive strength s he tested . He did emphasise that he considered that thi
of dry and saturated specimens were found by Broch t3 2 subject requires further study .
Quartzdiorite 1 . 5
l
Gabbro 1 . 7 Hojem and Coo k 160 carried out tests in a "polyaxial" cel
Gneiss ( I foliation ) 2 . 1 in which small flat jacks were used to subject rectangula r
specimens to three independent principal stresses . In di s-
Gneiss ( // foliation ) 1 .6
cussing the results of these tests, Jaeger and Coo ke7 con -
Brech's results are particularly interesting because the y clude that the strength of rock increases with increasin g
were obtained as part of a triaxial testing programme o n intermediate principal stress level but thzt this increas e
these rocks and the results of his tests have been include d is small enough to ignore for most practical applications .
in table 9 and in the plots on pages 148 and 145 . Th e
dimensionless plots of Broch's results show that there i s 161,i62 tested a number of rocks under polyaxial stres s
Mog i
not a great deal of differente between the fracture charac- conditions znd found more significant strength difference s
,
teristics of dry and saturated samples (given by the valu e then those reported by Brace or by Hojem and Cook . However
of m) and that the principal change is in the uniaxia
l close examination of Mogi's results suggests that many o f
compressive strength ec . his tests involved brittle/ductile transitions and it i s
not clear to what extent this may have complicated th e
Within the limits of accuracy of the empirical failur e interpretation of his results .
criterion presented earlier in this chapter, it can b e
assumed that the presence of water in the pcres of a roc k On the basis of available evidente, the authors feel tha t
will cause a reduction in its uniaxial compressive strengt h it is admissible to ignore the influence of the intermediat e
but not in the value of the material constant m . principal stress upon the failure of brittle rock . Thi s
assumption is important in keeping the failure criterio n
lt is important, when comparing the stren g ths of roc k as simple as possible in order that it can be extended t o
specimens taken from a particular rock mass, to ensure tha t include the effects of joints and pre-existing fractures .
the moisture content of all the specimens is the same . I f
the specimens are left standing around in the laborator y lofZuence of loading rate
for various periods of time before testing, as is frequentl y
the Gase, a si g nificant scatter in ex p erimental results ca n
n Vutukuri, Lama and Saluja 163 have compiled information o
occur, particularly when testing sedimentary rocks whic h the influence of loading rate upon the strength of Westerle y
appear to be the most sensitive to chan ges in moistur e granite under triaxial test conditions and have shown tha t
content . e
Ideally, the moisture content of the specimen s the stren g th can be halved by decreasing the loading rat
by four orders of magnitude . In general, the faster th e
should be the same as [hat of the rock mass with which th e
underground excavation designer is concerned and the author s rate of load application, the stron g er will be the roc k
recommend that, when in doubt, the specimens should be teste d specimen tested . In terms of this discussion, the loadin g
saturated rather then dry . Where a moist room for curin g rate encountered in underground excavation engineering ( wit h
concrete specimens is available, rock cores can be store d the exception of blasting) does not differ to such an exten t
in a damp atmosphere for several weeks before testing t o that this effect need be taken into account .
ensure that their moisture contents are uniform and clos e
to saturation .
=nfZuence of specimen size
Influence of intermediate principal stress Rock mechanics literature contains a number of conflictin g
observations on the effect of specimen size upon the strengt h
116S report n o
In all the discussions up to this point, it has been assume d of rock . Hodgson and Cook 164 and Obert et al
. On th e
that the failure of rock is controlled by the major and mino r change in rock stren g th with change in specimen size
principal steesses a l and a 3 and that the intermediate prin- other hand, significant strength reductions with increasin g
cipal stress gp has no effect upon the failure process 166 Bieniawski 1o7 ,
. Thi s specimen size have been reported by Mogi
d
is certainly an over-simplification but the authors conside r Pratt et a116°, Protodiakonov and Koi`man 169 and Hoskins an
that it is justifiable in the interests of keeping the failur e Horino 170 .
criterion as simple as possible, in view of the fact tha t
it still has to be extended to accommodate the behaviou r On balance, the authors believe that there is a strengt h
of jointed and fractured rock . reduction with increasing specimen size for most rock s
and a collection of typical experimental results is presente d
The triaxial strength data an dolerite, doiomite, granit e s
in figure 69 . These data have been reduced to dimensionles
and quartzite published by Brace '- en contain both triaxia h
l form by dividing individual stren g th values by the strengt
compression and triaxial extension test results . As discusse d of a specimen 50mm in diameter, the aver a g e size of a labora -
o
an Page 135, this means that his results include the maximu m tory specimen . This process not only makes it possible t
possible variation of the intermediate principal stress c , compare the experimental results but it also eliminate s
which can lie between the major and the minor principa l differences due to variations in moisture content, specime n
stress values . Brace found no significant variation betwee
n shape, loading rate etc since these factors are generall y
the results obtained when c 2 = e 3 and when g ? = c l and he the saure for a given data set .
1 57
T = c r cTant (56 )
c1 2(c + a 3 Tang )
01 0 03 T (57 )
(1 - Tang Tan6)Sin2 B
ß - Se
A, + A, ß
ß - E4
P2 + p s ß : Relationship between principa l
Figure 70
stresses at failure for Martinsburg slat e
Cm 17 4
is the value of ß at which m is e minimum , tested by Donath
Confinj no
preseu_r e Axial failure stress el - bars
0, - barm
35 1275 51 0 221 425 74 8
105 7615 81 6 442 629 102 0 (61 )
Note that the strength of the intact rock has been determine d sm and ss .
from the values given by tests for ß = 90 0
. A linear regres- e and 'y versus ß ar e
sion analysis, using the method outlined in pari 1 of Appendi Plots of m/m.: and s versus ß and of
x . Equations 60 and 61 have been fitte d
5, gives the uniaxial compressive strength of the intact ma - given in the margin
terial ec = 1551 bars and the value of m = 14 .22 . to the values of 5 and 's, calculated from equations 62 an d
d
63, by a process of triel and error . The values of D an
then been substituted int o
In analysing the results presented in table 10, the value s 'c from these fitted curves haue s
of s for ß = 30 0 and 45 0 are negative . This is equations 58 and 59 to obtain the curves of m/mi and s versu
due to . These values of m an d
the fact that there are no strength values at zero confinin g ß given in the upper margin drawing
137) to giv e
pressure and the linear regression analysis given in part 2 o f s were then substituted into equation 43 (page
discontinuity an g l e
Appendix 5 fits a curve to the available data, moving i t the curves of axial strength G• 1 versus
slightly to the right to compensate for the lack of uniaxia l ß presented in figure 71 .
test results . The negative value of s obtained in suc
h The results of similar analyses on a variety of enisotropi c
cases has no physical significance and is set to zero i n . In all cases th e
order to avoid mathematicai complications in the subsequen t rocke are presented in figures 72 to 76
-
analysis (see part 2, Appendix 5) . authors feel that equation 43, with values of m and s cal
f
culated from equations 58 and 59, desbribes the influence o
t
Donath's results for es = 2000 bars have been omitted be- a single discontinuity with sufficient accuracy for mos
cause the stress-strain curves indicate that these specimen s practicai purposes .
behaved plastically . Note : 1 bar = 0 .1 MPa .
760
Figure 73 : Strength o f
Penrhyn slate tested b y
Atteeell and Sandford1 ° .
0c = 24032 Ib/in-'
mi = 14 .5 1
°c = 1557 bars Om = 33 °
/ = 6000 l b/ i n '- 0
j mi = 14 .2 2 Os = 33 0
Om = 30° A = 0 .8 8
A = 0 .9 2 A 3 = 0 .4 0
A2 = 25 P = 0 .9 0
P = 1 .0 0 P 3 = 0 .4 0
P 2 = 50
P 3 = 0 .20
= 30000 Ib/7n 2 0
Figure 74 : Strength of a
°c = 32625 lb/in 2
South African slate tested
mi = 4 .7 1 by Hoek 120 .
= 20000 lb/in 2 ❑ Om = 40°
0c =15850 lb/in 2
O s = 30 °
mi = 7 .9 6
A = 0 .6 8
A2 = 20 F m = 30°
03 = 10000 lb/in 2 O s = 30°
A 3 = 0 .1 5
A =0 .8 2
P = 1 .0 0
03 = 5000 lb/in 2 c A 2 =1 0
P2 = 15
A 3 =0 .2 5
P 3 = 0 .30
P = 0 .9 3
P 2 =2 0
P3=0 .2 0
0
0 10
80 90
a 3 = 25000 lb/in 2 o
r ■ gure 76 Strength o f
Green River Shale I I
tested by M ctamore an
d
Gray 172 .
0c = 14340 lb/i n 2
mi = 4 .3 3
Sm = 30 °
`s = 30°
A = 0 .3 3
A2 = 1 0
A 3 = 0 .3 0
= 0 .7 1
P2 = 1 0
P 3 = 0 .3 0
16 5
164
al = 03 + / mccc a + sai-
hlererédi constants .
4
m = min - Ae 8 )
s = 1 - Pe
ß - Ein ß - Es
(60 )
A, + Agß P, + Paß
90-61 - Sm = 190-ßd - 9 s
e = (63 )
A,+A 3 m90-st P,+P 3 190-ß l
- z s
e = Iß - a* - 5mcls _ (ß -
7 - P2 + P3{ß - a (64)
A, + A3(6 -
1 66
1 .97 tonnes !
Stregth of Persona andesit e diameter triaxial cell after compaction to
m33 , these samples gave m = 0 .030 for s = 0 .
one of the most complete sets of triaxial test data
availabl e
to the authors is that on Panguna andesite from the islan Highty weathered Panguna andesite - Tested by the Snowy
d Mountains Engineering Corporation in a 6 inch diamete r
of Bougainville in Papua New Guinea . This
the host rock for a material comprise s triaxial cell after compaction to 1 .97 tonnes/ m 3 , thi s
large copper deposit and the senior autho
has acted as a consultant to Bougainville Copper Limited r material gave m = 0 .012 for s = 0 .
an
the geotechnicai problems associated with the mining of [hi
deposit . s The Mohr feilure envelopes for these samples of Pangun a
Because of the large scale of the operation, a n and 83 and it is eviden t
unusually la nge amount of testing has andesite are plotted in figures 82
been carried out on th e
Pan g una andesite and the results of these that there is a systematic decrease in the values of m and s
tests are analysed samples .
below . with the deg ree of jointing and weathering of the
pattern s
This trend is consistent with qualitative behaviour
which are apparent from published discussions an rock mas s
Because most of the test work on this project has not bee n strength ( e .g by Manev and Avramova-Tacheva187) and on roc k
published, the most important details of the tests are liste d 188 ) . Un -
below . fill (e .g by Marsal 188 and Marachi, Chan and Seed
an this subject contai n
fortunately, very few publications as tha t
Bract Pan guna andesite - sufficient detail to permit the Same type of analysis
A few core samples ( 1 inch dia - . The authors have onl y
presented above for Panguna andesite
meter) were tested by Jaeger 185 in about 1968 . Som e t
additional tests (on 2 been able to carry out very crude studies on published tes
inch diameter cores) were carrie d
out in 1978 by Golder Associates data on rock mass and rock fill strength but these studies
in Vancouver .
these test results were combined and analysed All o f have reinforced their view that the Panguna andesite resulth s
of the reg ression analysis which is given in partby mean s can be taken as a reasonable model for the in situ strengt
1 of of heavily jointed hard rock masses .
Appendix 5 . This analysis gave a
uniaxial
strength oc = 265 MPa, a value of m e 18 .9, compressiv e
s
and a coefficient of determination r2 = 0 .85 . = 1 .0 0 Use of rock mass classifications for rock strength predictio n
indisturbed core sam p les - Very careful drilling, In view of the scarcity of reliable information on th e
C obtainin g
inch diameter triple tube drilling equipment, using strength of rock masses and of the very high tost ofthat
produce a
a number of undisturbed core samples of jointed Pangund such Information, the authors consider it unlikely
a of rock mass strengt h
andesite . These samples were transported, in the inne comprehensive quantitative analysis
r Since this is one of the key question s
core barrels, to Canberra where they were prepared an d will ever be possible .
should b e
tested triaxially by Jaeger 185 . in rock engineering, it is clear that some attemptprovide some
Using the regressio n
analysis presented in part 2 of Appendix 5, made to use whatever information is available to
essuming s
a value of a c = 265 MPa, the form of general guidance on reasonable trends in rock mas
following values were
obtained : m = 0 .278 , s 0 .0002, r2 = 0 .99 . strength .
the author s
Reeomoeeted sradsd sar,oZes - Sam p les were obtaeed fro Having considered several possible alternatives, schemes, presente d
bench m haue turned to the rock mass classification
faces in the mine and typical grading curve s for the prediction of rock mass strength . 'Fabl e
were established for these samples . in chapter 2,
These gradin g of the ratin g s which hav e
curves were scaled down, as sugeested by Marsa 1 18 6 11 on page 173 gives the details
p les of Panguna andesite des-
and the samples were compacted been chosen for the various sam
to es near the in sit u cribed earlier in this chapter . The classifications propose d
density as possible before testing in a 6 inch diamete r African Council for Scientifi c
triaxial teil in the mine laboratory by Bieniawski of the South l
. A preliminary
analysis of these date gave a small negative value fo r and Industrial Research 25 ' 25 and by Barton, Lien and Lunde
in
of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute haue been used
s and the method given at the end of part 2 of Appendi x listed in orde r
5 was used to calculate the value this table and individual ratings have been
of m for s = O . -
This analysis g ave n = 0 .116 to provide the reader with e guide in using these classifica
for s = 0 . The saure
calculation technique was tions for rock mass strength predictions .
used for all the other samples
listed belc :v .
the value o f
Figure 84 gives a plot of the ratio of m/mi andratings fo r
__esh to s?ightly weathered Panc<0 .a ardem/t - Substantia l s against the CSIP and the NG) classification
following rela -
quantities of this material Panguna andesite . Bieniawski 25 proposed the
were shipped to Cooma i n
Australia where samples were tested in a tionship between the CSIR and the NGI systems :
22'= Inc h
diameter triaxial celi by the Snowy Mountains Engineer- (66 )
ing Corporation . These samples were compacted t RMR = 9 Log e Q + 44
densities ran g ing between 1 .94 and 2 .07 tonnes/m o3 CSI R
(intact rock y = 2 .55 tonnes/m 3 ) before testing . where Rl1R is the rock mass rating obtained from the
regression analysis of the results of these tests gav e
A classification and Q is the quality index obtained from th e
m = 0 .040 for s = 0 . NGI classification . This relationshi p has been used t o
position the scales in figure 84 .
."oderateZ2 wea fnsred Pargur0 andesite - Tested by ehe data, the
Mountains Engineering Corporation in their
Snow y In spite of the very low density of ex p erimental
22* inch
500
a
m =
u
u u
o o - w
D = C J L
u
u u T c
L N u -
u
i o
C u J CI c u T u
U c ._ o o
u6 c=
m c .c
Nc.
c 44
L uCl Gf
C u N V y
Ôm
C
0 100 15
500 60 0 Intact strength rating 15 15 15 15 15
=
o
RQD rating 20 3 3 3 3 3
v_ Joint spacing ratin g 30 5 5 5 5 5
Figure 82 : Mohr failure envelope for Intact specimens of Pang un a
andesite from Bougainville, Papua New Guinea . 7 Joint condition rating 25 20 10 10 5 0
Groundwater rating 10 8 5 5 5 5
17 5
NG! CLASSIFICATIO N
POOR FAIR GOOD VERY EXTREMELY EXCPT .
G000 GOOD GOO D
I .0 4 10 40 100 0 00 1 0 DO
0
o
c
m
ci 0
a ®m ® a
_
40 50 60 70 90 90 100
I
FAIR GOOD VERY GOOD
CSIR CLASSIFICATIO N
t'
S,ll rati,,g 19, 1/CI t'ati»y 1 . 0 „= 0 . 198 (a„ +o . 0007)° 66 2 xl,,=an,, 3 Ou3a*0 . D00 1
n = 0 .234 (0„ + 0 .0005) 0' 6 75 a lrt = e,,,'t'O 0 .000 1
0 .280 + 0.0003) 0 .688 . 1,, = 03„*,0 .5°at
* 0 .°00 1
POOR QUALITY ROCK HAS S TI = 0 .295 (a„ + o .0003) 0 .69 1
th ■,E .,',n,a 00001 jai»t a 0,346 (0,, + 0 .0002) 0 .700
at 30 tu 50000 0 1,,
uith a- a yu„g a = , 3„ i0.04, 3» * 0 .0000 1
Jil hing / ae:m 0,,at 0 roc
k
t'S'617 ,•r :t/oq 23, Y.CI ,,tt /ag n=0 .115(0,, + . .0002)°' 6 " 6
D. l n = 0 . 125 („ + 0 .0002) 0 ' 655 ah a =a 3» *'0*09n L, * 0 .0000 1 a l
» =0 .162 („+O .0,oo1)0 .6' 2 + , _ 0 3 o t ,97;T0 +
0 .00 00 1
VERY POOR QUALITY ROCK ttAS S LT 0 .1 1 2 ( 0»+0 .0001) 0 .6 7 6
im,=• Tn = 0 .203 (x,, * 0 . 0001)
.uni ly .000 331 0 . '8 6
.d Zs* tha,, 500„ uith Joint .
Jith;,g / taat . ,uak aith .lo,n/a
j'Ft a
(0») 0 1 534
CS1h rati»g 3, ach raS =0 .042 ahn=03,*'0 3a + 0
'og 0 .01 = a .o5o (x » ) 0 .539 x la' x 3» a Ô1 7a ,,, + O
„=0 .061(,,,) 0 .54 6
n = 0 .065 (,,,,)0 .54 0
, = 0 .070 (x„) 0 .556
3 c -0n c O N n -,
o 2, O * •
7 On
- -, n O O
N a' -< ID n< - c3 n
t_1 n n r 0. n N IDN N 1) T, O
cr 3- 0
N O ~• N o 3 n N -• N n X D Nn
= ON ONN n
O r m• n. 0 7 N p N 7 -• ONI
N -• n 7
0, r N n
_ N r0N 15 n 7 n N 0 ,n 1n ,
JO N - ]
N • 0,-< O t, -• N n 0 On 3 O
N 3- d ] n x r v' L 3 o n -•n 3= NO0 0
] ,O N S ]
(1N n N N V NN7 N 30 n t*N 3 N
,o000-0000-,, 0
v tX O `< N 0 n
Nn O T n J Nn w
• N IU
S N N tn n
-0 N N < 7
NON
S O'
o N aa 0 10 n N to n In 3 0,, fl S N
7 0 N O- , O, t0 N n N n N, ',i,' F N -•
3 ] 0 - 0 N
0 o-c ▪ - N T / 2
N c, 7 7 N O n 70- _ x' rt tO N
n tO N 7 N O
N u = N rr ò n
]' 3-SN ,O ^ 0, tO ] uWi n
N N - 7 O
0000 W
00 6 N- 7" ] O r r. 3
n 0 0 r S N 0o, N 0 N
On*
❑ N n 0 7 g n, N L - -. O
0. 0 )
O o ID v • 7 2- y 2 '2 2- 2 N N < „ v'
7 t
C c ID c n tlN
n N n k N n to JNN O Ô
S7Qô Ô 7' N tJ n -• N 0 3 7 , k
N N D O N n 7 ` a
•
N -. n n -0 N fl a ON N
r N N
0 O 0,*<
rr Hx, N rr â N N
S O ]-
O r, N 0 a' N O 1= 3 7 N
2g. 22- 0 n n -• n
F< ,l0 3 0 N N N
❑ - N ,0 n c n r
0 n = ,a R o nt N
f
N N ,n
0 a= 7 o c r 2:2 7 7
„ -• n o- ' - -• O '
-• F IU n N N 0< -- 0 n
,û s n a ❑ N0 , 7 0 -.00 T O
N • J ,n ,O n
d,,:, r Q ti ,
g o < n FS N
0_ N n • O N r N
] N
,n * NN O - 0 x'
N
178
Chapter 6 17 9
ref
erences
123 . COOK1N .G .W .,
HOFE, E
and SALAMON, M ., PRETORIUS, J .P
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280 178. ROSENGREN, Y, .J . and JAEGER, J .C . The mechanical proper-
scress . and LOOK, N .G .W, The effec
Cong_es sgrad*Lt t ties of a low porosity interlocked aggregate . G_otechnique ,
strength of rocks an d Vol . 18, 1968, pages 317-326 .
1970, Paper 3-5 . SogtheRoch eh,, Betgrade 2roc . 2e6n d
Vol . 2 , 179. BROWN, E .T . Strength of models of rock with intermitten t
165. O BERT, L ., joints . J . Soil Mechs . Foundns . Div ., ASCE, Vol . 96 ,
tests ; WINDES, S .L . and D
UVALL, W .I . Mo . 5M6, 1970, pages 1935-1949 .
rock . 5 .5 d`Sureau'n ph ysica l properties noch rd ;ne d
3891, ogfnes
th 180. BROWN, E .T . and TROLLOPE, D .H . Strength of a model o f
Report 01 =nies tig
ations , jointed rock . J . Soll Mechs . Foundns . Div ., ASCE, Vol .
M
166 . OGI, K
. The inrl 96, No . SM2, 1970, pages 685-704 .
the ra uence ofof the
s trength dimensions of spe
rocks cimen 181. EINSTEIN, H .H . and HIRSCHFELD, R .C . Model studies a n
Tokyo Univ . Vo1 . 40, .14o, 19622,xZ 1 . *-crtncua.%e s mechanics of jointed rock . J . SoiZ Mechs . Foundns . Div . ,
167 . BIENIAWSKI , Pages 1 75-185 • ASCE, Vol . 99, No . SM3, 1973, pages 229-248 .
7rock; Proc . 10tn Symp Ne of ATME, fr actur eY n
Pages 40 9-427 .. R ock ;1E e Ne w o Yor, rk, i 182. JOHN, K .W . Festigkeit und Verformbarkeit von drukfesten ,
768 . PRATT, H regelmassig gefügten Diskontinuen . eroffentlichungen
.R ., BLACK, A .D des Institutes für Bodenmechanic und Felsmechanik de r
., BROWN, W . and UniversitOt Fredericiaza in Karlsruhe, Heft 37, 1969 ,
Theu eff ct of specimen size an thz .5mec BRACE, W,R . 99 Pages .
v01 . 9, ted hanical p Sei
n1 72, diori
Pages e513-529 noni. J. Rock Mach . für r,7e s 183. LADANYI, B . and ARCHAMBAULT, G . Simulation of the shea r
behaviour of a jointed rock mass . Froc . llch Symposium
on. Rock Mech, published by AIME, New York, 1970, page s
105-125 .
1 82
18 3
784 .
M ULLER, L
. and PACHER, P
. Modellversuche zur
der Bruchefahr aeklufteter Medien K I aru n g
Geol ., Supp . Rock Introductio n
lement 2, 1965, pages 7-24
. ""er . and Eng„.
185 . JAEGER, J
.C . The beh The left hand margin sketch gives a simplified picture o f
rroc . 21th aviour of closely jointed rock
SJr%rvosimn an Rock llech_ . . the underground excavation stability problems which ar e
by AIME, New York, 1970, pages 57-68 Berkeley, pu blishe encountered with increasing depth below surface .
i d
786. MARSAL, R .J
. Mechanical pr At shallow depth in overburden soil or heavily weathere d
Embaakment Darr Engi o p erties of
ro ckfill . in poor quality rock, excavation problems are generally asso-
by R .C neering - Casag ra"ae
.Hirschfeld and S .J . n ciated with squeezing or flowing ground and very short stand -
E yOZ *e, Edite d
Sons, New York, 1 up times . This means that cut and cover or soft groun d
973, pages 1109_published by J .Wiley
200 .
787. MANEV, G tunnelling techniques have to be used and adequate suppor t
. and AVRAMOVA-TACHEVA, E has to be provided immediately behind the advancing face .
and resistance co . On the val uation o The stability of underground excavations in very poor qualit y
rnah
roc f
ssif . Proc . 2nd _ .`ndition
Z. of the rocks in natura GIverhu den soiZ and rock or soil will not be discussed in detail in this boo k
koi
grade, Vol Co l
. 1, 1970, pages 59 ngress on Rock Mech. , heavily weathered and the interested reader is referred to books such as thos e
.65 . rock - squeezing
788. MARACHI, N by Pequignot 150 , Hewett and Johannesson 191 and Szechy 19 2
.D ., CHAN, and fZowing ground,
of the pro p C .K . and SEED, H and to Journals such as Tunnels and Tunnelling for furthe r
erties of .B . Evaluatio short stand-up time deteils .
rockfill materials . n
Div., ASCE, J. SoiZ Are
114ndns . Vol . 98, No 95hs .
. SM1, 7972, pages Stability problems in blocky jointed rock are generall y
189 . associated with gravity falls of blocks from the roof an d
BI ENI AUSKI
T sidewalls . Rock stresses at shallow depth are generall y
. Determining rock mas
s low enough that they do not have a significant effect upo n
and .rience Sf com caSe hi to, ies . IntnZ . J . Ro2 6 rechan i this failure process which is controlled by the three-dimen-
1 978, pages 237-247, es Blockt' jointed roe :;
f weathere sional geometry of the excavation and of the rock structure .
d gravity falls o f
blocks from roo f Excavations in unweathered massive rock with few Joints d o
and sidewaZZs not usually suffer from serious stability problems when th e
stresses in the rock surrounding the excavations are les s
than approximately one fifth of the uniaxial compressiv e
strength of the rock . These are generally the most idea l
conditions for the creation of large unsupported excavation s
in rock .
Mark the rotated intersections ab', bc' and ac' and fin d
the great circles which pass through pairs of intersectio n
points . The strike lines of these great circles represen t
the traces of the joint planes an the vertical sidewall s
of the tunnel .
Tanha b
Tan vabt =
Cos Bah
The angles Übet and Bact are found in the Same way .
25 Tan'Ph c
Tan 'Poet ` _
Sin Eh c
The developed pinn view of the roof of the machine halt trie l
section, presented in figure 95, shows the potentially un-
stable wedges and blocks which were taken into account i n
desi g nin g the rockbolt reinforcement for the machine hal t
excavation . The appearance of the machine hall during a n
advanced stage of the excavation process is illustrate d
in figure 96 .
Figure 98
: Sidewall failure in a min e
haulage aligned parallel to the strik
e
direction of two major di
scontinuities .
an = W . Si e
2hb . Tand (71)
where ¢ is the angle of
friction of the discontinuity
su rfaces .
When the average normal
12757Figure 101 - Typical pillar in a larg e
distribution stress cn , calculated fro
m
iiss less than the around
rightthe opening and the weicht of thethe block stres s metal mine .
uns thae and rrght hand side of the eq uation, the block ,wil
be stabil ta y .it Info rcement is required in order to res to r l
e
sIn s ituations in which several
close to one another, the excavations are to be mine
stress shadows which occur betwee d
excavations (see page 124) can cause local n
and can give rise to failure stress r eduction s
and blocks of previously stable roof wedge s
relief . This is common in underground mining where Stress
due to opening
the mining -
an extraction suchofasa astope above or adjacent t o
d
in a previously stable excavation rawpoint can cause failur e
. Under these circ
and is prudente tod ig nore the support p rovided by rockumstance stoprv
stres
s
which q s
i iare uate support for any wedges or block
dentified
will be dealt with in g as potentially unstable
. This subjec
reater detail in the next chapter . t
Pillar failur e
Figure 102 Dis tribution of major an lt is important to emphasise the differente between the rati o
minor principal stresses and of d of strength to stress at a point and the factor cf safety o f
s trength/
stress ratio in pillar subjected to a the entire pillar . When the strength/stress ratio at a poin t
n falls below 1 .00, failure will initiate at this point .
average pillar stress of 40 MPa As
will be shown later in this chapter, the propagation of failur e
from this initiation point can be a very complex process an d
it does not necessarily lead to failure of the entire pillar .
Stab le Collapsed
Depths below surface, z fee t 65-720 :70-63 0
Pillar heights, h fee t 4-16 5-1 8
Pillar widths, W p feet 9-70 11-5 2
Width/height ratios, We / h 1 .2-9 0 .9-3 . 6
bxtraction ratios, e = 1 - (W/(W0 ± Wo )) < 0 .37-0 .89 0 .45-0 .9 1
The factor of safety of a pillar is given b y Hence, the factor of safety of 1 .6 suggested by Salamon an d
Munro is considered to be a reasonable value for permanen t
a_sign .
Kh a W o b (1e )
(73) Influence of shape and size on pillar strength
Yz
Equation 75 suggests that the strength of a pillar depend s Salamon and Munr o
upon its shape and also upon its size (or volume) .
o . 8
a b c d Bieniawsk i
°8 0. 4
Greenwald, Howarth and Hartma n t - in situ test s
-0 .85 0 .50 0 .73 -0 .11 7
on small pillars in USA
r
Relationship between pillar shape and pillar strength fü
At First glance it appears that there is a very wide scatte r figure 107 : .
constants suggested by various authors
in the values of the constants suggested by various authcr s
but the significance of this scatter can only be evaluate d
by comparing typical coal pillar strengths . Figures 107 an d
108 show the influence of pillar shape and pillar volume a n
the strength of typical pillars . lt will be seen that the
general trends are similar and that an "average" pair o f
curves have been calculated for c = 0 .60 and d = -0 .10 .
e 3 + ✓mece 3 + socz
Strength/stress ratio (shear (77 )
ei
"raetur e
traj ceiories
By putting the vertical applied stress p- = ec, the strength /
stress ratio for shear is expressed in terms of the uniaxia l
compressive strength e .
n
The failure angle ß is defined b y b . Formation of vertical cracks i
the roof and floor of the tunnel .
✓ I + me 0/4tm
s
ß = o Aresin (78 )
1 + moc/8rm s
where
`ms = b/ma ca 3 + so c 2
2
pz = 9000 lb/in - Vertical tensile cracks formed at point s
A and B in the roof and floor of the tunne l
(see margin sketch for locations) . These Crack s
propagated almost instantaneously to a lengt h
of approximately one third of the tunnel diamete r
and remained stable for the remainder of th e
loading process . This stable crack Formatio n
has been observed in other models 139 and i t
appears that, having relieved the tensile stresse s
in the roof and floor, these cracks piay n o
further part in the fracture process .
21 5
The F
ormation of the vertical cracks at A and
results in a redi B boundary of an excavation when tensile stresses occu r
stribution of the s
the tresses i n
rock and an analysis of these as a result of stress redistribution resulting fro m
redis tribute
stresses gives the strength/stress ratios an d fracturing elsewhere in the rock surrounding th e
fracture trajectories shown in the right d excavation . This prediction has been confirmed in thi s
side of figure 710c han d
. lt will be seen tha t model study but it is not known to what extent thi s
a zone of low strength/stress ratios occur type of cracking occurs under different stress condi -
remote from the excavation s
boundary tions or how si g nificant it is if it does occur .
mum value in this region is 0 . The mini-
that .38oc which suggest s
failure should occur at an applied stres 4 . The shear failure which was predicted and observed i n
level pz s
= 32000 lb/in2 . This is in the tunnel sidewall is regarded, by these authors, a s
reasonabl e
agreement with the value of p z the most important type of failure in the rock aroun d
at which f = 30000 lb/in 2
ractures were observed at points C an the opening . This is because, as shown in the mode l
D. d study, it can initiate a complex process of progressiv e
failure which can lead, under certain circumstances ,
p z = 34000 lb/i n 2 -In
itiation of shear failure at point to collapse of the excavation . This progressive failur e
in the sidewall of the tunnel The E process is very poorly understood at the present tim e
strength/stress ratio at p redicte d
t hi b. point is 0 and it constitutes a challenging probten for roc k
which .42 o c '
suggests that shear failure should hav mechanics research workers . In discussions on excavation
initiated at p z e
= 35000 lb/in 2 . stability later in this chapter and on excavation suppor t
P z = 36000 lb/in in the next chapter, sidewall failure can only be deal t
2
- The shear failure which had with in very simplified or even qualitative terms .
at point E p in itiated
ropagated a small distance into th
tunnel sidewall and then changed e The initial stages of sidewall failure in a bored rais e
di rectio n
as shown by crack F in the lower margin through highly stressed massive brittle rock are shown i n
on page 272 sketc h
. An analysis of the stress distri- the photograph reproduced in figure 111 . Figure 112 shows
bution
in a model wich vertical cracks at A an a more advanced Stege of sidewall failure in a mine tunne l
B and a sidewall failure at E showed that th d in very highly stressed rock . A Final stage of sidewal l
strength/stress ratio in the area of crack e failure under severe rockburst conditions is illustrated i n
is 0 .3 Qc which F
is lower than the value o f fi g ure 113 .
0 .4 2 ac at which failure at E
in itiated . Thi s
suggests that the crack propagation process
unstable i s
and [hat, once shear failure has
tiated at E, the F ini-
is in evitable . ormation of the crack at F
the In fact, a violent collapse o f
mode] occurred very shortly alter the
mation For -
of the crack at F and no further
was p ossible . analysi s
Wi1son '-- 13 and Ortlepp, More O'Ferral1 and Wilson 214 hav e
reported observations an the failure of rock surroundin g
square tunnels in massive quartzite in deep level gold mine s
in South Africa . Their observations are summarised in tabl e
15 and in figure 114 . The points plotted in figure 114 re-
present values of the vertical in situ stress p ., at whic h
sidewall slabbing of the tunnels was jud ged to have occurred .
'
ô g g?
Figure 112 Sidewall failure in a mine tunnel in very C U C
C
d
highly stresse d
rock in a mine in Zambia .
G
as
a` C m '
UnswrrGrwrd t'JY!%2Zü
Gritty quartzite 326 58 -__-0_.._ l d
Gritty quartzite 752 55 0 .1 7
Hard clean quartzite nv b 207 53 0 .2 1
'denk sandstone with "shai
:z ete 298 55 0 .1 8
Hard cl _ea n^g,
r`" q eire 336 55 0 .1 6
-
1 bedded weck quartzite wit h
frequent shale layers 259 39 0 .1 5
8 Waxy quartzite wich vorne shale 170 52 0 .3 1
9 Extr_mely variable uartzite 220 50 0 .2 3
10 Hard gritty quartzite 322 61 0 .1 9
11 Weak argillaceous quartzite 254 47 0 .1 9
12 Silicious quartzite with cyrite bands 304 56 0 .1 8
13 Argillaceous quartzit e 242 54 0 .2 2
cr/P z = (1 .9k - 1 )
There are many other problems which will face the geotechnica l
consul tant before the project is completed . Some *•:ill be
solved by the application of engineering common Sense bu t
others will require detailed study and careful moni torin g
of the actual excavation performance to ensure that reasonabl e
solutions have been achieved . In many cases it may be neces-
sary to draw up contingency plans to be implemented if th e
monitored behaviour indicates that the installed suppor t
is inadequate or that some element of the design is no t
performing as anticipated .
Ts =c + aTanq (82 )
where c and q are the cohesive strength and the angle of fric-
tion of the fault surfaces or of the gou g e in the fault .
formed by the Fault and other Faults or joints . 155 have postulated that slabs can form i n
Fairhurst and Coo k
massive rock under the conditions of nearly uniaxial compre s -
In the case of a major excavation such as an undergroun d sive stress which occur adjacent to the boundaries of under -
powerhouse cavern, the simple analysis discussed ground excavations (see discussion on page 152) . In jointed
on the pre-
ceding pages may not be adequate for design purposes or bedded rock masses, the presence of structural Feature s
. Unde r
such circumstances, it may be justified tc use the Finit parallel to the excavation surfaces will result in the form a -
e
element technique described by Goodman 117
. 'This analysi s tion of plates and slabs . Whatever the reason for the pre-
incorporates both strength and deformation characteristic sence of these slabs, it takes very little imagination t o
s l
of joints (or faults) and takes into account the redistribu- visualise that they are susceptible to buckling under axia
tion of stress associated with slip on these structura l stress .
Features
. Such an analysis is obviously more realistic tha n
that discussed above but the reader should not under-estimat Referring to the margin sketch, the axial stress o a at whic h
e
the effort and expense involved in obtaining realistic inpu a plate will buckle is given b y
t
date and in setting up the finite element mesh .
yC 4
ö = (85 )
32Re2
yt2
(86)
2t
y is the unit weight of the rock , a mine structure arises when the strain energy stored locall y
E is the modulus of elasticity of the rock in the structure exceeds the total energy required to crus h
.
Z is the span of the open ing an d -
t the pillar support . The saure basic concept governs the pheno
is the thickness of the roof slab . mena of controlled or uncontrolled failure of brittle roc k
specimens in laboratory compression tests referred to on pag e
When a relatively thick roof slab is overlain by thinne r s
133 . Techniques for the determination of the required stiffnes
slabs, the larger deflections of the upper slabs will caus and the assessment of pillar stability have been developed by
e
[hem to rest on the roof slab, thereby incre$sing the stres Starfield and Fairhurst 271 , Salamon 204 and Brady 212 and th e
in this slab s
. This increase can be taken into account by . lt i s
followin g discussion is based upon these contributions
by replacing the unit weight y in equations 85 and 86 by a assumed that the country rock is continuous and linearly elasti c
adjusted unit weight y a n
which is calculated as Fellow s and that only the pillars exhibit non-linear behaviour .
E1t12
(Yltl + y 2 t2 + . .+ yn O,) Consider the situation shown in the upper margin sketch in whic h
Ya
one of the pillars in a simple mining lay-out is replaced b y
E 1 t 1 3 + E2t2 3 + . .+ Er,t0 3
o and that i t
a jack . Say the initial load on the jack is P
where E 1 , E, is then slowly retracted to simulate a pillar collapse . As the
. . . E„ are the elastic moduli
i jack is retracted, the load P will fall and the roof and floo r
Y1 . y 2 . . . Y ;, are the unit weight ;, an e
d will converge . Provided that the roof remains intact, th
tl, t 2 .• are the thicknesses'of successive slabs . curve relating jack force and convergence, S, will be as show n
in the lower margin sketch . If the roof feile at some stage ,
IF the roof slab is subjected to a uniformly distribute d the jack will be required to support a gravitational load, an d
pressure due, for example, to water or gas pressure betwee n in this case, the force-convergence curve may follow the dashe d
it and the upper layers, the maximum deflection and the maxi- n
mum tensile stress are increased as Fellow s line . The negative slope of the P-S curve will depend upo
the mechanical properties of the roof and floor, the width s
of the openings, the sizes of adjacent pillars and abutment s
and the location of the jack . This slope is called the
Zoec Z
(88 )
mine-stinpness .
,
Now replace the jack by a pillar . The deformation of the pillar
(89) which corresponds to the contraction of the jack, will depen d
l
on the force exerted on it by the roof and floor . A typica
force-deformation curve for a pillar is shown in figure 127 e
A few triel calculations will soon convince the reader tha t g
on page 238 . As the pillar is loaded, it compresses alon
the increase in tensile stress due to the presence of wate r the line OA until its peak load bearing capability, Pmax, i s
or gas pressure above the roof d
slab can be significant . Thi s
sugg ests that, if this problem is suspected, dreina reached . At this point the pillar may be internally fracture
g_ e hole s and some slabbing of the sides may be in evidente . However ,
should be drilled through the roof slab in Order to reliev n
pressur .s which could build up behind the slab e the pillar still has the capacity to support loads less the
. Pmax if it is deformed along the post-peak curve AB . lt i s
this post-peak behaviour that is influenced by the local mine -
Equations 85 and 86 show [hat the slenderness ratio of th e
stiffness .
roof slab plays an important rote in determining the stabilit y
of gravity loadea roof slabs, as it does in the case of slab
s Two different local mine-stiffnesses AE (low) and AG (high )
which buckle under axial loads .
This means [hat the instal - are shown superposed on the pillar load-deformation curve i n
lation of short rockbolts which pin the roof slabs togethe e
r figures 127b and 127c . In the case of the example in figur
to decrease the slenderness ratio can be effective in d
stabi- 1276, an increase in conver gence of As beyond Pmax woul
lizing openings in horizuntaily bedded rock .
result in a force PH being exerted on the pillar by the roof .
Since the pillar can only sustain a force PJ at this new de -
Stiffness, energy and stabilit y
formation, the situation is unstable and the pillar will col -
lapse as soon as Pmax is reached . In this case, the energ y
The discussions presented so Fee in this chapter have been i n released by the mine ( the area AHDC ) is greater than th e
terms of peak strengths and strength/stress ratios . However , energy required to deform the pillar (the area AJDC ), an d
factors other than induced stress levels and rock mass strength s excess energy represented by the shaded area in the sketch i s
may influence the behaviour of an underground excavation
. As available to crush the pillar .
was noted on page 203, the violence and the completeness of th e
collapse of a component such as a pillar once the peak strengt h If, on the other hand, the pillar is in a region of high loca l
of the rock has been exceeded, will depend upon the relationsli p mine-stiffness, the roof is unable to supply the force necessar y
between the stiffness of the pillar and that of the surroundin g to deform the pillar beyond A and the situation is stable .
rock . This important aspect of the stability of undergroun d y
That is to say, the elastic strain energy released locally b
excavations has been discussed i n detail by authors such a t
Fairhurst 216 , Brady 219 . Se lamon- 04 s the mine during the converg ence increment As, is less than tha
, Petukhov and Linkov 2 - 0 . Controlle d
and Starfield and F airhurs, t 22 : re q uired to deform the pillar along the curve AK
and only the basic concept s failure of the pillar, but not violent collapse, may occur .
will be outlined here . e
In practice, the local stiffness will vary over the life of th
pillar so that the pillar may exhibit both stable and unstabl e
The possibility of local instabilitq or sudden collapse in The pillar stiffness will not b e
behaviour durin g its history .
238
23 9
Salamo n 204 has shown that the condition for pillar stabilit y
may be expressed mathematically a s
k + a > 0
24 1
Chapter 7 references
characte r
. In-sitze complete stress-strainInst . Min .
222. VAN NEERDEN, W .L . J. South African
istics of large coal .pillars
8, 1975, pages 207-217 .
206. GROBBELAAR, C . The theoretical strength of mine pillars , Metall ., Vol . 78, No
part II . The University of Ditoatzesrand, Department o f
Pillars as structura l
Mining Engineering, Report 113, 1968 . . and WAWERSIK, W .R .
223. STARFIELD, A .M pillar mine design . Proc. 20th
components in room AIME,
and New York, 1972, pages 793- 8 09 .
207 . WILSON, A .H . Research into the determination of pillar size - Symp . Rock Mech .,
Part 1 . The Mining t gineer, Vol .131, 1971-72, pages 409-417 .
}
208. HOLLAND, C .T . Pillar design for permanent and semi-permanen t
support of the overburden in coal mines . Proc . 9th Canadian
Rock Mechanics, Montreal, 1973, pages 113-139 .
Introduction
ih step 3, the tunnel has been mucked out and steel set s
have been installed close to ehe face . At this stage, th e
supports carry no Ioad, as shown by point D an the grap h
in figure 129, because no further deformation of the tunne l
has taken place . Assuming that the rock mass does not exhibi t
time-dependent deformation characteristics, the radial de-
formations of the tunnel are still those defined by point s
6 and C .
In step 5, the tunnel face has advanced so far beyond sectio n RADIAL DEFORMATION u
X-X that it no longer provides any restraint for the rock mas s
at section X-X . lf no support had been installed, the radia l drill an d blas t
deformations in the tunnel would increase es indicated by th e f fall face
being advanced .
st a tunnel
dashed curves marked EG and PH in figure 729 . In the case o ` Figure 129 methods with
methods with blocked steel sets boing installed a after Bach mucking
g and
m are
cycle
the sidewalls, the pressure required to Limit further deforma- The foad-deformation curves for the rock mass and theJ`Jsupport syste
4
tion drops to zero at point G and, in this case, the sidewall s . (After Daeman 2X ),
would be stable since there is no remaining driving forte to iven in the lower patt of the figure
g
induce further deformation . an the other hand, the support
24 6
required to limit
deformation ci
f.n
roof drop roPSsthenbgiocreasin to a m inimu
ward disp la cement of the . This is becaus m
zone of I nte thr down
-
causes additional rock to become `" sened rock ht roo f are free to fall or slide under their own weight . This i s
ad ditional I lotse
oos_ rock is added to and the wei 9 h r op because these blocks or wedges move independently of th e
;die remainder of the rock mass and hence apply concentrated o r
In the example illustrated, the roof would col s u pre ssur e .
support had b eccentric loading to the support system . Roc'<bolts an d
een installed the lapse if no
in Tunnel . Gables are better able to resist these eccentric loads tha n
k;....Il iu S
Lr ec .; _ steel sets or concrete linings and the latter should therefor e
ure for th tion ee be avoided if possible .
rea cti n c ' blocked rt ,c the S uppor loed-t
°sets ig
e tion curves for the tunnel sidewallsuinr ete7rs2 9e ts the o > d
At these p In desi g ning rockbolt or cable support for blocks or wedges ,
L i mi the furtyhe oints, the support P and r oof r point
ressures re s the authors recommend that a liberal allowance be made fo r
balanced t ormation of the sidewalls rooSuiee t o
r the dnfupport pres variations in the strength of the installed bolt or cabl e
a nd i sure available from roof are l setsl y
tunnel and the the stee and for time-dependent strength reduction due to corrosio n
support
lsytemarinble S e or creep at the anchor points . Typically, one hundred on e
lt will be evident 9uil ibriu m . inch diemeter mechanically anchored rockbolts with an averag e
th
lt rational de from this simple qualitative exa
si9n of support S m Pl a than failure loed of 30 tons (determined from pull-out tests )
e the iatonc ystems m
nature of the load- Y*t [n kc int raco a ccoun would be used to support a 1500 ton block . This gives a
of both rock mass and deformatio nalysi t
support sy factor of safety of 2 for the system . When the bolts o r
rock-support stem . A Full teristic s
a nalysi dysif
s of cables are grouted, as they should be for all permanen t
p interaction represents an exceedingly instelletions, this factor of safety can be reduced to abou t
tha i roblem and the authors wish to make t
ntheir 1 .5 .
to this Pr o isfactory quantitati
ttl n
ion, notl at ropi
ve csolution
an app m are cu s y available . s The len g th of the rockbolts or cables should be chosen t o
d approximate In the page s
pr
foloesented , an olution to this lem will b whic h
ensure that they are anchored well beyond the boundarie s
oped that the reader will will b e
solution useful as a means of com ne the will Fin d [hi s of the block . The choice of whether to use one hundred 3 0
different su Pari t
Pport Systems . beh shouldaviou r tak ton rockbolts or twenty 150 ton cables depends upon th e
However, rea
inareful
e note of the simplifying assumptions der a e nature of the jointing in the block and in the rock mas s
g ` he solution and should ar e m ad e surrounding the block . In the case of massive hard rock wit h
un
s o f i er Liseof bolts or eabZes to
the solution is limited remember [ widely spaced joints, the use of cables may prove to be th e
in teraction stu ies [ended
of different
to sensitivi* suspend a wedge which is fre e best and most economical solution . an the other hand, if th e
rock-support systen`
s d
aIn rth e to faZZ from the roof of an
should not, under any circumstance . st Th The
e red e rock mass is closely jointed, it may be necessary to use bolt s
eng ineerin s, abandon underground eseavation .
g judgement and common his or he r to ensure that small wed g es do not fall out between the bolts .
answers produced from this type sense and ,rel h As a general rule, the maximum soacing between the bolts o r
of yvinc upon th e
9 those answers may a analysiso*aeverly cables should not exceed three times the average joint spacin g
ppear . con -
Support in the rock mass when support is required for dead wei g h t
of wedges or blocks which loading .
are free to fal l
The discussion pr Support of wedges or blocks which are free to slid e
support must be d esented on the preceding pages shows tha
esigned to resist deformations t
the dead weight of loosened rock as well es thosei nduced b y Another special case in which ehe stress-induced deformation s
by a read'u
J s
tment of the stress field i eth in d in the rock mass are not significant is that of wedges o r
excavation n h
jointed roc . In an extreme case, which [ ca n rock rs urroundin i
g
blocks which are free to slide . This case is similar to tha t
nas n discussed above except that the frictional resistance of th e
k ocs ses et shallow depth, the
be stress-i n sliding surfaces should be taken into account in designin g
induoa nsignificant hdby
rocomp wit the support system . Once again, the use of rockbolts o r
problemn b the weight of the broken as iy thos e
has already been .ack rThis type o cables is preferred to steel sets or concrete lining .
di scussed , in Part f
d ' eYmint he p revi ous chapter which , petho
age s 18 3
sidewalls of an deal[ with ` h m hod The use of stereographie techniques to determine ehe weigh t
aexca( ° re blocks or wed ge s s fo r
ae support
Pport s
has been es
ystem to resist
tabiis h
thi sweich
once . i ns
°n y _ ins to desig n
d to to e and the sliding direction of wedges in the roof or the side-
eells of an excavation has been discussed in chapter 7 ,
pages 183 to 192 . The factor of safety of a block or a wedg
ei
l t e
Note that early - which is reinforced against sliding on a sin g le plane i s
des Terzeghi (see support d2, aage me 1 ), O given b y
c hapte such se that pro 4
rgnosupt hep osed
Sy
stems to resive esuportdin ih e F = cA + (W Cosg+ T Ces "a)Ta n
9 .,cr,,.gd dead
ad l bd
. Thes
These (90)
tunnels w' 'erY useful passive W Sing -
nere the dead weight TSie El
thme ed i r shallo w
a dominant role but their use roc k Play s
exca va Bons
in which stres
use
L imit * is where W is
the weight of the wed g e or block ,
s-induced def in dig n imAorta T is
the load in the bolts or cables ,
°rria [le sns are e
general, the authors nt , Lise of reali;olts or cables t o A is
the base area of the sliding surface ,
Gab re commend the use of
to support reinforee a wedge agains t y is
the dip of the sliding surface ,
potentiallyunstable ro ckbolts o
r sliding on a single plane . B is
the angle between the plun g e of the bolt o r
e_dc_ss or blocks which
cable and the normal to the sliding surface ,
c is the cohesive strength of the sliding surfac e
and f is the friction an g le of the sliding surface .
. The solution presente d
Hence, the total bolt or cable load required i s Lombardi 229 - 230 , E g ger 231 and Panet 232 utilise s
below is based upon that derived by Ladenyi 22a but it
W( F . S i n i - Ces P Ta n q) - cA the rock strength criterion discussed in chapter 6 .
Ces0Teep + F . Sie b (91)
Basic assenptions
A factor of safety of 1 .5 to 2 should be used, deeending upo l
n Tunnel oeomefry : The analysis assumes a circular tunne h
the damage which would result from sliding of the block o r of initial radius ri .The length of the tunnel is suc
wedge and upon whether or not the bolts or cables are to b e that the problem can be treated two-dimensionall y .
grouted . n
• In situ stress Field: The horizontal and verticalai
When the geometry of the wedge or block is such that slidin g situ stresses are assumed to be equal and to have
would occur along the line of intersection of two planes , magnitude po .
port is assumed t o
the analysis presented above can be used to give a Firs t • Support pressure : The installed sup
approximation of the support load required . The plunge o f exert a uniform radial support pressure pi en th e
the line of intersection should be used ,,in place of the di p Walls of the tunnel .
f of the plane in equations 90 and 91 .1'This solution ignore s : The origina l
the wedging action between the two planes and the answe r • Material properties of original rock mass
obtained would be conservative, ie . a lower factor of safet y rock mass is assumed to be linear-elastic and to b e
s
would be given by equation 90 than [hat which would be obtaine d characterised by a Young ' s modulus E and a Poisson ' l
from a Full wedge analysis . This would result in a hi g he r ratio v . The failure characteristics of this materia
bolt load being calculated from equation 91 than would actuall y are defined by the equatio n
be required . in many practical applications, the qualit y ci = e3 + (mcc .c3 + sag) ` (92 )
of the input date and the economic importance of the savin g
in rockbolts would not justify a more refined analysis . I n broke n
the case of very large underground caverns, the sizes o f Material propereies of broken rock mass : The
rock mass surrounding the tunnel is assumed to b e
wedges or blocks can be considerable and hence a more precis e perfectly plastic and to satisfy the following failur e
analysis may be justif ied .
criterio n
Hoek and Bray2 haue dealt with the problem of the reinforce- g s + ( mroc . e 3 e s r e,') ' (93 )
eI =
ment of sliding wedges in rock slopes and the problem i s
identical to [hat which occurs in underground excavations . (lote that, in the interests of simplicity, it i s
Computer programs, such as that written by Croney, Legge an d assumed that the strength reduces suddenly from tha t
6halla '- 95 are available to identify wedges or blocks whic defined by equation 9 2 to that definedhave by equation 93 .
slide or fall and to calculate the support loads require d h Daemen 22b,225 , Egger 231 and Panet 2 ' t
allowed for
to achieve g iven factors of safety . A simplified analysis n
pro g ressive strain-softening post-failure behaviour i
suitable for use an a pro g rammable calculator, is presente d. their analyses .
in Appendix 6 at the end of this book . ar e
tiotzmeoric ,streine : In the elastic region .these ,
Before leaving this topic , it is worth noting that the plung governed by the elastic constants E and e At failure
e e
and trend of a bolt or cable which will g ive ehe hi g hes t the rock will dilate (increase in volum-e) and th e
factor of safety when used to reinforce a wedge which ca n strains are calculated using the associated flow rui
slide along the line of intersection of two planes are de- of the theory of plasticity .
fined in the mergle Sketch . The plun g e of the bolt is a t h
Time-dependen.t hehaviour: In is assumed that bot t
an ang le equal to the friction angle of the sliding surfaces the original and broken rock masses do not exhibi
, 2a allowed fo r
measured from the live of intersection . The trend of th e time-dependent behaviour . Ladanyi '-
bolt is parallel to ehe live of intersection . both short- and long-term material behaviour in hi s
oe -e
e t- de e Rock-support interaction analysi s solution .
that the plasti c
-_rseeeion tent of p tcs ic zolle : It is assumed
Having dealt, albeit rather briefly, with the most importan t zone extends to a radius re which depends upon th e
o3 in situ stress p the support pressure =i and the
types of dead weight loading in underground excavatien suppor t
design, we can now turn to tbe problem of designing suppor t material characteristics of both the elastic and th e
.yssurned Falture c_ eeria fo r
systems to resist stress-induced deformations . broken rock mass .
original e'tastic :find broke n m
_k masse.s Radial syzoneerg : Note that, in all details, the proble
As pointed out in the introduction to [his chapter, th e being =_nalysed is symmetrical about the tunnel axis .
analysis of rock-support interaction is a formidable theore- e
tical problem because of the large number of factors whic If the weicht of the rock in the broken zone vier
h included in this analysis, this simplifying symmetr y
have to be taken into account in Order to derive meanin g fu l would be lost . Since the weicht of this broken roc k
solutions . A number of simplifying assumptions have to b is extremely important in the support desi g n, an
e
made in Order to reduce this problem to manageabie proportion s allowance for this weight is added efter the basi c
and these assumptions will be discussed in detail in th analysis has been completed .
following text . The interested reader who wishes to pursu e
e
the subject of rock-support interaction further is referre d
to the papers by p aemen 224 , 225 , Rabcewicz 227 , Ladanvi 223
250
25 1
Analysis o:
s tressec
For the case of Equating the values of a fe given by equations 101 and 10 3
cylindrical sy mmetry, the
of eq uilibrium is differentia l results in the following equation for the plastic zone radiu s
eq uatio
n
= ri .e (P1 - iJ
re mo c (m ra cPi s ra )
dar + ( a r -a8 ) (104 )
d r
r -- = 0
(94 )
where 2
S atisfyine this
the boundary
equation for N =
mrCc(mracPo + sra* - m roiM) 2 (los )
c onditions ar = alinear-elastic behaviour an d r
r = m gives the followin re at r = re and a r
g9 eq uations for the lt will be seen, from equation 101, [hat the zone of broken
region s [resses**in t
th e rock will exist only if the internal support pressure pi i s
lower than a critical value given by
ar = Po - ( Po - a re)(r e/n ) 2
Pi ` p i,, = Po - Ma c (106 )
a8 = Po + (po - a re)( r ry ) 2
e/
Analysis of deformations
Within the
broken zone, the failure
equation 93 must criterion defined The radial displacement of the elastic boundary u e produced
be satisfied . by
problem ae = al and a Reconnising that, in thi by the reduction of C . from its initial value of p o to a r e
as r = °3+ e quation 93 may s
be r e-writte n is found from the theory of elasticity to b e
tion for Stresses aroun d
nneZ ae (1 + v )
Cr + (mrac .ar + ue = E (Po-are) .,, (107 )
z
I ntegration of = sraj)i (97 )
equation 94 and
condition a r Sub stitution of the
= pi at r = ri gives the boundar y or, using equation 101
the radial
stress in the broken following equation
rock : fo r
(1 +, )
ue = E Ma re (108)
cr = mra c
4 (ln(r/ri))2
+ ln(r/ri) (mra cpi
+ src2) } + p
o-
i (98 )
let e av be the average plastic volumetric strain (positive
In order to find the Notation for dispZacements for volume decrease) associated with the passage of the roc k
value of
broken a re and the radius re around tanne Z from the original to the broken state . By-comparing the
zone, use is made of the fact that the of th e
of the original failure c riterio volumes of the broken zone before and after its formatio n
boundary of the rock mass must be satisfied at the n
we obtai n
elastic region, ie at r i nterna l
equations 95 and 96, the =
principal stress d i where, from
rfe rence i s ir(re 2 - ri2) = v((re + ue) 2 - (e i + ui )') (1 - eav )
°8e - a re = (l09 )
2(po - a re )
(99) Simplification gives
The failure
equation
cr
iterion for the original
92 which may be re- rock mass is given b
y ui = % . (l -
f1 - e avl
; (110 )
expressed as L1 + A J
- a 3 = a ( ma 3 /
+ where
c
ac (100 ) - e av)( re/ri) 2
A = ( t ue /r e
Substitution of al =
and ag= a in e q uation 100
then equating the ri ht r an d
q hand sides Substitution for the terms re/ri and ue/re from equation s
leads to the result ofeequations 99 and 10
0 104 and 108 gives
4
a re Po - A = f 2(1+ v) Ma 2N - ma c ( m r ac Pi + s r al )
E c e av) e
where
(112 )
M = 3((u)2 + m ;
'
(102) The derivation of the expression for e av is beyond the scop e
The failure cr of this book but it can be found in the paper by Ladanyi 228 .
iterion for the
at r = and hence ,re broken rock must also
from e q uation 9 8 be satisfie d
25 3
D = -m
m+b(mar
- e In the case of ungrouted mechanically anchored bolts, sudde n
ac s) = failure of the bolt system can occur when the maximum suppor t
Equation for pressure Psmas is exceeded . This is a situation which shoul d
the required su pport Irina be avoided since it can have unpredictable consequences .
r (re ri)
aod
n Piore Asaiiable support for concrete or shotcrete Zining
quation po
o r the required of the rock mass is elasti
c
support line is given b y
A cast in situ concrete or a shotcrete linin g of thicknes s
?i (t+v ) to is placed inside a tunnel of radius ri . The support pressur e
rio E (Po - Pi) generated by this lining in response to convergence of th e
( 1 17 )
tunnel is given by equation 118 wher e
Fo r <
u , -,_ Flor
ine ipis a broken tone exists and th c
given by equation 110 e required suppor t
Na . (120 )
rockuired sup png th e f oe'ohe
lines A llowanee *o (1 + v c)((l - 2vc)r + (ri - to )2 )
tne l Tor the dead weight of
OJ broken n OCeC where
The required support line defined by Ec = elastic modulus of concrete ,
be considered to eq uations 110 an
r e p resent the d 17 * can v c = Polssoe i s ratio of concrete ,
the tunnel since the s be
haviour of the sidewalls o f • = tunnel radius ,
are not inf tresses and def
luenced, to any significant ormations in these re i • = concrete or shotcrete thickness .
9 on
weight of the broken extent , t sby
rock sur d
rounding the tunnel . In dea
eotalwfrhed igtofhebrkn r o r Note that the influence of light reinforcing in the linin g
and in the floor of the tunnel, rou
be in creased or d as nnel, the support p
in [he oo f
can is not taken into accout in this stiffness calculation .
ecreed by the amount ressur e Reinforcement such as mesh in shotcrete or light rebars i n
yr is the unit weight of the broken rocky r (re - r i) wher e concrete plays a very importart role in controlling and dis-
cor
rection can only be done . Note that thi s tributing stresses and cracking in the lining but it does no t
alter
for the weightless conditions has been the required support lin significantly increase the stiffness .
e
eq uations 110 and
117 .
ca lculated b y
Y mean s :rotz The analyeis presented
aposiae assume s a elcs_ rin g When very heavy reinforcing is included in the lining, fo r
This correction muss be recognised as a gross cif ncr - or .,hotaretean d
U example when concrete is cast over steel sets, the contri-
simp lificatio n tauchy of the support ',-'ne ., bution of both systems should be taken into account . Th e
but, within the Overall accuracy of the analysis
above, it give pr esente d 2er-tuet; frort the coitinity of action of combined support systems will be discussed iate r
g t sdeawiht estimate of the effect of th • ring . WCen applyine ahi e in this chapter .
the broken
broken rock
ro . e
anaZysis to Hott-eircular or t o
Analysis of dvaiZahle • -ial concrere or shotcret e
suppor t It should also be noted that the concrete or shotcrete linin g
n_i :'are taust b take n is assumed to be permeable so that any internal or externa l
As ill
ustrated in figure 129, support is usually .. ..-J the e
.._ailab e_ Fort l e wat .er pressures do not influence the support pressure F- . .
alter a certain amount of i nstalle d not oaer-esti,aeed. In the case of hydraulic tunnels in which the lining i s
con
in the tunnel vergence has already taken plac
. This initial convergence, denoted by e irrpermeable, the additional stresses induced by water pressur e
shown in the margin sketch . is misst be taken into account . It is not particularly difficul t
The s to extend the analysis presented hexe to include this effec t
ch tiffness of the support installed within the tunnel i and the dedicated reader is left to carry out this modification .
aracterised by a stiffness constant k s Alternatively, reference is made to textbooks such as thos e
pressure Pi p . Th e
rovided by the support is given dial suppor t by Szechy 19'- or Peeuignot 10 for detailed discussions on thi s
by subject .
support curve Pi = r - uie/rZ. The maximum support pressure- which can be generated by a
(118 ) shotcrete or concrete lining can be calculated from the theor y
where uie
is the elastic pari of the total of hollow cylinders under external pressure 67 and is give n
Hence deformation '- !
by
Note that equation 121 can only be applied when the Iining i
s
circular and the amount of overbreak is limited .
1 S .ri + rti3
S. 0(B+Sin 08) co s y 2S. g . ti
ks EsAs EsI s 2 Sin = B E0W ' (122 )
where
r i = tunnel radius ,
S = set spacing along length of tunnel ,
E = half angle between blocking points (radians) ,
W = flange width of set , 20
As = cross-sectional area of stee ly section ,
I s = moment of inertia of steel section ,
o
E s = Young's modulus of steel ,
thickness of block ,
Eg = modulus of elasticity of block material .
10
f
The block is assumed to be square in plan and to have a sid e
length equal to W, the flange width of the steel set .
where s
Figure 130 : Typical bolt load-extension curve determined by mean
oys = yield strength of steel , of a pull-out test on a 1 Inch diameter, 6 foot lan g
X = depth of steel section . bolt anchored by means of a 4 leaf Rawlplug expensio n
2L6
shell . After Franklin and Woodfield
Aaai lob le support for un grouted rockhops
O O O O D
o
1
Q O N QO O
O O 0
lt is important to remember [hat load is induced in the bol t ô O O d O O O O
e o
by deformation in the rock mass . Consequently, the preloa d u
s
applied to the bolt after installation should ;not be too i0
,Q iu,o io *o *o io 0
high otherwise the remaining capacity of the *)lt to accep t -
o x
x x x -x
load from the rock mass will be too smell . In the Gase x x x
CO
occurs as a result of anchor slip, the failure process i s
generally more gradual .
where
Tbf e ultimate strength of holt system from pull-ou t
test on a similar rock mass to that for whic h
the rockbolt system is beleg desigeed .
S
TAKLE 14 - CALCULATION SEQUENCE FOR ROCK-SUPPORT INTERACTION ANALYSI
=1i (1 +v)
k' = k, + (129 ) (Do - Pi )
1 Input pi - r
io
E
where l
k l = stiffness of first system an d < Po - Mac , plastic failure occurs around tunne
-e . For Pi
k 2 = stiffness of second system .
ug - (1 + v)
Ma
Note that the two su p port systems are assumed to be installe d E
re
at the same time .
i
The available support curve for the combined system is define d re N - 2 P c
by (mra
f• = e
0 :r:
(130 ) ' R 28 In ra/r,
;
Y , 9. For re/ri < /
R e 1 .1 D
(see equation 179 on page 252) . h. For r e/ri >
Equation 131 will apply untii the maximum deformation whic h 2( u e/re)(r e/ ri) 2
can be tolerated by one of the systems is reached . At thi s i. eav
[( r</ri) 2 - 1) ( 1 +i/ R )
point the remaining support system will be required to carr y
most of the load but its response will probably be unpredict- r i) 2
able . Consequent}y, the faiiure of the first system is re - A _ (t ue / r a - e oo)( ra/
garded as faiiure of the overall support system .
o.
Psemax 1 (ri - tr ) 6. Available support curve for a combined support syste m
2
ri s (121 )
Input data required
sscs 41
o
ri n o 2E b
(127 )
/s es Z
`smax - T bf
(128)
262 26 3
TABLE 15 - TYPICAL VALUES FOR MODULUS OF DEFORMATION AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY FOR USE I TABLE 15 continued .
N
ROCK-SUPPORT INTERACTION ANALYSIS . After Lana and Vutukuri 23 3
Test description Modulus of Modulus of
Test locatio n elastieit y
Rock type an d deformation
1 Rock rtype and Test location Test deseriation
descviption GPa G2a
ction Modulus of Modulus o f
deformation elastieity 'f * 43 . 2
GPa` Daci t e Pongolapoort dam, jack fes t
G2a
Amphibolit e Czechoslovakian dams South Africa
0 .71m 0 jack 2 .5-15 .6 1 3 . 5-35 . 9
2. 4 3. 5
Amphibolit e Kloof gold raine , 0 .5m 0 jac k
Koshibu dam, Japan pressure chamber Diabase ,
granodiorit e 23 . 7
weathered, jointe d South Afric a
1 . 0
Amphibolit e Zillierback dam , deformation
Oroville power plant, jack test Diabas e
USA . 60 . 3 Germany analysi s
cavern deformn . 56 . 5 2.0
Andesit e Nuclear power plant , jack tes t
Japanese hydroelec- 0 .18m 2 jack Diabas e
4 .9-10 .1 30 .3-32 . 4
tric project s Japa n
1 . 8
Agglomerate and tuf f Nuclear power plant , jack tes t
Cachi da m pressure chamber Diorit e
with some andesit e 2 .1-15 .8 Japa n
0 .7-5- 4 2 .6-11 . 7
Arkose sandston e Tehachapi, USA jack tes t
Japanese hydroelec- 0 .18m 2 jack Diorite gneis s
1 .2-3 . 2 7 .4-17 . 1
tric project s jack tes t
Karadj, Ira n
Diorit e
Biotite gneis s Amsteg pressure plate loadin g 3. 8
pressure chamber 31 . 7 Edmonston pump plant ,
tunnel, Switzerland Diorite gneiss an d relaxatlo s 4.0
granodiorite gneis s US A
Biotite gneis s Czechoslovakian dams jack tes t 0 .4-6 . 2 2 .4-11 . 0
0 .77m 0 jack 2 .5-15 .6 1 3 .5-35- 9 Glagno dam, Ital y
Dolomite, stratifie d pressure chambe r 3-7-5- 1
Biotite g neis s
Kariba dam, Rhodesia jack test and fracture d
6. 2 6.6
cavern deformn . 3 . 4-6 . 9 jack tes t
Dolomite & limeston e Mis dam, Ital y
Biotite gneiss an d South Moravia, 6 .7-14 . 6
0 .71m x 0 .71 m Sylvenstein dam , jack test
amphibolite s Czechoslovakia Dolomit e
plate jacking German y
unweathered -
2 .5-10 .0 6 .0-15 . 0 jack tes t 3 .3-4 . 5 3 .7-1 6 . 5
partly weathered- Val Vestino, Ital y
1 .0-2 .5 2 .5-4 . 0 Dolomit e
highly weathered -
0 .25-1 .0 1 .0-2 . 5 Khantaika hydr o - 2 .2m 0 pressur e
Dolerite, Triassi c
Biotite shal e Mica project, Canada plant, USS R tunnel tes t
0 .06m'- jack 1 .0-6 .2 intrusion , 10 .4-37 . 0
3 .6-26 . 1
Biotite shal e Andermatt, massiv e 5 . 9
plate jackin g
parallel bedding- Sur tzerland fractured
normal to bedding - 28 . 0 jack tes t
Nuclear power plant ,
8 .0 Gabbr o
Calcareous siltston e Japa n
Bhakra dam, Indi a plate jacking 15 .0-20 . 0
2 .7-7 . 6 p ressure chambe r
Calcareous mar l Bort dam, Franc e
Iznajar dam, Spai n Gneis s 2 . 2
plate jacking 1 .0-33 .8 6 .0-50 . 0 Besserve dam, Franc e jack tes t
:_lcareous schis t Kaunertal, Austri a Gneis s
radial jacking 3 .0-6 .0 7 .3-30 . 3
5 .0-10 . 7 Funil, Brazi l jack test
Calcareous shal e Nauvoisin dam , Gneis s
plate jacking 4 .0 28 . 0 1 .5-2 . 0m 0 jack
Switzerlan d Irongate dam, Romani a
Gneiss, altere d 1 .0-9 . 5 2 .8-18 . 5
_alaareous shale , Rothenbrunnen press . dry 0 .4-4 . 5 0 .6-9 . 5
e ndy, faulte d pressure chamber 7 .9-11 . 3
shaft, Switzerlan d we t
radial jac k 35- 2 36 . 2
Calcareous schis t Kaunertal, Austri a
Sabbione dam , Ital y Gneis s
overall deformn . 34 . 5 14 . 9
Lake Delio, Ital y 0 .25m 0 jac k 9 . 5
Chlorite schis t Grocio dam, Ital y Gneiss, fine graine d
jack test 22 .6 34 . 7
36 . 9 La Bathie, Franc e p r essu r enete r
_oa 7 Gneis s
Witbank , o . Afric a in situ compression 9 .6-26 . 2
3 .6 pressure chambe r
Conglomerate sandston e Gneiss, fine grained , Lago Deb o 6 .9-20 . 7
Aari River, Ital y jack test jack tes t
11 . 4 fol iate d 6. 6
pressure chamber deformation analysi s
1 .2-1 . 8
:'ro lome rat e Dez dam, Ira n 6 .2-11 . 7
jack fest 1 .8-50 . 0 Morrow Point, US A 0 .86m 0 jac k
Gneiss pegmatit e
pressure chamber 4 .9-16 . 2 0 . 5
Malpasset dam, Franc e jack tes t
0 lome ra t e Grader dam, Spain Gneis s
jack tes t
rtical - 1lanapouri power proj . plate loadin g
horizontal - 8 .5-79 . 1 Gneis s
New Zealan d flat jac k
6 .9-8 . 4 20 . 0
onglomerate, fissured overall deformn . 10 . 0
Nagase dam, Japan 0 .25m 0 jack Gneiss, slightl y Sufers dam ,
2 . 3
tnglomerate sandston e laminated Switzerlan d
Nagase dam, Japan 0 .25m 0 jack
1 .7-9 . 4 jack tes t 4 .8-32 .0
giomera t e Not known Gneis s St . Cassein, Franc e
pressure chamber 2 .8-3 . 1 pressure chambe r 1 .o-52 . 5
ng i omerat e Gneiss, schistos e St . Cassein, Franc e
Nuclear power plant, jack tes t 2 .3-4 . 1
3 .7-4 . 4 jack tes t 1 .0-2 .8
Japan St . Jean du Gard . ,
Gneiss, altere d
_ticeous sandstone Franc e
Slavia, Czechoslovakia 0 .5e 2 plate jack 0 .08-0 . 1 jack tes t
2m radial jack Granit e Andermatt , 40 . 0
0 .07
parallel beddin g Switzerland 25 .0
12a = 1 .02 x 10 4 kyf /cm= = 1 .95 x 10 0 ltf ,'in'-
Riodulus of 2asticity deterrnine d normal to bedding
linear Portion of load-deformation curve, Modulus . of
_ 'emen t Deformation from overall lcad versu s
Adiguzel dam . Turkey 0 .58m 0 jac k
Cabril dam, P ortuga l Limestone, massive Achensee pressur e
shaft, Austri a
Canicada dam ,
Portuga l Limeston e Arrens tunnel, France jack tes t 13-5 40 . 0
Limestone 5 dolomit e Dubrovnik power plant, pressuremete r 4 .3-6 .0 6. 2
Yu g oslavi a
Landes dam, Franc e
Limeston e Fedaia dam, Italy pressure chamber
Dworshak dam, US A 7 . 5 38 . 5
Limestone, massiv e Finodal pressure jack test 22 . 3
Grimsel dam ,
shaft, Yugoslavi a
Swi tzer lan d
Limeston e Greoux dam, France jack test
Inner K irchen , 3 .2 5. 1
Switzer lan d pressure chamber 5 .7-12 . 3
Limeston e Hydro . power projects, 0 .8m 0 jac k
Kurobe dam, Japa n upper Cretaceou s USSR 57-5 81 . 1
fissured with cla y 166 .3
j ointe d 173 . 0
highly fissure d
unwea there d 3 . 3
weathered, join t Limeston e Kastenbell pressure pressure chamber 27 . 0
fillin g jointe d shaft, Italy 0. 2
Granit e Limestone, laminate d Limberg, Austria jack test 4 .0-15 . 0
weathered, j ointe Kariba dam, Rhodesi a
d triaxial Limestone, massiv e Mratje dam, jack test 0 .002- 0 .002 -
weathered, highl y Triassi c Yugoslavia 0 .016 0 .03
jointed
unweathered, j ointe Limestone dolomit e Mae dam, Italy pressure chamber A .6-8 .3
d 25 .4-30 . 3
Granite gneiss 1 .1-1 . 2 Limestone dolomit e Mis dam, Italy jack test 4 .5-7 .4 3 .9-11 . 5
Lyse pressure shaft , 1 .6-3 . 4 Limeston e
Norwa y pressure chambe r Mequinenze dam, Spain jack test 18 .2-27 . 6
Granite gneis s 8 .0-15 . 0 Limestone with shal e Niag ra tunnel, USA overall structure 17 . 2
Mica project, Canad a
Granit e 0 .06m2 jac and sandston e
k
Nagawado dam, Japa 7 .5-84 .0 1 5 .2-86 . 0
Granite, biotite an d n 2m2 shear tes t Limestone, highl y Pieve di Cadore, pressure chamber 3 .0 4. 0
feldspa r Salamonde dam , 3-0-10 . 0 fissure d Ital y
P ortuga l 1m2 jac k
;ranite, massive 0 .6-23 . 0 Limeston e Prutz pressure shaft,
pressure chambe r radial jack 6 .0-6 .9 10 .3-12 . 5
Schwarzenbach tunnel , 0 .8-6 . 3 Austri a
German y pressure chambe r
ranit e 24 . 6 Limeston e Tena Termini, Italy jack 5 seismic 1 .5-41 .6 4 .7-46 . 1
Tsruga dam, Japa n
jack tes t Limestone, bituminou s Hydro . projects, USSR jack test 0 .5-15 . 2
ranite granite gneiss Tumut 1,
Au strali a with fractured gneis s
jack tes t
Limestone dolomit e Vouglans dam, France 0 .28m 0 jack
-an odiorit e pressure chambe r 3 .2-10 .0 7 .0-160 . 0
Tumut 2, deformation an Limestone, fractured
Au strali a alysi s Val Gallina, Italy pressure chamber 2 .7-3 .9 2 .8-4 . 1
jack tes t
Limeston e Vaiont dam, Italy pressure chamber 4 .0-12 .0
pressure chambe r 30 .7-46 . 0
plate loadin g Limeston e
an( t e Yellow Tail, USA jack test 11 .0-33 .1 16 .5-40 . 7
deformation analysis 5 overall structure 2 .8-9 . 7
Villefort dam, Franc e .5-48 . 3
3nit e jack tes t Limeston e Yugoslavian hydro . 2 .9-41 .6 4 .7-63 . 6
Valdecanas, P ortuga l
jack tes t Yug os levi e
Japanese hydro . proj .
modiorit e jack tes t Limestone, massiv e Not known lm '- flat jack 52 .5-56 . 5
Pantano D'Avio dam ,
Ital y pressure chambe r Liparite fault, hard Kawamata dam, Japan 0 .8m 0 jack 0 .4-7 . 2
dam disp lacemen 1 2 .0-24 . 0
t Liparit e Ikari dam, Japan 2 . 3
atite or e overall s 1 7 . 0-32 . 0
Germany tructur e 1 1 .7-16 . 5 Mar l Afourer tunnel, jack test 4 .0-5 .0
IfeI s 2m2 comp 6 .0-7 . 0
ression Morocco
Emosson dam , 70 . 0
Switzer lan d jack tes t Mar l Iznajar, S p ain jack test 2 .3-5 . 0
eng it e 46 .0
Place Moulin dam , Mica schis t Beuregard, Italy pressure chamber 0 .69-14 .0 1 .0-24 . 0
Ital y pressure chambe r
s ton e 1 5 . 0-25 . 0 Micaceous g neis s Giovaretto, Italy pressure chamber 21 . 5
Ambiesta, Ital y
pressure chambe r Mica schist Morasco dam, Italy dilatometer 17 . 5
12 .5 dam displacement 210 . 0
pressuremeter 17 . 2
overall structure 18 .6-20 . 7
26 6 267
TABLE 15 continued .
TABLE 15 continued .
Rock tone and Test location. Test description Modulus of Modulur o f
Test description Modulus of Modulus o f Rock type ana T est location
description. deformatio n elasticity
aeforteazion elasticvy descriptio n G?a
GPa
G?a GPa
Mlca schis t Roujanel dem, France 14 . 0
pressure chambe r 1 .8-7 . 0 Sandstone 5 conglomerate Inferno dam, Ital y
Mudstone Nuclear power plant , 1 .4-5 .3 5 .1-25 . 4
jack test 0 .8-2 .0 Japanese hydro . proj . 0 .18m 2 jack
Japa n 4 .9-7 . 1 Sandstone E slate
5 .0-10 . 0
Muds ton e Sandstone Kamishiba dam, Japa n
Poatina power plant, overall structur e 1 .5-5 .9 1 .9-14 . 7
11 . 7 jack test
Tasmania jack tes t Sandstone Latiyan dam, Ira n
16 .6-22 . 1
Mudston e jack test 0 .8-1 .7 1 .9
Kameyama dam, Japan 0 .3m 0 jac k Sandstone and shale Latiyan dam, Ira n
2 .4 3. 2 pressure chambe r 21 .5 31 .0-34 . 4
Orthogneiss, massiv e Telessio dam, Italy Sandy limestone Marmorera tunnel,
jack tes t 30 .0-40 . 0 Switzerlan d
Peragneis s Teisnach dam, Germany jack tes t
3 .1-8 . 5 6 .1-13 . 4 60 .0-70 . 0
Ogochi dam, Japa n
5artzit e Alvito Sussidenea, Sandston e
jack tes t 1 .4-7 . 3 1 .0-2 .0 1 .8-5 . 0
Portuga l Paltinul dam, Romaine jack tes t
Sandstone
1 .0-3 .0 1 .7-7 . 0
erous phyliiti c Careser dam, Italy Poiana Uzului dam, 1 .5m 0 jac k
pressure chambe r 24 .0-35 . 0 Sandstone & schist 4 .8 9 . 0
gneis s Romani a
pressuremete r Sandstone
23 . 4 2. 0
Quartz-feldspar - Fallone dam, Italy Sandstone & conglomerate Pietra del Pertusillo ,
0 .6m 0 jack 0. 4
b iot i te-grant te-gneis s 1 .0
Ital y
plate loading 0 .8-2 .0 1 .3-3 . 6
Quartzite wit h Fontana dam, US A Rossees dam,
41 . 4 Sandstone pressure chamber 3 .8-7 . 0
phyllite and shal e Switzerland
Rock mas s
Rockbolts
Ex mp l e 2
.1 8
E , Po = 54 MPa, Po/°c = 0
An 8m (26 ft) diameter mine haulage tunnel is excavated i n
very good quality quartzite at a depth of 1000m (3280 ft )
below surface . Due to the proximity of mining o
p erations ,
the stresses acting on this tunnel are increased locall y C : po = 81 MPa, pc/°c = 0 .2 7
by varying amounts .
lt is required to investigate th e
stabiiity of the tunnel and to consider the support measure
s
which should be used in different stress environments . D : pc = 108 MPa, po/°c = 0 .3 6
The required support lines for the roof, sidewalls and floo r
of the tunnel are plotted in figure 134 . In this exampl e
the dead weight of the broken rock surrounding the tunne l
plays an important role in determining the stability of th e
Tunnel . It will be seen in figure 134 that the sidewall s
stabilise at a deformation of about 5 inches but that th e
roof deformation continues to increase in an unstable manne r
for support pressures of less than about 12 lb/in 2 .
27 7
Block th icknes
s
Modulus of blocking 10i n
material tB = (0 .25 m )
Deformation
before support ins 1-5 x I O6 16/in 2 sets will forte these engineers to examine alternativ e
In situ stress
magnitude
tallation uBo= 3' n
(10,000 MPa )
support systems . Those who have had experience of usin g
(0 .075 m )
po = 4 8016/in 2 shotcrete will have little doubt that this is a viabl e
(3 .31 MPa )
lt has been assumed alternative which will find more and more applications i n
a deformation uy that the steel under g round excavation support .
o sets are installed
afte r
the load-deformation of 3 inches has already takén
curves p lotted place . From The brittle behaviour of concrete is one of the problem s
e stimated
to occur at a distance in figure 134 this can associated with the use of shotcrete or concrete linin g
face of the tunnel be
since the of about 25 feet behind th in tunnels . This problem is particularly troublesome i n
Full tunnel def ormation e
inches would be e xpected of 5
to occur about mining operations in which mining activities induce a con-
the face (between 1 and 40 to 50 Feet behin d
1- tunnel di ameters) stantly changing stress field in the rock surroundin g
.
lt underground excavations . In excavations such as stop e
has also been assumed that stiff access tunnels and draw-points, the use of shotcrete o r
installed blocking is cor
et an even spacing of 2B rectl y concrete should be avoided because these excavations suffe r
= 226° around
the tunnel . from large stress changes during mining .
The available support
for these 8123
spacing is given as curve number st eesets at 5 F
will 1 in fi gure 134 t In order to overcome this problem, the use of wire mes h
be seen [hat the maximum and i
25 lb/in '- is adequate to support capacity of abou t reinforcement is common and an increasing amount of attentio n
stabilise the broken rock t is bein g given to steel fibre or glass fibre reinforcemen t
ing the tunnel . su rround-
However, since the of shotcrete . This subject will be dealt with in g reate r
(5 Feet) spacing of the set
be ly large for " s detail in Chapter 9 .
would is rel ati v blocky and seamy rock"
n ecessary to use wire ,
it support small mesh or shotcret
rock pieces between the sets e A further problem with the use of shotcrete is associate d
.
The imp with the irregular excavation profile which is usuall y
ortance of correct blocking in achieved in a drill and blast tunnellind operation . Du e
can be dem steel set inst
onstrated by chan g ing allation s to the jointed nature of the rock mass and to careles s
block s tiffness in the the block
analysis pr spacing and th e blasting practices, substantial overbreak is common i n
in figure 134 esented above
has been calculated . Curve 2 hard rock tunnelling and, while this situation can be
29 e 40° and an for a
block spacing o f improved by the use of correct blasting techniques, it i s
(500 MPa) for theelasticity modulus o f 72
blocks . lt will be e
` n - not possible to avoid it completely . A study of the deriva -
nife-cuat the Suppor t
. J blacked 3f-sei tion of the support reaction equations for concrete linin g
a Ia9 e hard rock trennet Sets for the stabil not a dequat e
isation of the will soon convince the reader that the action of the linin g
. tunnel roof,
depends upon a uniform stress distribution in a continuou s
Since, as stated above, it
mesh or sh would be n ring in intimate centact wich the rock mass . In the cas e
otcrete to stabilise small ecessary to use wir e of e thick concrete lining, the variation of lining thicknes s
obvious question which arises is - canpieces of rock, th e due to variations in the tunnel profile does not give ris e
reinforced s hotcrete s hotcrete or
be used to stabilise mesh - to serious p roblems . However, in the case of a thin shotcret e
the steel set s the tunnel w ithou
t linin g , the abrupt changes in tunnel profile can induce hi g h
stress concentrations in the shotcrete lining, causin g
The following input
support data are used to c cracking and a serious reduction in the load bearin g capacit y
alculate the av
curve for a 2 inch thick shotcrete ailabl e of the lining . In geriere], the Guthors do not recommend th e
Iaye r
Modulus of e lasticity use of shotcrete as the sole means of excavation suppor t
of sh otcret e
Poisson's ratio of E c = 3x l Ob lb/in ' in situations in which the tunnel profile deviates by mor e
s hotcret e - (20700 MPa )
Thickness of than a Feet percent from the design profile .
shotcrete laye r v c = 0 .2 5
Tunnel radiu s 2i n
(0 .05 m )
Compressive strength of = 270i n Rockbolts are obvious candidates for consideration as th e
s hotcret e (5 .33 m )
Deformation before shotcrete °cc= 50001b/in 2 support system for this 35 foot diameter tunnel . Table 1 7
In situ stress pp acin g (34 .5 MPa )
magnitude u fa = li n on page 269 suggests that a patt e_en of t Inch diameter hol_ s
(0 .025 n )
po e 4 801b/in 2 spaced at about 5 feet centres should provide adequate sup-
(3 .31 MPa ) port capacity for this application and the following dat a
Curve number
3 in figure 134 rep are used in the calculation of the available support curve s
characteristics resents the av ailable
of a 2 inch s totcret suppor t for such a system .
sub eby
stituting the data listed above
summarised in table lint or the equ
14 on pages 260 and 261 aation s Rockbolt lengt h = 120i n (3 m )
shows that the shotcrete . This curve (0 .025 m )
stiffness to s layer has a Rockbolt diamete r dt =li n
tabilise the dequate strength an d
broken rock sur Modulus of elasticity of holt stee l E b = 30 x 10 n ib/in '- (207,000 MPa )
rounding the tunnel . Q = 2 .5x10 7 'inil b (0 .143 m/MN )
Many engineers find Anchor/head deformation constan t
it diffficuit Ultimate strength of bo j t syste m T bf= 65 .0001 6 (0 .285 MN )
layer of s hotcrete can to believe that a [hi
provide effective n Tunnel radiu s • = 210i n (5 .33 m )
and these en gineers tunnel suppor t
rather than would generally prefer to Circumferential bolt spacin g • = 60i n (1 .52 m )
shotcrete . use stee l
and of the However, the eising [s Longitudinal bolt spacin g • = 60i n (1 .52 m )
labour required to ma price of steel
Deformation before bolt installatio n uio= li n (0 .025 m)
nufacture and place steel
In situ stress magnitude p c = 4801b/in '- (3 .31 MPa)
Curve number 4 in figure 134
rep
resents
gor this rockbolt system and it shows thatthe available
adequate s suppor
t
is provided for the tunnel . u PPor t
Curve number 5 has been calculated using Uniaxial compressive strength of roc k ac = 200 MPa (29,000 lb/in 2 )
to those listed on the pr id entical input dat
a Material constants for original roc k m = 1 .5
the value of u i° evious page with the exc p
the ins tallation , the deformation assumed to occur e tellr
mas s s = 0 .00 4
of the rockbolts . before Modulus of elasticity of rock mas s E = 12,000 MPa (1 .77 x10' lb/in 2 )
If the bolt z ins
is delayed
the support until 4 inches of tunnel deformation havetallation Poisson's ratio of rock mas s = 0. 2
r o
i eaction curve of the rockbolt system will ccurred
no , Material constants for broken roc k mr = 0. 1
ntersect the characteristic curve for the rock mass in tht mas s s r = 0
roof until it is too late e Unit weicht of broken rock mas s
rock mass will c Yr = 0 .02 MN/m 3 (0 .074 lb/in 3 )
Under these circumstances, th
bolts will ev ontinue to ravel around the bolts and th e Equivalent in situ stres s Po = 10 MPa (1450 ib/in 2 )
e Equivalent tunnel radius = 12 .5m
entually
on the floor of the tunnel end up sticking out of a pile of roc n2 (492 in )
! k
The resultind required support line is marked A in figur e
This hypothetical example
demonstrates the 'ixtreme 135 .
oF timing when using r imp ortanc e
support . ockbolts for underground e
Because of the fl xcavatio n The proposed method of excavation involves mining a pilo t
letz ins
tallation can allo• exibility of the rockbolt system , tunnel along the axis of the cavern at roof level, as show n
before the bolt r .,i ercessive def
eaction is fuliy mo ormation to occu r in the margin sketch . The cavern arch will be opened ou t
rule, rockbolts should be bilised
in . As a genera l from this central pilot tunnel and, once the roof has bee n
stalled as early as p ossibl
and, ideally, the rockbolt installation procedure shoul e opened to futil span, the remainder of the cavern will b e
wbei integrated into the drill-blast-muck cycle d excavated by benching down Fron this top heading . As th e
.
ll be examined in greater detail later in this This chaptesubjec t pilot tunnel is mined and as each successive stage of th e
and in Chapter 9 when some of the practical aspects o r final roof profile is excavated, rockbolts will be installe d
underground sup p
ort design are di f to provide both temporary and permanent support for the rock .
scussed .
Curve number 4 ill
In order to investigate the adequacy of rockbolting as a mean s
rockbolting as a s ustrates
u
a further important aspect o
f
Ob viously, a higher psupporport system for underground of supporting this cavern roof, the available support lin e
excavations .
tbrokenci op ssure
the t is l
than [ha t t in t h e
for a 2 x 2m pattern of 5m long 25mm diameter mechanicall y
the roof o anchored bolts is calculated from the dato listed below .
sidewalls . This v f[he t unnel
u than
ariation in support p t in th e
by varying the spacing between individual ressure
bolts can
and, beinachieve d Length of rockbolt s
t y pica ll app licatio❑ 5 m (197 in )
1 . the spacing could be a Diameter of rockbolt s 0 .025 m (1 in )
x in creased Fro m
Sm in the roof to 2 x 2m in the sidewalls Modulus of elasticity of bolt stee l 207000 MP a (30x1 0 6 Ib/i n ''- )
duction in bolt density in the . This re - Anchor/head deformation constan t
nificant r si o .143 m/M N (2 .5x i0 2S in/Ib )
dewalls can result i n sig -
eductions in cost, due mainly to Ultimate strength of bolt syste m 0 .285 M N (85,000 lb )
of drillind required Alternas' s i t oun t Equivalent tunnel radiu s
maintain a constant aller it 12 .5 m (492 in )
[Patte srin necessary
netz ho ar Circumferential bolt spacin g
bolts can be used in ducthand veral • 2 m (78 .7 in )
,d sewaallllle o to reduc e lst Longitudinal bolt spacin g • 2 m (78 .7 in )
cost of the bolting system e o rol l
. Deformation before bolt installatio n • 0 .005 m (0 .2 in )
E q uivalent in sitz stres s 10 MPa (1450 ib/in 2 )
28 1
Roof d eformatio n
- in
0 .5 1 .0
0. 7 .5 2 . 0
28 3
In spitz of these limitations, the authors have found thi s !Jaximum unsupported excavation Spans
analysis to be of great value in developing their own under-
f
standing of the mechanics of rock support and in teach in g Barton LS has compiled a collection of about 30 cases o
k
others some of the basic concepts of this relatively poorl y permanently unsupported excavations in a variety of roc
d
understood field . lt is hoped that the reader will fin d masses . The spans of these excavations have been plotte
against the rock mass quality (Q) in figure 137 and th e
the discussion presented earlier in this chapter to be o f
va lue in the Same way . authors consider that this Plot provides an excellent basi s
e
for estimatin g the maximum unsupported span which could b
lt will be clear to the more mathemati cally tnclined reade r excavated in a rock mass of known quality .
that some of the concepts used in developing the rock-suppor t
interaction analysis are amenable to considerable refinement . As pointed out by Barton, there is no way of knowing ho w
As our knowledge of rock mass behaviour impreves and as ou r close these excavations are to failure and hence it coul d
ability realistically to model this behaviour by compute r be argued that figure 137 will always provide a conservativ e
techniques increases, it is probable that techniques fo r estimate of unsupported excavation span . White this i s
t
analysing rock-support interaction will advance far beyon d certainly true, the reader would do well to renember tha
those currently available . Numerical studies of tunne l it has taken very brave men to raine some of these excavations '
n
sup p ort using finite element techniques have Seen publishe d and that, before deciding upon a less conservative desig
-
by a number of authors 23a-24a and Cundall and his colleauge s it is worth spending a few moments contemplatin g the conse
at the University of llinnesota241 2 2
, quences of being too daring .
'have discussed th e
use of "distinct element" numerical modeis in which individua l
blocks of rock can be incorporated in rock-support interactio n In figure 138, the maximum unsupported spans for differen t
studies . The authors have no doubt that these numerica l Excavation Support Ratios (ESR - see Page 30) have bee n
h
studies are forerunners of a vast array of numerical technique s plotted against the rock mass quality Q . The equation whic
which will be developed in the Future . defines the lines plotted in figure 138 i s
1 1
SCANDINAVIAN 1
20
1 1
1 5
Figure 137 r Man-mode and natura l
unsupported exeavations in differen t .
äg
, •
10
quality rock massec . After
Barton" . 8 "1111101111010"r
6
IIffl AdOP
»
rM
r
S
4
2 I d " n
20 0 After Bieniawski 25 .
5
Temporary raine opening s
100 3
1 .6-Permanent
50 mine ooenings, watet '
55s ta 5ep55m-e GeoPec;rmisrcZ ;oaaiMp.-o aa,mrort rarc2'ict f on a
tunnels for hydro powert leocludin
5'75' g
2 0 high oressere b
dnst odks) . P il o t Q'hen the span of an underground excavation exceeds tha t
i o ° U Inter-block strength J 1O
ut o 0 0 o U J
o - Cv N - ' -- N O* N
ôw *nô oi' v,o oV v,o os mo, Equi va1ent dimension Spa n r
v, .n ESR
IIw n n v n v 11.urt 1 13 n n'
0 ô o o "' o I on Block size RQß
J w
vA
vo ° ° ° Inter-block strength J r
T n
o O O o U o U o o o o o o o o O U o o o
v, o o ° A PIlrox . s n pport pressure p 11Pa -3
v, v, 0 0
1 Spot reinforcement with Unten -
sioned grouted dowels
ô
3 3 3 3 3
77 :7 - J Untensioned grouted dowels o n
3 3 grid spacing indicate d
7 - rrt
7 7
vi3 3 i 3 i J 3 77 Tensioned rockbol ts on gri d
3 3 3 3 ' 3 spacing indicated -C
-.- . o
C hai nl ink mesh anchored to
bolts and intermediate points -
3, w, o0 ö0 00 00 0 0 0 ö Shotcrete appl ied directly t o
3 3 3 3 ' 3 3 rock, thickness indicate d
o o-s o ô v,o oo v,o os Shotcrete reinforced with wel d -
âo oo v,3ooö 03o ô v,o oo
mesh, thickness indicated
3 3 3 3 3 3
Unreinforced cast concrete
arch, thickness indicate d
Steel reinforced cast concret e
arch, thickness indicate d
. 1J N
N N N N N u N N :" N N N N Notes by Barton, Lien and Lunde
0 ô
r ° •° Inter-block strength
w J 1a ö
0 O O
o O O G O O ** O G O O O O o
w . .> ia r.,
L
O
ti ` npp '-ox
N support P r 'e. s swe F' I 1R a
ä a a 3 a
Untensioned grouted dowels on
^_ -_ . . grid spacing indicate d
d 3 f Tensioned rockbolts on
> > 3 3 3 a gri d
`^ spacing indicated
0 0 n 0 0 o o o 0
0 0 0 0 0 o II u o 0 0 o o v o 0 0 0 0 0 0 ôPl o
ô G
ô P ô ô Rock mass qua l i t t' 0
00 OP i O 0 y 1 }i > '
o o o czl ° - ° y J n'
J 1
Spa n
r _ _ J r w w r I 0
o o Equivalent dimension
_ N o> u, U _ ESB.
fo in in m
n v v. w u, c y w w
_
n n Ilv .. ^ R D
u ©lock siz e
'11
w w , '
- - -- - InCer-block strength
G Ja ci
im
3
--_ 0
J _ _ i C OJ 0 O O O O* w 0 Approx . support pressure p 1'IRa Z
O
os os 0's *^ ri3
O
___ ____.. -- . _ Spot reinforcement v+i th unten - v+
sioned grouted dowels
0
o
Un Censioned grouted dowels a n
` grid spacing indicate d
o_ r^
-- 0
Tensioned rockbolts on grid
o 3 3 spacing indicated v
i o 3 J
3 J
3 7 3 3 3 3 O
7
3 .3
-.* ----- -- - -- - -_- Chainl ink mesh anchored t o
bolts and intermediate points -
c
- - - -- - - Shotcrete appl ied di rectly to
z
rock, thickness indicated
,_ - _._ _ .____ ._-__ -- ------ -- - ----- - * w Stee1 reinforced cast ctinc rel e
i .t✓
v, - o r, cz 0 0 0 0
0 arch, thickness indicated
333 G 3 u
J 3 7 3 ' _ x
33 7
,n I ° o Notes by Barton, Lien and Lund e
o
0 o V
w _
_ m n
--- -* n n n n n n Notes by Vloek and 6ror m
rt
„ 33 n
2 94
29 5
TABLE 78 - RECOMMENDED SUPPORT BASED UPON NGI TUNNELLING QUALITY INDEX TABLE 18 - RECOMMENDED SUPPORT BASED UPON NGI TUNNELLING QUALITY INDEX Q
Q
0 -c O u
.s
Ct Supplementa :y rotes by Aoek and Brart n
O
u •-
C s
C a. In Scandinavia, the use of "Perfobolts " is common . These are perforated hollow tube
C u
m which are filled with grout and inserted into drillholes . The grout is extruded to fil l
7, .97 c, the annular space around the tube when a piece of reinforcin g rod is pushed into th e
.9 . E
grout filling the tube . Obviously, there is no way in which these devices can be ten-
sioned although it is common to thread the end of the reinforcing rod and place a norma l
o
zO bearing plate or washer and nut on this end .(See figure 154 on page 328) .
0 .07- 10- In north America the use of "Perfobolts" is rare . In mining applications a device know n
7 .2 1 243 ) has become popular . This i s
0 .001 20 7m 3,9,1 7 as a "Split set" or "Friction set" (developed by Scot ,
1, 3m
' - 12,1 4 a Split tube which is forced into a sl ightly smaller diameter hole then the outer die -
0 4- n
001 1 0 1 .2 700mm ' meter of the tube . The friction between the steel tube and the rock, particularly rohe
-2m 10,1 4 the steel rusts, acts in much the saure way as the grout around a reinforcing rod . Fo r
13 .01- 4- . (See figure 153 on page 326) .
temp orary support these devices are very effective
13 .001* 1 0 .2 m 1700mm I L,9,1 0 In Australien mines, untensioned grouted reinforcing is i ns tal led by pumpi ng thick grou t
-2m Il 71,1 4 into drillholes and then simply pushing a piece of threaded reinforcing rod into th e
l .
Supplementary rotes by 3erta^, Lien and Junge grout . The grout is thick enou g h to remain in an up-hole during placing of the rod
1 b. Chainlink mesh is sometimes used to catch small pieces of rock which can become loos e
. The type of support used in extremely good and exceptionally good rock will depend upo .5m an d
the blasting technique n with time . lt should be attached to the rock at intervals of between 1 and 1
. Smooth wall blasting and thorough barrin g e
need for support . -down may remove th e schort grouted pins can be used between bolts . Galvanised chainlink mesh should b
of Rough well blasting may result in the need for a single applice tio .
shotcrete, especially where the excavation height exceeds 25m n used where it is intended to be permanent, eg in an underground powerhouse
.
c. Weldmesh, consisting of steel wires set on a square pattern and welded at each inter-
For cases oF heavy rock bursting or "popping", tensioned bolts with enlar
elates often used, with spacing about Im (occasionall y 0,8m)
g ed bearin g section, should be used for the reinforcement of shotcrete since it allows easy acces s
" popping" activity ceases . . Final support whe n e
of the shotcrete to the rock . Chainlink mesh should never be used for this purpos
since the shotcrete cannot penetrate all the spaces between the wires and air pocket s
3 t
. Several bolt lengths often used in same excavation, ie 3, 5 and 7m are formed with consequent rusting of the wire . When choosing Weldmesh, it is importan
.
. Several bolt lengths often used in same excavation, ie [hat the mesh can be handled by one or two men working from the top of a high-lif t
- 2, 3 and 4m . m
5 vehicle and hence the mesh should not be too heavy . Typically, 4 .2mm wires set at 100m
. Tensioned cable anchors often used to supplement bolt support pressures intervals (desi g nated 100 x 100 :e 4 .2 weldmesh) are used for reinforcing shotcrete .
2 to 4m . . Typical spacing
,
6 d. In poorer qualit y ity rock, the use of untensioned grouted dowels as recommended by Barton
. Several bolt lengths often used in same excavation, ie 6, 8 and 70m Lien and Lunde depends upon immediate installation of these reinforcing elements behin d
.
e
Tensioned cable anchors often used to supplement bolt support pressures the face . This depends upon integrating the support drilling and Installation into th
to 6m . . Typical spacin g drill-blast-muck cycle and many hon-Scandinavian contractors are not prepared to conside r
g
.. this system . When it is impossible to ensure that untensioned grouted doweis are goin
. Several older generation power stetions in this category employ systematic or spot bolt to be installed immediately behind the face, consideration should be given to using
- s
eg with areas of chain link mesh, and a free span concrete arch roof (250 - 4DOmm) a
permanent support . tensioned rockbolts which can be grouted at a later stage . This ensures that support i
s
available during the critical excavation stage .
Ceses involving swelling, for instance montmorillonite clay (with access of water) t
. e. Many contractors would consider that a 200mm thick cast concrete arch is too diff icul
Boom for expansion behind the support is used in cases of heavy swelling to construct because there is not enough room between the shutter and the surroundin g
ensures are used where possible . . Drain a g e s
rock to permit easy access for pccri n g concrete and placing vibrators . The US Army Corp
s
.cses not involving swelling clay or squeezing rock of Engineers 214 sug g ests 10 Inches (254 mm) as a normal minimum while some contractor
.
. Seses involving squeezing rock prefer 300mm .
support . . Heavy rigid support is generally used as permanen t . This would re q uir e
f. Barton, Lien and Lunde sug g est shotcrete thicknesses of up to 2m
_ . ccording toauthor's experience many separate applications and many contractors would regard shotcrete thicknesses o f
(Barton this magnitude as both impractical and uneconomic, preferring to cast concrete arche s
temporary et ei), in cases of swelling or squeezing, th e
support required before concrete (er shotcrete) arches are Formed may consis very coos e
of bolting (tensioned s h t instead . A strong argument in favour of shotcrete is that it can be placed
to the face and hence can be used to provide early support in poor quality rock masses .
( ie > 1 .5) , possibly combined with shotcrete if the value of RQD/Jn is sufficiently hig h
ell-expansion type)
Many contractors would arg ue that a 50 to 100mm layer is generally sufficient for thi s
or crushed (ie RQD/Jn < 1 . If the rock mass is very heavily jointe d
the
.5, for example a " sugar cube" shear Tone in quartzite), the purpose, particularly when used in conjunction with tensioned rockbolts as indicated b y
n
eolting
temporary support may consist of up to several applications of shotcrete Barton, Lien and Lunde, and that the placing of a taut concrete lining at a later stag e
. Systemati c
(tensioned) may be added after casting the concrete (or shotcrete) arch to re- would be a more effective way to tackle the problem . Obviously, the final choice wil l
tece the uneven loading on the concrete, but it may not be effective when RQD/J depend upon the unit rares for concreting and shotcreting offered by the contractor and ,
n <7 .5 ,
when a lot of clay is present, unless the bolts are grouted before tensioning if shotcrete is cheaper, upon a practicel demonstration by the contraetee that he ca n
. r ficient length of anchored holt mi . A
g actually place shotcrete to this thickness .
. ehors ht also be obtained using quick setting resi n
in these extremely poor quality rock masses In north America, the use of concrete or shotcrete Iinings of up to 2m thick would b e
:edler . Serious occurrences of swellin g
squeezing rock may require [hat the concrete arches be taken right up to th considered unusual and a combination of heavy steel sets and concrete would normall y
-- , possibly using a shield as temporary shuttering e
. Temporary support of the workin g be used to achieve the hi g h support pressures required in very poor ground .
ce may also be required in these cases .
296
29 7
rtJ-ze¢n Conneil
SoUp prodLctio„s / fo r 'lest-d ; -c und
0 .3
9--
The required support lines for the different rock masses ar e
plotted in figure 141 . These show that the tunnels in bot h
the Great Limestone and the Four Fathom Limestone behav e
elastically . Assuming that this analysis is reasonabl y
0 .2
representative of the average rock conditions surroundin g
these two tunnels, they will remain stable without th e
assistance of support except that required to secure loca l
blocks and wedges defined by intersecting structural Features .
20mm di amete r
2Omm di amete r
2m lone bolt s 20mm di amete
2m long bolt s r
at 1-5m centre s 3-4m groute d
with oc casiona l at 1-5m centre s
with o ccasiona bolts at i-1 . 5 m 3) One layer of shotcrete in roof plus rockbolting as i
mesh and 50m m l n
mesh and 50m m centres wit h 2), followed by 200 x 200 x 6 .4mm weldmesh with a
shotcrete wher e mesh and 100-
shotcrete wher e further lauer of shotcrete to form an arch coverin g
r equired . 150mm- shotcret
required . e . roof and walls (but not floor) . Average shotcret e
Ribs at 1 .5 m thickness approximately 140mm .
centres i f
4) Identical to 3) but without rockbolts .
required .
5) The saure as 3) but with rows of 5 (as compared with 7 )
75-100mm rockbolts .
shotcrete o r
6) A special circular liner of 12 .7mm thick mild stee l
tensioned bolt s
plates consisting of eleven 0 .7m long rings, eac h
at 1m centre s
with 25-50mm ring comprising tour equal segments, butt-welded
shotcrete . together in groups of two, three and four rin g s .
Approx . suppor t The space between the liner and the rock was fille d
pressure 0 .6 MP s wich a weak, fast-setting grout consisting of 4 part s
of pulverieed Fee] ash to 1 Part of Portland cemen t
with 0 .2 times the cement weight of sodium metasilicate ,
added .
According to Ward, Coats and Tedd 2t2 , less than 1mm of move-
ment of extensometer head A (in the roof of the tunnel) ha d
occurred before the face reached the extensometer position .
W :Hen the face had advanced 2m beyond this position, the poin
t
F A had moved downwards about 6mm . The next day ehe face wa s
i u advanced to its final Position 5 .6m beyond the extensomete r
position and point A moved a further 2mm . After about 20 0
days of observation, this point had moved down about 30mm .
Note that, as would be expected fron figure 1416, the floo r
Scaie - metre s of the tunnel has eisen by a si g nificant amount .
Day s
0 40 80 720
160 200 240 280
r •
roekboZts s ;soteres e
shosgrete or.Z y
2 r oekboZts pnZ✓
76
DRILLED E BLASTE D
0
MACHIN` EX CAVATE
D
12
7 6
u,2nupnorted
20
0 40 80
L120 160 200
240 280
Days
25 0 2 4 6 8 10
Broken zone thicknes s
(rr - r i ) - metre s
The required Support curves for the rock mas INPUT DATA FOR SUPPORT REACTION ANALYSI S See Table 14 an page 260 )
experimental s sur roundin
tunnel in Four Fathom g 1 .Steel liner grouted in plac e Steel sets (continued )
Mun
lhlb,rt are curves in greater details Figure g 144 (Use equation 120 ) 1 .042 x 10 -5 m 4
. Ava i`
Buspo d in for a number of Support svstems are als lab ll e e Es = 207000 MP a
207000 MP a
are te l this figure, a o 245 MP a
ssuming that all Support System vs = 0 . 3 •
that the 3 .3m tunnel has s • 1 .65 m
deformed 5mm ts = 0 .0127 m
tunnel ( thickness of the broken rock tone surrounding . Not
th e • 1 m
- ri from eq r . = 1 .65 m Oo
uation u ) e 11 .25 an d
PPOrt Pressures s in n figure 1 has
744 Seen pl o [[ed fo r 0 .2 m
. 2 .Shotcrete rings 50mm and 150m m •
lt is ins 500 MPa
tructive to discuss the results thick ( equations 120 and 121 )
143 and 744 together and this is done in the presented in figure
5 Ec 28000 MP a 4 .Resin anchored rockbolt s
followin g d notes : v c = 0 .2 5
1) Steel ribs or sets - from figure (equations 12 7 and 128 )
that these steel the lt fit eviden t t0, = 0 .15 and 0 .05 m
method of su l Supports provide Z = 5m (use two 2}m bolts coupled )
least ef fectiv = 1 .65 m
reason { PP°rting this particular ve
e db = 0 .025 m
or this poor perf
ormance is sug
1 . Th e acc= 35 MPa Eb = 207000 MP a
figure 144 which shows that the Support gested b y Q = 0 (resin anchored )
curve is very r eactio n 3 .8H20 steel sets at 1 m spacin g
s ensitive to the
blocking effec tiveness of th (equations 122 and 123 ) Tb { = 0 .3 M N
. The two support e r: = 1 .65 e
curves in Figur
140 we e calculated foroblock tlspacings of 220° a d e
400, W = 0 .127 m se = 1 m
pWard ng all other parameters c onstant X = 0 .114 m sZ = 1 m
. A s = 0 .0038 m 2
irreg et a12 acstate that "the steel ribs are loade
to{ `he P d
l bare, [he y c ordin gy osition of the ban k
the po Figure 144 : Required and available support curves and variation o f
sitions of roc k
broken zone thickness for 3 .3m diameter tunnel in Fou r
Fathom Mudstone .
50
Figure 152
used for pre- Seven strand high tensile steel cabl e Fuller and Co x '- 57 found [hat the effectiveness of pre-place d
reinforcement of cut and fill stop support is critically dependent upon the grout to steel bon d
backs at the New Broken Rill e
Consolidated Ltd . rain to transfer shear stress to the rock mass . Lightly ruste d
in Australia e
. The expansion shell anchor is used t o steel with no Loose surface material is found to give th e
anchor the cable at the top of a Jong hole to permi best bond . A cement grout with a water-cement ratio of les s
t
tensioning before the cable is fully grouted than 0 .5 and with an additive to minimise "bleedinc" is re-
.
commended for use with lightly rusted steel .
basis of the
an recommendations
chapter . summarised in
a d re ges table s 18
this precedent Note that these rec
in upon , 1 9
support ommenda ti
systems used experience and on s
e
and South systems ), The y in particular tend The following empirica7 rules, originally devised durin g
endina vs a
cou ntries ( the Snowy Mountains project in Australia by Lang 25 9
also tend to be conativ S . vi a
3 . Es Lima te provide a useful check for proposed bolt lengths an d
serv e
the in situ stress spacings :
of stress at the site or at co ndition s from measu Minimum bolzt lemat h
rock . If no adjacen
availae r emzn t s
measuremen t Createst of :
and 41 i
p ages 99 and ts are avalablle, us in gures r a. Twice the bolt spacin g
male of in situ 100 see f 9re
to obtain a crudz s b. Three times the width of criticai and potentially en-
stresses . first esti0-
4. From stabie rock blocks defined by average joint spacin g
S figure 718 an sage 222, in the rock mass .
tresses in the rock es timate
the m aximu c. For spans of less than 6 metres (20 Feet), bolt lengt h
Note [hat very surrounding the m bo undar y
ery high stress propose
ns at d exca of one half the span .
are not e ntrati o vation .
included For spans of 12 to 30 metres (60 to 100 feet), bol t
in this figure at sharp c orner
s length of one quarter of span in roof .
5. If f igure
118 shows that For excavations higher than 18 metres (60 Feet), side-
the excavation tensile s
boundary, tresse s wall bolts one fifth of wall height .
excavation shape tur n to can occur a n
and i a condi3 and
to Chose e hose under n situ s[re s,cond tio find the Maximum bolt spacin g
tons t il n c losfs t Least o f
Consider th
stress tone (from the econ[urs) s a. One half the bolt length .
an
ae x p lore prin of th e
beo ers
c limi nate ddn orxp the extent ll S s b. One and one half times the width of critical an d
tion shape min imised which this zone
by Smal ca v d
coui a potentially unstable rock blocks defined by the averag e
e
. l c hanges in the
engt h a joint spacing in the rock mass .
oro ckbolt s ch would
Ie s uor tables con c s sa y v c . When weldmesh or chain-link mesh is to be used, bol t
ise whic h
support
to 5 t b i l
zone and estimate the l capacity eof t
from thei svolume
material subj
ected to tensil e
h i s
le
spacing of more than 2 metres (6 feet) makes attachmen t
of the mesh difficult (bot not impossible) .
unconfined com
Compa re
this
and the in rsitu c
eng t h o
stress v
stres s
look like and the size and shape of the potential failur e
zone around the excavation . Oraw the support system t o
given t by
e cm .ô where s t hive ureng t s is rockalu e scale and check that it looks right and that there i s
enough room available to drill holes, install bolts, plac e
valueund s mas s
ceeds 176 . If the bo i s esti exte concrete .
the unco*fi sage ar d
mass, carry out This final steg may be the misst imp ortant since it wil l
alysish ffsihe s
of the potential anmoreodetailede analysi k _roc often highlight deficiencies and anomalies which are no t
and 120 . failure the exten 19 t
This last zone as shown s nin f obvious when examining the results of a numerical mode l
and i t he
perienced reade r step is not a trivial one e a res s study, the predictionr, of a rock-support interactio n
th analysis or the recommendations derived from a rock mas s
experienced geotechnical engt te cou for ba e
to a num n9ner wld p' Th e classification system .
x
erical e
method presented eine s the boundary b A typical support drawing is presented in figure 154 .
Ap pendix Jemen [
4
7. lIhatever
the o Additional readin g
5 and 6 utcome of the
analyses de
above, an examination must be made scribe
o d in step s
for st ructurall• Within the scope of this book it is obviously impossible t o
for 9 7 cal y controlled f the po
infor mation is instabilit tentia l cover all the theoretical and practica1 details of roc k
Y Usin g wh ateve
of wed es available eue r support . An attempt has been made to give the reader a basi c
or blocks f examine the
c wedgques orming by means of the st7 - understanding of the behaviour of rock masses surroundin g
l f the described stereo- underground excavations and of the different approaches whic h
potential t the beginning
efailure
7. the len for thisa c hapte r can be taken to designing support systems to stabilize thes e
tYPZ of failure
requr
cons ie d t length and capacity of e xists , rock masses . The reader is strongly urged to consolidat e
s tabili5 ro ckbolts
the exca or tables this basic understanding with additional reading in Field s
vation .
8 of particluar interest and a selection of reference materia l
all
. caking
eq uence sofof these analyses into account, is listed hereunder to assist the reader in finding relevan t
c onside r
information .
in the timing of
support° s
tallati an d possible
varfa Bon s Timher suppor t
in on .
9. If Because of increasing concern with environmental factor s
rockbolts are to
be used for
various requir su p p ort , and an increasing tost of both timber and labour, th e
ements do
Check thee that th e
rockbolt designnot conflict with on e an use of timber for underground excavation support i s
against other .
experienc not nearly as common as in the earlier part of thi s
precedent
e . century . Many of the techniques used in timbering ,
particularly in mining, have been passed down from g en-
eration to generation as part of the "art " of mining .
JLc
323
Steel sets :
The most widely used reference on steel sets in Americ a
is "Rock Tunnelling with Steel Supports" by Proctor an d
White 6 which contains Terzaghi's paper on rock load s
(see pages 14 to 17) plus a wealth of detail on stee l
supoorts . Woodruff'- 60 , Volume 2 , chapters 4 and 6 ,
discusses both yielding and conventional steel sets .
Szechy 192 gives a number of design details and th e
US Army Corps of Engineers 2" 4 give some detailed ex-
amples on the design of steel set Supports .
Conerste "linin g .
Szechy's book, "The Art of Tunnelling" 162 contain s
a great deal of detail on methods of calculatin g
the support loads provided by tunnel lining, particu-
larly concrete . This book is interesting because i t
makes extensive reference to work carried out in th e
USSR and in Europe and which is not readily availabl e
in the English language .
The US Army Corps of En g ineers manual on Shafts an d
Tunnels in Roc kel"' contains a substantial amount o f
information on the design of concrete tunnel lining s
as well as a listing of 104 tunnelli n g projects wit h
details of geology, construction methods, suppor t
systems and tost .
Woodruff =60 , Volume 2, Chapter 8, gives a very practice l
discussion on concrete lining methods and equipmen t
with particular emphasis on mining applications .
Sâoterete .
The most comprehensive reference of shotcrete of whic h
the authors are aware is a report entitled "Shotcret e
Practice in Underground Construction" prepared fo r
the US Department of Transportation by Mahar, Parke r
and Wuellner of the University of Illinois 261 . Thi s
large report, available from the National Technica l
Information Service, Springfield, Vir g inia 22151, USA ,
L t bogcna cCde
o is essential reading for anyone seriously intereste d
IL'C'.iG.ir f. S1_aCCr1g in the use of shotcrete for underground support .
abdut 1 .5m The American Society of Civil Engineers published a n
6fl17dc.ng •-7c0bnod excellent volume in 1974 containing the proceeding s
150 1
of a conference entitled "Use of Shotcreta for Under-
acctayu spacf 5 abc-U' In .
ground Structural Support"- 52 . This volume contain s
35 papers and summaries of discussions held at th e
conference .
Ucck,bcits
In n spitz of the extensive use of rockbolts for th e
support of under g round excavations, surprisingly fe w
comprehensive publications on this subject are readil y
available .
A comprehensive report entitled "Rock Reinforcement "
(Engineering and Design) has recently been publishe d
by the US Army Corps of En g ineers '- 63 and this book wil l
be very useful for civil engineering applications .
Fiedre 154 :
Oooks such as those by Szech y 1102 Woodruf f2260 and Ober t
T=pical working sketch used during preliminar
rockbolting p ;: layout o and Duval1 59 contain rather sketchy discussions o n
attern for a tunnel in jointed rock f
. rockbolting and the authors consider that the mos t
useful information currently available is contained i n
individual papers .
The most important of these papers are those published
325
Chapter 8 references
by Lang259 264,
Panek 2 65,2e e
Cording et al2Re . , Benson et a1 2 6
7Becausof an d
Formation the current lack of readily 224. DAEMEN, J .J .K .
availabl e i n Problems in tunnel support mechanics .
on the use
excava tion s upport , of rockbolts For und
an additional chapte eng roun d
bolting has been added to this
cc
rsunma/ofethprcials con [rock- g
225.
Underground Space, Vol . 1, 1977, pages 163-172 .
fill stopes .
239. SAKURAI, Sand YAMANOTO, Y . A numerical analysis of th e 254. FULLER, P .G . Pre-reinforcement of cut and to Cut and Pil Z
Proc . Conf. Applieation of Rock Mechanics
maximum earth pressure acting on a tunnel .
Conf . on. N merical Vethods in Geomechanios, lining . Proc . 2nd Mining, Lulea, Sweden, June 1980, in press
published by ASCE ,
1976, Vol . 2, pages 8 21-833 . Experience wit h
P .G .
255. PALMER, W .T ., BAILEY, S .G . and FULLER,fill stopes . Proc .
preplaced supports in timber tut and
240. MANFREDINI, G ., MARTINETTI, S ., RIBACCHI, Rand RICCIONI, R l
Design criteria for anchor cabies and bolting in undergroun . Australian Mineral Industries Besuch Assocration Technica
d
openings . Proc . 2nd Conf. on. Numerical Methods inGeomechanics Meeting, Woolongong, Australia, 1976, pages 45-75 .
,
published by ASCE, 1976, Vol . 2, pages 859-871 . fil l
256. WILLOUGHBY, D .R . Rock mechanics applied to tut and
241. CUNDALL, P .A . Rational desion of tunnel supports mining in Australia . Proc . Conf . Application of Rock Mechanic s
.
; a compute r to Cut and Fill Mining ., Lulea, Sweden, June 1980, in press
mode! for rock mass behaviour using interactive graphics fo r
the input and output of geometrical data . U .S . Army Corps transfer fro m
of Eng ineers Technical Report MRD-2-74, 1974 . 257. FULLER, P .G . and COX, R .H .T . Mechanics of. load
steel tendons to cement based grout . Proc 5th Australian
pages 189 -
242. VOEGELE, M ., FAIRHURST, C .and CUNDALL, P .A . Analysis o f Conf. Mech. of Struct . and Mat ., Melbourne, 1975,
tunnel support loads using e lange displacement, distinc t 203 .
block model . Proc . ist Tntni . Symp . Storage iZi Excavate
d Rock reinforcement desig n
Rock Caverns, Stockholm,1977 , Vol . 2, pages 247-252 . 258. FULLER, P .G . and COX, R .H .T .
based on control of joint displacement - a new concept .
s
243. SCOTT, J .J . Friction rock stabilizers - a new rock reinfor- Proc . 3rd Australian Tunnelling Conf., Sydney, 1978, page
cement method . Proc . 17th Symposium on Rock Machenies, 28-35 .
Snowbird, Utah, 1976, pages 242-249 . g . Trans . Amer .
259. LANG, T .A . Theory and practice of rockboltin
244. U .S . ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS . Shafts mild Tunnels in Rock . Inso . Mining Engineers, Vol . 220, 1961, pages 333-348 .
Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-2901, 1978 .
260. WOODRUFF, S .D . Methods of Working Coal and Metal Mines , ,
245. LAUBSCHER, D .H . and TAYLOR, H .W . The importance of geo- Vol . 2 - Ground Support Methods, Pregamon Press, New York
mechanics classification of jointed rock nasses in minin g 1966, 430 pages .
operations . Proc . Symp . Exp loration for Rock Engineering , e
Johannesburg, 1976, pages 119-128 . 2 61 , MAHAR, J .W ., PARKER, H .W and WUELLNER, W .W . Shoterete Practic
n
in Under ground Construction . US Department of Transportatio l
246. HOUGHTON, D .A . The role of rock quality indices in th e Report FRA-OR&D 75-90 . 1975 . Available fron the Nationa .
assessment of rock massec . Proc . Symp . Exploration for Technical Information Service, Sprin g field, Virginia 22151
Rock Engineering, Johannesburg, 1976, pages 129-135 . .
262. A .S .C .E . . Use of Shoterete for Underg round Structural Support d
247. BERRY, N .S .M .and BROWN, J .G .W . Performance of Proc . Engineering Foundation Conference, Meine 1973, publishe
fu'l facer s
on Kielder tunneis . Tunnels and Tunnelling, Vol . 9, Mo . 4 , by American Society of Civil Engineers, New York . 1975 .
1977, pages 35-39 . Engineerin g
263. US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEEP.S . Rock Reinforcement -
248. NICHOLSON, K . Coping with difficult ground an the Fullfac e and D_ ign . US Army Corps of En g ineers, Engineer Manua l
mechanised tunnel drive at Kielder . Tunnels and Tunnelling, EM 1110-1-2907, 1580 -
Vol . 11, Mo- 5, 1979, pages 55-57 .
Assoeiation En gineering
264. LANG, T .A . Rock reinforcement . Bull .g es
Geologists, Vol . IX, No . 3 , 1972, pa 215-239 -
249. FREEMAN, T .J . The behaviour of fully-bonded rock bolts i n
the Kielder Experimental tunnel . Tunnels and Tunnelhing, and suspension
Vol . 10, No . 5, 1978, pages 37-40 . 265. PAIIEK, L .A . The combined eFfects of friction
in bolting bedded mine roofs . U .S . Bureau of Eines Repor t
250. WARD, W .H ., COATS, D .J . and TEDD, P . Performance of tunne of Investigations 6139 . 1962 .
l
support systems in the Four Fathom Mudstone . Preie. s
"Tunne lding '76" Published by Inst . Min . Metall ., London , 266. PANEK, L .A . Design for bolting stratified roof . Transactione s
1976, pages 329-340 . American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol . 229 . 1964, pa g
113-119 .
251. MATHEWS, K .E . and EDWARDS, D .B . Rock mechanics practice a
t . and
Mount Isa Mines Limited, Australia . Proc . 9th Comm g nacalt k 267. BENSON, R .P ., CONLON, J .,MERRITT, A .H ., JOLI-COEUR, P Symp .
Mining and . .etailur ical Co - ass, London, 1969, paper DEERE, D .U . Rock mechanics at Churchill Falls . Proc .
32 . Pheonix, 1971, Published by ASCE .
Under ground Rock Charters,
252. BREKKE, T .L . and KORSIN, G . Some comments on the use of 1971, pages 407-486 .
spilin g
in underground openings . Frise . 2nd Intni . Gong . Intni
. Assn . Rock en g ineerin g
Sag . Geol ., Sao Paulo, Brazil, Vol . 2 , 1974, pages 119-124 268. CORDING, EJ ., HENDRON, .A .J, and DEERE, D .U .
. for underground caverns . Proc . Symp .Underground Rock Chcmier's ,
253. CLIFFORD, R .L . Lang rockbolt support at Ne . Broken Hil Pheonix . 1971, Published by ASCE, 1971, pa g es 567-600 .
l
Consolidated Limited . Proc . Australian Inst . Hin .
Vol . 251, 1974, pages 21-26 . Metall . ,
S2a
329
33 1
E CAVATICN CYCL
E
Figure 156 After each blast, the support engineer should examine th e
.
Integrated excavation and support cycle used when rock conditions, determine the support requirements an d
are used as the principal sup p rockbolt s mark out the rockbolt drillhole positions, inclinations an d
ort element .
lengths ( a can of spray paint is an invaluable aid in thi s
exercise ) . The holes am? drilled by the normal junbo crew ,
immediately before or after drilling the blastholes, and th e
specialist sup port crew then moves in and installs and ten -
sions the rockbolts . At a later stage, as shown in figure
332
33 3
155, the
support
place w eldmesh crew can return to
and sho re tension the
tcrete and orout the bolr_s ,
these activities belts . Al l o
should f
vision of the be carried out under
support the dose
rank t h a t f e h e -"g'J°b i rw
f ho should carry super
su t -
can stop the nio ,
ar e u n s a ,e in hi s opin
condition s
cnd
olt
has been found that this system can
sufficient at work
very well i f
vidual to leadtention is oaid to choice of the corre
the support c t indi -
his re s p team and the
onsi6i li Cies in
with whom he relation tx
rince
e t n e r
will have to production ati teer e
is minimal work . Epeece Shows
disruption shows [ h t ihre
working cor rectly of the overall r
Safe
cycle i f
and [hat rapid the sYst em i s
achieved . P and Safe advanc e
can b e
Review of typjcal
rockbolt System
s
There are h undreds of
used throughout different typen of .r
the world and it is o ockbolts an d
co er all bviousl y dcwel s
co e r all n space of this
oofa tieset i ne e he chapter .
n a p reien been made and s selectio
e s of drao- A
details ar
ings in figures `
e Fre tsn te nse d
n these
ae drawings 157 to 155,
gs are The c om ment
largely self-exp
g
intended
Cended
aa e
and the fol - sare
typicai appli to provide a general
cations . summa ry o f
..^oder, deal; -
dev elope d
^
and conveyor ped to minimise damage to
eqp belts and used during coa l cuttin g
shortages, these
very untensioned dowels Fo r
Iight support duty are only
only suitable
suitable
e fo r
and are included mainly . They rarely used toda
_ore` for historical
ical in terest . y
oned enehored or grouted st?el
„•°Perfobolts", Worley bolts Split doweZs - in cludin g
are used in situations where very Sets and grouted rebar ,
support is rapid ins tallation
possible . These dowels of
as they are strained by can only accept
def ormation in the loa d
rock and, if the sur roundin g
dowels are
advancing installed too
face, most of the far behin d
have e taken place short-Germ roc k
In the hands of a and the dowels will be d ineffecti v
Wooden dowels were used to support laminated coal mine roofs in Britai n
skilled contractor in e .
grated excavation/su he usi n a fully
u l[e _ where dry wood dowels were placed in holes with minimum clearance . Th e
effe ctive . When PPOrt cycle,
improperly used the
these de es can vic
ver y
moisture in the rock caused the Wood to swell and this resulted in a
money et best and a disaster y can be a waste o f radial forte which g enerated frictional resistance to sliding of th e
at w0 r5 [ . rock an the wood .
Temaiomed
meohanicaiiy amchorgd more recently wooden doweis have been grouted into holes as shown i n
in the mining CoZto uent routin y
industry use d th e upper dra win g . Used for a time in Australien base metal mines t o
underg round and, with suhseq t 9lo
civil engineering ed i n reduce concamination of ore and minimise damage to conveyor belts .
and wedge l an
are only nffecti,e bol
s t Lower drawing s'nows wooden dowel assembly used in the Drayrock raine i n
and have
hc rs b very good t rock Idaho, U .S .A in the early 1950s 25 3
oF which there are manye an Shell a tensi
vv arieties . -x*ery o
the yield s high bol k, t .Abtuen taaes . Inexpensive and simple to manufacture . In coal mines they can be tu t
p aph roac
i ing treng th of the n ,
bolt Cr can b through without damaging cutting picks .
the rock d i n th e good quality rock masses but a ocvaal e In metal mines they do no t
nchor l c rh contaminate the ore and do not dama g e conveyor belts .
in poorer quality rock points rasult in of
, anchor sli p
GrcutaC ' tensioned - p Disedyantaces : Very weak and can only be used for very light support pressures . Canno t
rochhoZPs
an chorage in
poor g round a
de velope d e
t ct i n r o r be tensioned and hence must be installed close to face .
steel bolt olt -nd corrosion to
shanks, this type may fo r
rockbolt System in the well become the d -Scorion : With increasing cost of timber and because of disadvantages, ..•ooden dowel s
future ominan t
system is the [wo . The most sophi or pins are very rarely used today . Where it is essential that the suppor t
sage sticate d
giving a fully resin cartridge System ( sysiem can be cut through, fibre g lass dowels can be used and are stronge r
tensioned hig f ioure 165 )
and rapid Op h capacity bellt and more reliable .
eration . In in one simpl e
cost of the complete spite of hi g h
resin tost, in stalle
bolts due to system compares d
reduced labour toste well with
. other rock-
FIGURE 158 : RE-USABLE FULL LENGTH MECHANICAL .ANCHOR,
Background
Developed for use in coai mines by 'dorley of Philadelphia, U .S .A . . Th e
assembly is inserted into a drillhole with the anchor collapsed, i e
in intimate contact with the ramps
. When the nut is tightened a g ains t
the washer, the bolt is displaced relative to the anchor which i
s
forced up the ramps and hence expands . Loosening the nut and hammerin
g
on the end of the holt will reverse the process and allow the ancho r
to collapse .
This gives the possibility of re-using the anchor orovide d
that it is not dâmaged or too severely rusted .
" in conjunction with the Ingersoll-Rand Company i n
Advantages : Background Developed by Scott 24
Anchors along the entire length of the hole and hence gives a stres s
the U .S .A . . This device has gained considerable popularity in the minin g
distribution similar to that of a grouted dowel
. Can be collapsed an d industry .
re-used if it is no Tonger required in a particular area . This Featur e The 1 Inch (38mm) diameter split tube is forced into a 1 ''-/g inch (35mm )
is useful in coal mining where very short term support is required adjacen s
t diameter drillhole . The spring action of the compressed tube apelie
to an advancing face which is later allowed to collapse . a radial Force against the rock and generates a frictional resistance t o
. This frictional resistance increase s
isadvantages : sliding of the rock on the steel
Expensive to manufacture . Can only be used as an untensioned suppor
t as the outer surface of the tube rusts .
member and hence must be installed close to an advancing face . Onl y
suitable for short term support since it cannot be grouted and henc e Simple and quick to install and claimed to be eheaper than a grouted dowe l
cannot be protected against rusting . Advantages
of similar caeacity .
AppZioations Used in some coai mine applications in the eastern U .S .A e
known elsewhere . . but very littl e DisadvantCa n n ot be tensioned and hence is activated by movement in the rock in th
f
same way as a grouted dowel . Its support action is similar to that o
an untensioned dowel and hence it must be installed very close to a face .
The drillhole diameter is critical and most failures during Installatio n
occur because the hole is either too Small or too large .
In some applications, rusting has occurred very rapidly and has proved t o
e
be a problem where Jong term support is required . The device cannot b
grouted .
At'vlfcat ans Increasingly used for relatively light support duties in the minin g
industry, particularly where short term support is required . Very
little application in civil engineering at present .
Same of the systems or components illustrated in this series of drawing s
are p rotected by patents
. Potential users intending to manufactur e
Same of the systems or components illustrated in this series of drawing s
similar systems or components should check patent regulations .
are protected by patents . Potential users intending to manufactur e
similar systems or components should check patent regulations .
336
33 7
ow:d
ProbabIy the earliest type of mechanical ly anchored rockbolt
and . Very simpl e
inexpensive to manufacture and widely used throughout the world
The end of the bolt shank is slotted as i .
llustrated and the wedge is drive
harne by Aushing the assembly against the end of the drillhole n
expands the end of the bolt shank and anchors it in the rock
. The wedg e Grout return, through
Also illustrated are two bevelled washers which are used to
. entr e hole in holt
an inclined rock face accommodat e esisank
. The hardened washer is used when the bolt i s
tensioned by applying a measured torque to the nat
. Expansion shell mechanical anchors were developed to provide more -
Eackgrozmd :
-avantages : Simple and inexpensive . reliable anchorage in a wider range of rock conditions than [ha t
In hard rock it provides an excellent
and permits immediate tensioning of the holt . anchorag e for which a slotted bolt and wed g e system can be used . This drawin g
illustrates a number of components which can be used in differen t
` odvantagse : r
Due to the Small contact area between the expanded anchor and the combinations . The expansion shell anchor is one of a large numbe
local
crushing of the rock toi th consequent slip of the anchor can
rock , of different types, all of which operate in basically the sann way .
when the intact rock stren g occu r A wedge, attached to the bolt shank, is puiled into a conical ancho r
th is less than about 10 MPa (1500 Ib/in-' ) .
shell forcing it to expend against the drillhole Walls .
cations The rubber grout seal is used to centre the bolt in the hole and to sea l
Betaase of the unreliability of the anchor in poor quality rock, th s
slotted bolt and wedge has given way to the more versatile expansio
e the collar of the hole against grout leakage . An alternative system i
shell anchor . n to use a quick setting plaster to seal the hole collar .
Relatively rarely used today .
Different grout tube arrangements are illustrated . In all Gases the grou t
is injected into the collar end of the hole (except in down-holes) an d
the return pipe is extended for the length of the hole . Graut injection
is stopped when the air has been displaced and when grout flows fron th e
return tube .
d
Di.saduantages : Relatively expensive . Correct installation requires skilled workmen an
close supervision . Grout tubes are frequently damaged during installatio n
and check by pumping clean waten before grouting is essential .
App leations : Very widely used for permanent support applications in civil engineering .
Mechanically anchored bolts without grout are widely used in mining .
A-_ ions . Resins are expensive and many suFfer fror a limited shelf-Iife, par -
Principally used in the mining industry where relatively short ter m Bissduansegeig
support requirements do not require complete grouting of bolt shan k ticularly in ho_ climates .
for corrosion protection . Ungrouted bolt len g
th acts as a spring i n ly used in critical epplications in which tost is les s
cases where !arge stress changes are enticipated during the life of th e Zicstions Increasin g
bolt . Important than speed and rel iabi li ty .
Rockboit installatio n
Sca iir g
Figure 167
: Crane beams anchored to the wall
s
.dnerzo r' vy
of e lange cavern in an underground
project . These beams were hydr oelectri c
i nstalled during a When rockbol ts are to be tensioned, some form of anchor mus t
n
early stage of the cavern excavation, befor be used to secure the end of the bolt in the hole . The thre e
the main benching down il e
lustrated in this photo - most common anchor types are mechanical, cement grout an d
graph commenced .
chemical (synthetic resin) .
sules reieases the water uniformly and rotation of the bol BoBt tensionin g
t
mixes the water and cement . The grout hardens very quickl
y
and anchoring strengths of 3500 lb/ft of hole (51 NN/m ) Rockbolts can be tensioned by applying a calibrated torqu e
at 24 minutes and 8000 lb/ft (177 MN/m) et 5 minutes hav e to the nut or by applying a direct tension to the bolt .
Seen demonstrated
. The shelf life of these vater-cemen t
cartridges is reported to be in excess of six months In the Gase of rockbolt applications in which tensions o f
.
less than about 10 tons are required, the use of a torqu e
A variety of techniques have been used to pump thick grout wrench or an Impact wrench set to stall at a calibrate d
s e
into holes or to form grout anchors in place by simultaneousl
y torque value is usually adequate . At higher leads, th
injecting a dry mixture of sand and cement and •water uncertainty in the relationship between the torque applie d
2 1
These techniques tend to vary from site to site, dependin to the nut and the tension induced in the bolt can give ris e
g . Apart from possibl e
upon the equipment available and the ingenuity of the opera- to very large variations in bolt tension
tors . inaccuracies in the torque measurement, the tension in th e
bolt is influenced by such factors as the rusting of the bol t
Resin cartridges , threads and the gouging of the washer by the sharp corner s
such as those illustrated in figures 16 5
and 770 are i a
ncreasingly being used in applications i n of the nut . The substitution of a hardened•washer for
which high anchor strength and rapid insta)lation are re- mild steel washer can change the tension in the bolt by a
quired
. The high cost of these cartridges is usually justi- factor of two .
fied by the speed and convenience of ins{allation and thi
s
is particularly important when it is necessary to integrat The US Bureau of Mines carried out a number of tests an th e
e
the excavation and support cycles, as discussed an page s relationship between applied torque and induced tension i n
325 to 337 . ,274,273 and the re-
3/y and 3/g inch diemeter rockbolts 273
sults of these tests have been widely used . Rcckbolt manu -
A short shelf life was a problem wich some of the early resi facturers will sometimes supply torque-tension calibration s
n e
cartridges and, while this problem has been partly overcome for their products and these can be used provided that th
, -
the inteeding user should check the manufacturer's specifica- field conditions are similar to those under which ehe cali
tions very carefully .
In critical applications which are a brations were carried out .
Jong way
From sources of supply, air freight is sometime
s
a justitiable means of transporting resin cartridges i n The authors recommend [hat, whenever a torque wrench or impac t
order to minimise this shelf life p n
roblem . Currently, th e wrench is to be used for tensionin g rockbolts, the calibratio
most widespread use of resin cartridges is in countries i n be checked by the direct measurement of bolt tension (es des -
which they are locally manufactured and therefore readil y cribed below) in a random sample of installed bolts .
available .
Groutin g
Figure 163 on page 3 559 illustrates a typical grout tub e Wire mesh is used to support small pieces of Loose rock o r
assembly for up-hole grouting . A short plastic tube (abou t as reinforcement for shotcrete . Two types of wire mesh ar e
8mm inside diameter and 11mm outside diameter) is used t o commonly used in underground excavations : chainlink mes h
inject the grout . A 6mm inside diameter and 8mm outsid e and weldmesh .
diameter plastic tube is taped to the rockbolt for its ful l
length to act as a grout return tube . Note that these two ChainZink mes h
tubes should be of different dimensions to prevent injectio n
into the grout return tube . The diameter of the grout in - This is the type of wire mesh commonly used for fencing an d
jection fitting should be such that it will only fit into th e it consists of a woven fabric of wire . The wire can b e
larger grout inlet tube . In the Gase of down-hole grouting , galvanised for corrosion protection and, because of th e
the grout should be injected at the bottom of the bole an d construction of the mesh, it tends to be flexible and strong .
a short graut return tube fitted to the top of the hole . A typical mining application is illustrated in figure 17 4
below which shows chainlink mesh attached to the roof of a
h
A grout return tube taped to the outside of the rockbol t haula g e by means of rockbolts . Small pieces of rock whic
shank in easily damaged during handling and,,, installation o f become detatched from the roof are supported by the mes h
which, depending upon the spacing of the support points ,
the rockbolt and special care must be taken'to avoid suc h
damage . When the tube is damaged, the bolt should be remove d can carry a considerable load of broken rock .
and the tube replaced . Alternatively, if the bolt cannot b e
removed, a new grout tube can be pushed into the hole o n As shown in the margin photogreph, chainlink mesh is no t
a stiff wire and the wire then withdrawn to leave the tub e ideal for reinforcing shotcrete because of the difficulty o f
in place . getting the shotcrete to penetrate the woven fabric of th e
s
mesh . The authors do not recommend chainlink mesh for thi
e
As shown in figure 163 , alternative grout tube arrangement s application and prefer touse weldmesh as discussed on th
Jrouted haiZcw rochholt . which are less susceptible to damage are to place the grou t next page .
return tube in a slot machined into the bolt shank or t o Chaini/nk mesh is not recomsrende d
use a hollow bolt* . While more expensive than the syste m or the reinforcement of shotcrete .
described above, these alternative arrangements for th e
grout return tube do provide a much greater degree of re-
liability .
s
Figure 174 : Chainlink mesh used to prevent falls of small piece
of broken rock from the roof of a mine haulage .
We Zdnesl,
Weldmesh is
commonly used for
consists of a reinforcing s
square grid hotcret e and i t
of steel wires ,intersco
points . A hf r
has 4 .2mm wires typical weldmesh
at 700mm centres for unr g r0x4 .d us e
un dergroun
mesh) and it is
s upplied inen(designated 0re cnven
for ins tallation by Panel
one or two men sizes
.
which 1 are co
venien t
Generally, w
eldmesh is a ttached
second washer to the rock by
plate and nut means of a
bojt . placed on each
Intermediate an e xistin g
chorage is p rock -
rovided b ygroutedbls
mediate anchorsor expansion shell anchors .
should Sufficiennt inter-
drawn close to the be placed to ensure
rock face that the mesh i s
can work with mesh . While a good
as far as 200mm shotcrete op erato
this tends to b (8 i nches r
ts t eth very wasteful of shotcrete from the ro
ck ,
mesh ) it is e
as
be fully covered b y ssentia l
sh otcrete .
Mesh is easily
damaged by flyroc n
kinstalohudbelay from e blay blas ts af a
away or it u tilih r it s
should be protected bistin9 *s
blasting mats . enoug h
from fiyr repl
ock ce by means
Damaged mesh to f
out the damaged should be l a
section and
ens r continuit P r oviding a goo d o deby cuY in g
u ea ge of not y of the reinforcement .
unraveliing when W eldmesh l has
t the
chainiink mesh . damaged as is th
e case e
Galvanised weldmesh
is dif
steel will ficult to obtain and
suffer from serious henc e th e
encased in c orrosion i f
shotcrete . it is not full y
air p Gare should
ockets are not formed the in tha t
section points and behind the wires or
the wires or the
s e t e shotcrete nozzle
°zzle so
can be achieved
b
y c onstan t i
n t vem
Shotcret e
- Easier to clean .
Mix desig n
nIN1N**In11üN• l i
1l li i
i
Inch) or less .
30
glIUIIIIMnN1üN1•\11»NOII I11
®tIN**üIIUIU *1NNü*
Aggregate g radation is critical in mix design, pumpability ,
fiow through hoses, hydration at the nozzle, adherenc e
uhII •I*IIIIINtnu*lanin*l*un 1 80
11N ! l
20
to the area sprayed and the density and economy of th e
final product . Typical gradation recommendations fo r
uuua.ZII11N1lI/1111111L'U
.u' IINI/N 111N***`- i
50
concrete aggregates are listed in table 24 and thes e
recommendations can be used as a basis for shotcret e
10
lIuR$
uII*iN**üN*ü*/*l1I!lIt*111N*
I
1 10 0
0 0 .1 0 .0 5 0 .00 1
aggregate selection . A recommended range of gradatio n 1 0. 5
00 50 10 5
for combined coarse and fine aggre g ates for use i n
shotcrete is presented in figure 179 . Grain size in millimetres
g
and flexural stren th . An increase in the coarse aggre-
gate fraction will make the shotcrete more difficult t o
pump and will give more rebound during shooting . Hence ,
a compromise must be reached and it is recommended tha t
fieure 179 be used as a startine point in establishin g
the Optimum aggregate g
radation .
25 dcys
Water - Water used in shotcrete should meet the Sam e
standards as that used in concrete . lt should be clea n
and free from injurious amounts of oil, grease, salts ,
aikali and organic matter . Generally, water which i s
suitable for drinking and having na pronounced taste o r
odour is suitable for use in shotcrete .
Mix proportion s
Chapter 9 reference s
A number of projects have been successfully completed usin 273. BARRY, A .J ., PANEK, L .A . and McCORMICK, J .A . Use of torqu e
g
fibre reinforced shotcrete288,289,290 and the authors hav wrench to determine load in roof bolts . Part 1, Slotte d
e
little doubt that the use of this material will increase i type bolts . US Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations ,
the Future . n No . 4967, 1953 .
36 9
Pattern around
the hole is
extent by
the presence influenced to a ve r
the radial of this fre e 1 sig nifican t
compressive . eThi
twas is betau
stress wave ect d face th
borehole is converted ving le stres Plough or V-cu t
when it en rs f a e
counters a free a surface s sess se
. e Th tensile
tensil e stre The Layout of a plough or V-cut is iliustrated
moves back
in addition from the free surface towards w ve in the uppe r
to causing sp the b orehol e and margin sketch . A typical advance for this type of cut i
gas alter alling at the , s
the stress field free s le urce a nd , l t n 45 to 50% of the tunnel width . In wide tunnels, this advanc e
emoansion resulting sur roundin
crack Pattern . the borehole and is limited by drillhole deviation which is
-raeture must always As will gbe alte r the typically of th e
take place towards Seen la brlastin g order of è5% . Hence, in a 5m lon g hole, the end of the hol e
for the " swell" a free face in te
of the . rock or ,rdeer to ai can deviate by ±0 .25m and this can cause problems
"choking" and to prevent low with flash-
of the blast "f reezin over from one hole to another during ignition of the
9" or charges .
Langefors and Kihistrom29 3 report a case in which an advanc e
In a ddition to
the dynamic stress of 5 .4m was achieved in a 9m span tunnel
(60% of the tunne l
the gas pressure
gen erated by effects discussed width) by accurately drilling slightly larger than norma l
important part in the expansion above ,
wed g ing the als o plays a holes (44mm diameter) and by using detonators of high dela
propagation cracks n y
of the cracks .
rote in techniques T higa
s itt
en and Play a s ri t ic a
accuracy .
s ng aa su re
such a ys a Grt '
in which the n{; smcer ca l
cracks are e g h in stieg Ins tantaneous cu t
[Ions . in addition, th ncouraged to
is resp sible i re c
the broken A variation of the V-cut involves drilling the holes mor
forr
fo • e
quase expansion rock away from the hole and nearly parallel, as shown in the centre mar g in sketch, an d
volume for su pr ovidin g 32 ? 2 3 4
bsequent bl asts . igniting all the charges simultaneously .
Creation Advances of up t o
of a free fac e 83% of the tunnel width can be achieved with this cut .
3 2 Langefors and Kihlstrom293 report a case in which an averag
In bench blasting e
operations , • o advance of 5 .5m was obtained and where the width of the bas
able since the a free face is n e 4 e
blast ormall Y avail -- 9 .5 2 of the cut was only 3 .3m in a tunnel of about 6 .6m span .
[he bench face is initiated from the 2 2 03
holes
t n
created by the
g ed bench blast, previous blast . In c l osest t c Fac e via,, and iniiation. .. e cuenc A disadvantage of the instantaneous cut is the large
each row of a r fc l l y e thro w
away and create a new free face for holes will heave the e which results in the muckpile being distributed
ro c k over a con-
the
next row of holes t o siderable distance from the tunnel face . A modificatio n
of the Layout shown in the centre margin sketch
In a tunnel which in-
blasting o peration, volves truncating the end of the pyramid, is claimed
since the b to reduc e
oreholes are drilled no free face is av ailabl e the throw-=93 .
p arallel
and there are no free surfaces to the tunne l axi
Hence an essential p arallel lto lt a
First ch
steis se bare holes . s P rcZtcZ hole cutte.
a free cut s tu
. The tut, :whi c h rt tbo os e pr
f in fir a ed Firs uc e
ptroduct a f e e Because of the space required to accommodate a drilling
face,
bel ow . can be achieved in a number of ways which are
di scussed machine and the rods for drilling an g led holes in a face ,
cuts described above can only be us e d in relativel y
Fan tut large tunnels . In many civil and mieiee engineering apelice -
tions, the tunnels are too Small to allo,•,
When the these cuts to b e
tunnel used and hence parallel hole cuts have tc be used to oétei
advance is less than n
as shown in the margin sketch the span o f the required advance .
to allow inciined oP posite , there
these circu holes b drille the is ce . rer m
d ed
l l ed
mstances a fan tocut Inde r When the blastholes are drilled per endicuia- to the tunne l
expansion volume t can be
r equired usequent create e . [h e face and parallel to one another, the oniv effecti _
rar the subeq way i n
tot bla sti n which to provide a free face for the itiel detonation i s
A ty p ical fan S-
cut Layout, adapted drill a relief hole which is left uncharged .
and Kihlstroml93, fro m the bock t3
is shown in by Lteg tha t
only the fan cut holes and not the ` margin th . Not er tha The relationship between the burden d and the
shown The de h other b t ameter ' o f
tonation sequee nc lasthole
a s ar the relief hole (see lower margin sketch) is critical for th e
esigned to break shown in the success of the detonation of the First charge in a paralle
d worein
the rock
sequ entially'
evi i s l
g towards a free face . so [hat ea ch v hol e hole cut . Langefors and Kihlstrom 29- 3 suggest that
for goo d
fragmentation and clean election of the broken material tn e
3 5 7 Obviously there
are a number of alt burden ? should be less than 1 .5 times the relief hole dia -
a Fan cut can be drilled ernative ways in meter S . Haean 29a sug g ests that, even for
referred and de tonated whic h 200mm diamete r
to the specific and the reader relief holes, the burden should not exceed 200mm .
Kihlstrom2-3, examples given * ls
by Lan
• The char in
for the success of holes l
gefors an d
1 3 5 7 the S fan
fan tut
cut also cr itica l The amount of explosive energy per metre of blasthole i s
char 9i ng t a Full di
exceeds the scope scussion an critical in the detonation of the firnt hole in blasting a
:e bis) shcwing t fi c details
ric of this
g can be text . Once a ain parallel hole cut .
ttiation seguenc from the obtained from Lan S , speci - If the amount of energy is too low, th e
e excellent gefors and interlocking network of fracture surfaces will not be un-
concerned with the handbooks issued by a number Kihist ;pa o r
man ufacture of of c omnie_ meshed and the seg ment of broken rock will remain in place .
explosives . In this case the charge will blow out or "rifle"
rather tha n
break the burden . On the other hand, if the charge is exces-
sive, a large number of radial cracks (see nage 367) will b e
37 1
h
formell . The inereese in volume or "sweli" of the broke the cut . In order to minimise the damage to the rock whic
n
rock tends to be nreater when these radial cracks occur tha n is to remain, special consideration must be given to th e
when spulling o . of the final line of blastholes . Th e
eflection breakage (see page 368) take s Layout and chargin g
place . Consequently, insufficient expansion volume is avail design of these perimeter holes must be based upon an under -
- t
Mastko la able and the broken rock tends to "freeze" in the relief hole . standing of the factors which control rock damage adjacen
Accord ing to Hageren" , freezing tends to be more common i to a blasthole .
n
fine g rained rock than in coarser grained rocks because o
f
relief ka lte suggest that rock dam a g e is related t o
the greater tendency for radial cracks to develop in fin e Holmbe r g and Persso n 291 k
grained rocks . the peak particle velocity induced by the blast . This pea
g
particle velocity may be estimated by means of the followin
Additional problems in blasting parallel hole cuts ar e empirical equation
sympathetic detonation and dynamic pressure desensitization .
Sympathetic detonation can occur in a hole adjacent to tha t k •'.1g (133)
v
being detonated when the explosive beine used has a hig h
level of initiation sensitivity . Most nitroglvicerine base
d
explosives exhibit such sensitivity . Dynamic pressure de- where v is the peak particle velocity in mm/sec . ,
sensitization occurs in many explosives, particularly ANFO- W is the charge weight in kg . ,
-* Pr,Cal parallel ^0 2 type explosives (Ammonium Nitrate / Fuel Oil), when th e R is the radial distance from the point o f
ou t
density of the nlosive is increased . Th i_! can occur ,yhc n detonation in metres ,
the pressure wave from an earlier-firing char g e in an ad- k,a and ß are constants which depend upon th e
jacent blasthole acts on a charg e . In extreme cases, th
e structural and elastic properties cf the roc k
density can be increased to a point where the explosiv e mass and which vary from site to site .
blacthoI e will not detonate .
n
The constants k, a and g used in this equation depend upo
h
Dynamit pressure desensitization problems can be r,inimise d the type of blast and the condition of the rock mass in whic
by using adequate delays in the firing sequence . 291 sugges t
In thi s the blast is carried out . Holmberg and Persson
way, the firing of Bach successive blasthole is delaye d .5 for tunnel blastin g
values of k = 700, e = 0 .7 and ß = 1
Jong enough for the pressure wave from the previous blas
t conditions in competent Swedish bedrock and they have use d
to have passed and for the explosive to have recovered t o these values in calculating the results plotted in figur e
its normal density and sensitivity level .
184 .
Langefors and Kihlstrom 293 g ive a number of examples o Rock fracture is associated with a peak particle velocity o f
f
parallel hole cut configurations and they also discuss th e 700 to 1000 mm/sec and the zone of damage ssurrcunding a 45m m
charge concentrations, initiation sequences and the choic e diameter blasthole charged with ANFO, with a linear charg e
of delays . They point out that the problems of drillin .5m in radius . Thi s
g density of 1 .5 kg/m, is approximately 1
deviation can give eise to severe problems in parallel hol e amount of damage is unacceptable when the blasthole is clos e
cuts_ and sug g est that templates should be used to guide th to the final tunnel wall and steps raust be t aken to reduc e
e t
drill, particularly when using hand-held drilling equipment . the damage by reducing the charge . Pi lgere 184 shows tha
\\ v .. .
Any reader who is likely to become involved in the desig n radius of the zone of damaged rock will be reduced to a
or supervision of tunnel blasting is strongly recommende d .2 kg !
0 .3m when the charge density is reduced to 0
to study the text by Langefors and Ni 'hlstrom in detail . use of charge densities of [his magnitude in etc .-
holes is the beeis of the technique of s.mooti
Rock damag e blasting which is used to control blast damag e
excavations . This technique is discussed in the
Good blasting starte with the correct desi g n of the cut an d
of the remaining blasthoies required to break the rock around
372
37 3
w e 5O .d '- (134 )
In addition to the need to detonate a live of smooth blas
or presplit holes sim t
ultaneously in order to cause the stress
where w is the linear charge density of ANFO-eguivalen t
3 74
explosive in kg/m an d
d is the borehole d iameter in mm
.
Svanholm et a1295 give the
following recommendations fo
smooth blasting in underground r Figure 187 : Results achieved in a har d
e xcavations :
rock mining tunnel using crude smoot h
Drill hol e blasting techniques . In spite of th e
diameter * r e`
diamete eone9e
entrati.crc Barde n wide spacing of the boreholes (marked
nun r Spacing with whi te paint), the results are bette r
kg A IVFO/m m than those obtained with normal bul k
m
blasting .
2 5-32 11 0 .08 0 .30-0 .1. 5
25-48 17 0 .25-0 .3 5
0 .20 0 .70-0 .5 0
51-64 0 -50-0 .7 0
22 0 .44 1 .00-1 .10
0 .08-0 .50
186 : Smooth
blasting re -
in a tunnel for a hydro-
_ric p roject in South
Africa .
>cks are weck h orizonta ll v
i sandstones, mudstones and
377
lé .u IF lp
1F, 16
IC.
. .
g1E 17 e t4 -
1 » 15
17
5 .2m
7 .5m
Fi g ure 189 :
Oif ference in the
appearance and Figure 190 : Blasthole pattern and initiation se q uence for a typical tunne l
s
a bench face in gneiss achieved by presplitting tabilit y y o f
blast using a parallel hole cut and smooth blastin g for the final walls .
by uncontrolled ( left)*an d
bulk blasting (right) . The relief hole diameter in the cut is 125mm and the blasthole diameter i s
SOmm . The charge density ranges from 0 .4 to 2 .5 k g /m and the advance i s
4 .3m . After Langefors and :tihlstrom 293 .
37 9
3 78
Peak particl e
Damage to adjacent underground velocity v mm/s
excavation s
100 6
Diehl and 5ariole 297 report an
experiment carried out in th e
Kiruna iron ore mine in Sweden where a 20kg blast was detonate d
and the induced particle velocities were monitored in e serie s 50 0
of p arallel tunnels adjacent to the blest site
. The result s
of this study are summarised in fi g ure 191 which gives a brie
f
description of the damage associated with different as s
ranges o f
peak particle velocity .
20 4
A reasonable approximation of the relationship between th e
particle velocity v and the distance R for this blast g
can be 50 Figure 192 : Graph for predictin
obtained by substituting k = 200, c = 0 .7 and 8 = 1 .5 i
equation 133 an page 371 .
n induced particle velocity at a
W kg o f
distance R from a blast of
explosives . Note that this grap h
This equation has been used to construct the graph
presente d applies to Kiruna only and that th e
in figure 192 which can be used to estimate the particl e constants k, c and 9 may ee differen t
velocity which would be induced at any distnce R from a
at different underground blastin g
blast of W kg of explosives . This type of ' graph can be o
f eitee .
considerable assistance in designing blasts an a particula r
site but it must be emphasised that figure 192 applies t o
Kiruna only and that it is essential to determine the con-
stants e and ä for each site . This can be done by carryin
g
out a series oF triel blasts and monitoring ehe induced par-
ticle velocities at different disteeees from these blasts .
0 . 5
, a ard 8 ar e
Typical published values for the constant s
listed below .
eo
Lundberg et el :r1'F
730 0 .66 1 .54 3 9
Ambraseys and Hendron -
0 .53 1 .00 RIW" s > 3 .97
2 083 99
Ambraseys and Hendro n '-
0 .93 2 .80 R/w1/3 n 3 .97
L 300-250mm/s adjacent to blas t 11 455 0
Holmberg 32
1 686 0 .71 1 .78
*-- 80-60mm/s - severe rockfalls and crackin g 01 30 1
`larob ' ev et
40-30mm/s - rockfalls and crackin g 707 0 .58 1 .56
Holmberg and Persso n 25 1
1 .50 Average Swedish bedrock
700 0 .70
22-18mm/s - small rockfalls and fine crack s Oriard 35 2
1 .60 Down hole bench blasting
14-12mm/s - no rockfalls or crack s 193-1530 0 .80
Coyote blasting 5 Orierd 30'2
1 .10
37- 148 0 .55
Oriard 302
0 .90 1 .60 Presplit blastin g
5 958
e
To calculate the particle velocity v in in/sec for a distance R in feet from a Charg
`' 'gare 191 3
: Monitored particle velocities and observed damage i n .42 and use the Same values for o and ß
of W lb of explosive, divide k by 7 r
a series of parallel tunneis adjacent to e 20kg detonation at a Coyote blasting involves placing a large concentration of explosives in a tunnel o
depth of a pp .
roximately 400m below surface in the Kiruna iron ore min cavity and it is used to loosen large volumes of rock close to surface
in Sweden . After Diehl and sariola '- e
97 .
380 38 1
Chapter 10 references
Chapter 11 : Instrumentatio n
Introductio n
38 7
LX/,
,. v/, ,X/Xn, I, \Qw- . n\i,AV,/, .«/@ `
(c)
e /inV/*,C.v//h■ ./77 W////,Y//c v//.R V//,,',y/ A..+//TY//•n\v/!n///*v//O.V//Av'//fea'//<AY// 7/›
:ar m
y/L* e7!LI% Y/2GMaV,G
*\v/i\\ViJ.\\*Cir**v%, *\\vn.***\\"//\\\Y/n.\svn.\\ \5vrn\wx/j
\ . \ /I•\*,w\ T*\vrT*f//A'.1 .
(d ) f¢
Figure 196 Me
44!444, 4
rrestonc l asurement of the hydraulic pressure required t
the pins an either side of the fla o
p ositions
the slot is cut in
. Note that the
order to es
* s lo
e pins raust jb ae io s
alt [d efo
n .
r
bfo 2
Fi g ure 197 Steps involved in the complete determination of the in sit u
state of stress in a single operation .
P hotograph re r tablish the zero P o
p s . ed with p sition . a. Drill a large diameter (150mm or 6 in) borehole to the depth ,
et Bograh, ermission of Pierre Londe of Coyn
Paris . at which the stress determination is to be carried out .
e
b. Drill a small diameter borehole (38mm or 1 .5 in) a distance of abou t
500mm or 18in beyond the end of the large borehole . Install the stres s
measuring instrument in this small borehole .
A. Full di scussion an the c. Overcore the stress measuring instrument using a thin wall diamond cor e
advantaaes and barrel of the saure outer diameter as the large diameter borehole .
disadv antages o
all of these borehole stress measuring instruments woul f d. Subjett the core containing the stress measuring instrument to radia l
exceed the scope of this chapter and the following comment d
pressure in a hydraulic cell in order to determine the modulus o f
are confined to one instrument s
clusion stress cell d . This is the hollow in- elasticity at each strain gauge location .
This i nstrument is escribed by Worotnicki and Walton
c 30 6
to be the most pr onsidered by the authors of this boo
actical and reliable of the k
available c urrentl y
instruments .
almost id The Installation pr
ocedure i s
entical to that used for most oF the other bore-
hole instruments mentioned earlier in this
di scussion .
Figures 197 to 202
i llustrate the p
measuring Op rinciples of the stres s
eration and g
ive some details of some of th e
steps required in order to carry out the complete Opera-
tion
. Note that the strain gauges are fully
en capsulate d
in an epoxy resin tube and that the read-out cable i
permanently
attached to the i s
nstrument (see figure 198
This construction ensures that the cell is
rugged and fully waterproof . e xtremel y )
M onitoring of the strai
gauges is carried out during the over-coring operatio n
and this permits n
iden tification of any
any of the gauges mal function i n
. Since only six strain readings ar
required for a complete
deter e
the ava mination oF the stress field
of r ilability of nine gauges gives an adequate degre ,
edundancy to allow for
the gauges . mal function in one or two o e
f
The authors r Figure 198 : Hollow inclusion stress cell with nine strain gauge s
r ecommend that extreme care be taken in th fully encapsulated in epoxy resin and a permanently attached cabl e
ecording and analysis of the strain readings since i e
is very easy to mix r t to permit readout of all strain gauges during over-coring . Th e
eadings from d
rote down an i ifferent gauges or t o instrument illustrated was manufactured by Rock Instruments, P .0 .8o x
ncorrect sign for one of the readings
. 245, East Caulfield, Melbourne, Victoria 3145, Australia from th e
original design by Worotnicki and Walton 30 6
3 89
Figure 199 : E p
oxy resin cement is mixe d
and poured into the cylindrical cavit y
formed by the tube to which the strai
gauges are a ttached . n
A full discussion on the analysis of the strain gaug e
readings obtained from over-coring a hollow inculsio n
stress cell has recently been published by Duncan Fam a
and Pender 308 Similar discussions, more limited i n
scope than that mentioned above, have been published b y
Leeman 107 , Rocha and Silverio 305 and Worotnicki an d
Wal ton 30 ô
Figure 207 : In the past, most of the theoretical work and field studie s
The in strument, Filled
:vit h on the influence of g roundwater has been restricted t o
activated epoxy resin, is carried to th
e slopes and foundations" 5 ' 30 ` This is because water pres -
end of the hole by means of a specia
l sures in these structures may be of the saure order as th e
tool fitted with guide wheels to centr
the in strument e stresses acting across discontinuities and this can eive ris e
. A mercury switch in th e to serious instability . In the case of undergrownd structure s
tool gives the orientation of the gau
ges the stresses in the rock mass are generally very much highe r
and a trip wire within the cell
in dicate s than the g roundwater pressures and the dangers of instabilit y
that all the cement has been extruded
. induced by a reduction in effective stress are not as high .
Consequently, most underground designers tend to trea t
groundwater as a nuisance, to be dealt with when encountered ,
rather than a threat .
39 3
Chapter 11 reference s
207 305 . ROCHA, M . and SILVERIO, A .A . A new method for the complete
Figure t borehole instrument t determination of the state of stress in rock masses .
ta l moni mi ne . developmen
pment of a cave in a largo Geotechniava_, Vol . 19, 1969, pages 116-132 .
at differen
different A number of wires are a nchored e
at wires Maatt dis ` entances in the borehole an d 306. WOROTNICKI, G . and WALTON, R .J . Triaxial "Hollow Inclusion "
emini sioned by means of dea d
of the weights indicate
gauges for the determination of rock stress in situ . Proc .
ISPM Symp . on. Investigation of Stress in Rock and Advanees
movement
rock mass . of the corresponding a nchors in th s in Stress hleasurement, Sydney, 1976, pages 1-8 .
e
307. BLACKWOOD, R .L . An instrument to measure the complete stres s
Field in soft rock and coal in a single operation . Proc .Intl .
Symp . an Field Measurements in Rock Mechanics, K . Kovari, ed . ,
A .A .Balkema, Rotterdam, 1977, Vol . 1, p ages 137-150 .
308 . DUNCAN FAMA, M .E . and FENDER, N .J . Analysis of the hollo w
inclusion technique for measuring in situ rock stress . Intnl .
J. Rock Mech . i4 in . Sei ., Vol .17,No . 3, 1980, pages 137-146 .
309 . RISSLER, P . Determination of water permeability of jointe d
rock . Publication. Inst . Pournd . Engg ., Soil Meck ., Rock Mech.
and Water Ways Constr ., RWTH (Univers ity) Aachen, Germany ,
The ability Vol . 5, 1978, 150 pa g es .
to adequately monitor the beh
around the trial
excavation and to measur aviour o f the roc k
elements is e ssential 310. LOUIS, C . and MAINI,Y .N .T . Determination of in situ hydrauli c
to the e
IIn an invaluable success of suchloans
a in suppor t parameters in jointed rock . Proc . 2nd Congr . Intnl . Soc .
n a n _4 have pre paper on this subject, Sharp, n R ch rrd s Rock Mech ., Bet g rade, Vol . 1, paper 1-32, .1970 .
cessful use of an sented a gase-history b ichards an d
mor i importantly, haveinstrumented
ented trial ion 9 the suc
suc- 311. SNOW, D .T . Rock fracture, spacincs, openings and porosities .
mentation r-=qUi g oren a lull diexcavation and, p i nstr -r u
haps
renlenta for trial enlar scussion of the J . Soil Mech . .ound. Div ., Proc . elSCE, Vol . 94, No . SM 1 ,
rU - 1968, pages 73-91 .
Co nclusio n gements in gene ra 1 .
312. SHARP, J .C . and MAINI, Y .N .T . Fundamental consideration s
The briet discussion on the hydraulic characteristics of joints in rock . Proc .
pr esented in this chapter is ISRM Symp . on. Percolatioa throug h Fissured Rock, Stutt g art ,
to cover some of the most important a
spects of ins t ntende
i d
for underground construction or 1972, pa g es 1-15 .
make nono Claim that mini n tunten [a[io n
e the entire subject ghas bobee n eenc Thedsugetha a 313 - WILSON, C .R . and WITHERSPOON, P .A . Steady state flow i n
available . The pur p instr unz tos ve e r overeh re rigid networks of fractures . Waten Resources Research,
u nde rstandinm ose has been to give the
the bes zs t Vol . 10, No . 2, 1974, pages 328-335 .
ap che sde ngeof the concepts and s o e of the p ractical asi c
underground excavation engi 314. CHARLWOOD, R .G . and GNIRK,P .F . Conceptual design studie s
neering .
Instrumentation should for a high-levet waste repository in igneous rock . Proc.
always as a means never
towards an be
end used as an end i n t .szlr ?st IntnO . Symp . on Storage in Excavated Rock Cavern .s ,
underground construction . T he end produchi Gu t Stockholm, Vol . 2, 1977, pages 339-346 .
been co ns[ruc tzd pr ojects is of a s
safely and o
openin
end hg t w s a
the nee which it was de econo mically an ument tionhac sa
be useddtofori mprove signed . I` inf tdtunen 315. WITHERSPOON, P .A ., GALE, J .E . and COOK, N .G .W . Radioactiv e
process, its use is the economy or saety f waste storage in argillaceous and crystalline rock masses .
n Proc . Ist Incnl . Symp . on Storage in mxcavated Rock Caverns,
justified . of this concons tructio n
Stockholm, Vol . 2, 1977, pa g es 363-368 .
316. BERGMAN, S .M . Groundwater leakage into tunnels and storag e
caverns . A documentation of factual conditions at 73 cavern s
and tunnels in Sweden . Fror . Ist Intnl . Symp . on. Storag e in
Excavated Rock Caverns, Stockholm, Vol . 2, 1977, p ages 51-
58 .
396
39 7
377 . REINIUS, E . G
Intn.Z .Symp . on.roundwater flow to rock caverns . Proc .
Storage in EWcavated Rock caverns, Ist Introductio n
Vol . 2, 1977, pages 119-124 Stockholm ,
.
This appendix presents bibliographic details and, in mo=_t cases, short summaries of approximatel y
318. WESSLEN, A ., GUSTOFSON, G 350 published items dealing with geotechnical aspects of the design and construction of larg e
. and MARIPUU,P . Groundwater an
d permanent underground excavations in hard rock . The emphasis is on case histories rather tha n
storage in rock caverns, pumping tests as an i
nvestigatio n
method . Proc . Ist IntnZ . Symp . on Storage in more general or theoretical material . The bibliography is based on one previously publishe d
. EWcavated Rock
Caverns, Stockholm, Vol . 2, 7977, pages 137-144 .. by the senior author (item 258 below) which, in turn, draws heavily on an excellent bibliograph y
on underground hydroelectric power plante covering the years to 1957 prepared by Cooke an d
319. ABERG, B Strassburger (item 78) . In the preparation of the present bibliography, many of the item s
. Prevention of gas leakage from unlined reservoir
in rock . Proc . Iss IntnZ . Symp . on. Storage in s published before 1957 and included in these earlier bibliographies have been omitted, onl y
caverns, . EWcavated Rock those dealing with geotechnical problems in some detail having been retained .
Stockholm, Vol . 2, 1977, pages 175-190 .
320. LINDBLOM, U .E ., JANELID, I The choice of material for the present bibliography is largely subjective, and depends to a
. and FORSELLES, T . A . Tightnes s
test for underground cavern for LPG . great extent on publications known to the authors and which they have found to be informativ e
Proc . Ist IntnZ . Symb .
on. Storage in EWcavared Rock Caverns, and useful . Generally, though not invariably, the publications referenced are written in th e
Stockholm, Vol . 2 ,
1977, pages 191-198 . English language, and only excavations of a permanent nature in which the smallest span is a t
least 10m have been included . This means that some papers dealing with the larger transportatio n
321. MILNE, I .A ., GIRAMONTI, A tunnels excavated in rock are included, but that many papers dealing with underground minin g
.J . and LESSARD,
Compresse d
air storage in hard rock for use in power a p plications operations are excluded . Unfortunately, there is a peucity of published date on the large r
Proc. Ist IntnZ . Symp . on. Storage in EWcav'aeed . underground mining excavations, many of which are of the sar ge order of size as the hydro -
Stockholm, Vol . 2, 1977, pa Rock Caverns ,
ges 199-206 . electric power plant excavations with which a majority of the publications Iisted here ar e
concerned . Because of their temporare nature, significantly lese support is provided for man y
322. LONDE, P . Field measurements in tunnels of these mining excavations than for permanent excavations of equivalent size, and so the y
. Proc . .
Symp . on Field y:eastr ements in could be regarded as representing a practical leerer bound for Support requirements .
Rock ' -
9 . 6 3ari,
K8 v ed . ,
A .A. Balkema, Rotterdam, I 977, Vol . _, pac
2 , pace s es 6 1 9-638 .
In addition to the bibliography in which publications are listed in chronological order, thi s
323. BIENIAWSKI, Z .T .and MASCHEN, R appendix contains a tabulation of major underground excavations in rock, listed by country .
.K . Monitoring the behaviou
r This tabulation does not seek to provide a catalogue of existing underground excavations for th e
of rock tunnels during construction . he CiviC nngineer i n
South Africa, Vol . 17, No . 10, 1 obvious reasons that the task of compiling such a catalogue would be a most daunting one, an d
975, pages 255-264 .
the results would be of limited value . Rather, an attempt has been made to give details o f
324. SHARP, J .C ., RICHARDS, L .R
. and BYRNE, R .J . the sizes, rock types and conditions, and support systems used for a selected number of well -
Instrumentation
considerations for large underground triel openings in civi l documented cases in the hupe that this date will serve as a useful point of reference for th e
engineering . Proc . IeeZ . Symp . on. engineer faced with the task of designing an excavation in similar conditions .
Measuremenes i n
Rock 'daonanics, K . Kovari, ed ., A .A
. Balkema, Rotterdam ,
1977, Vol . 2, pages 587-609 .
PART 1 - BIBLIOGRAPH Y
1948-49, paces 1-18 . An engine chamber J l9mJ x 16 .Snm x B .9m high was excavatec in hard ,
unjointed quertzite at a depth of 1500m . Roof support by concrete reinforced with stee l
arches .
3. WRIGHT, L .G .C . and KNIGHT, A . The cutting and support of large deep level excavations .
Papiers and _scussions, - socioeioe of hfine Mr :age_ - of South Africa, 1948-49, page s
19-37 . Engine and Fan chambers excavated at depths rof 2378 and 2073m in hard querteit er .
Reinforced concrete roofs and concrete wall support used . A 5m wide pump chamber in a
friable dyke also described .
3overi Review, Vol 36, Oct-Nov 1949, pages 330-347 . Geological factors decideè adoptio n
of underground scheme .
398 39 9
32 . SEETHARAMIAH, K
. Underground hydroelectric power stations . Indian. Journal of Power c:d
3iver Malleu Ueveloamens, Vol 111, Sept Salamonde hydro-electric station in Portu g al . Brown Boveri Review, Vol 41 ,
1953, pages 5-13 and 30 . Discussion of variou 44 . EBERSBERGER, M .
types of under g round power stations - advantages and disadvantages, history of under- s ;emphasis on electrical equipment .
Oct 1954, pages 359-370 . Description of power plan e
Separate valve chamber with bypass tunnel around power plant, transformers on surfac
ground station development, plants operating under heads from 56 to 680 metres, claim s
; crane rail beams supported on cavern sides and tied t o
First plant built in Switzerland in 1897, modern tunneling techniques chiefly responsibl e power chamber concrete lined
for development, various lining schemes, trend to place transformers underground, brie arch roof .
discussions on Kagginfon, Norway ; Brommat, France f
; Innertkirchen, Switzerland and Sant a . The Nechako-Kemano-Kitimat Development (Kemano Underground) . Engineering
Massenza, Italy . 45 . MATTIAS, F .T
. Part of a symposium on the complet e
Journal, Vol 37, Nov 1954, pages 1398 - 1412
33. RABCEWICZ, L .v . The Forcacava hydroelectric scheme . . Detailed review of construction details - plant, methods ,
Water Power, Vol 5, Sep 1953, page s project by various authors
e
333-337 ; 0ct, pages 370-377 ; Nov, pages 429-435
. Describes excavations for undergroun d equipment etc . used in excavation and concreting of Kemano power chamber, valv
power station et Forcacava, Brazil - working methods adopted in unstable rock chamber, access tunnels, pressure conduits etc .
; powe r
chamber fully concrete lined - broken rock caused overbreak ; inclined slip plane
encountered s . Water Power, Vol 6, Nov 1954 ,
. Concrete columns erected during excavation heavily anchored to rock an d 46 . FERNANDES, L .H .G . The Salamonde hydro-electric scheme ; Part 11 - under -
concrete struts required to hold some columns pages 408-418 ; Dec, pages 449-456 . Part 1 - entire Selamonde scheme
. See also items 25, 31, 39 and 43 . . See also item 44 .
ground power plant . Well illustrated
i4 . MATTIAS, F .T . and ABRAHAMSON, C .W
. Tunnel and powerhouse excavations at Kemano, B .C . Engineering Neue -Record, Vol 153 ,
for Alcan hydro power . Canadian. Minino pays in Sweden .
and Bietallurgical Bulletin, Vol 46, Oct 1953 , 47 . WESTERBERG, G . Building underground round power plants, industrial plants etc .
pages 603-621 . Describes geology of region and excavation and driving methods used Dec 9, 1954, pages 33-39 . Reasons why unde r g
. s
are so economically constructed in Sweden ; development of techniques and mas
5 . KENDRICK, J .S . Civil engineering Features of the production beeis of tunnelling .
Kitimat project . Boston. Societu of Civi l
Engineers, Vol 41, Jan 1954, pages 88-112 . General outline of project, brief statistic s . Engineering
on underground power plant, diagrams showieg method of excavation of mein block of powe- - 48 NILSSON, T . Over 7 million Yards of rock excavated for two power projects
house . See also items 14, 15, 20, 29, 34, 38 and 45 . Excavation of Kilfors•en and propose d
. ,.ewe-Re cord, Vol 153, Dec 16, 1954, pages 41-43 s
Storno r rfo rs plant . Rock walle at Kil forsen exposed with roof secured by rock bot t
ESKILSSON, E . Täsan power station . -,SEA Journal, and guni ted .
Vol 27, Mar 1954, pages 39-43 . Swedis h
power station Täsan, 740 Feet below ground level ; penstock from inlet tunnel slopes 1 :1 , ; Jan 14 ,
49 . ANON . Oberhasii power scheues . En gineerin g, Vol 179, Jan 7, 1955, pages 13-16
is concrete upper 2/3 and sheet metal pressure tube grouted in concrete Iower 1/3 ;
g Innertkirchen and Handeck 1 1
control room, transformers and switchgear under g round . pages 50-53 . Featuresof Swiss development includin d
underground power stations, plane and profiles of schemes, powerhouse pictures an
features of sit e
AUROY, F . et al . Lee travaux de sections . Innertkirchen was First Swiss underground station in 1942 ;
performation . (In French) . Travaux, Vol 38, Mar 1954 , . Chamber unsupported but fully lined with fals e
pa ges 143-155 and good rock made underground economic
. Work carried out in connection with the construction of the Montpeza t . Handeck 11 underground becaus e
power scheme in France . ceiling for Seepage control . Penstock design discussed
; separate valve chamber in tos e
no suitable surface site and rock is hand and Compact
ANON . Kitimat . Water Power, Vol 6, Mar 1954, pages 89-99 ; machine hell unsupported but fully lined, 20 inch arch thickness .
; Apr, pages 124-135 . Discusse s of valve rupture
in detail the excavation of the Kemano tunnel, shafts and powerhouse . Well illustrated . undergroun d
50 . JAEGER, C . Present trends in the design of pressure tunnels and shafts for
RABCEWICZ, L .v . Bolted support for tunnels . hydro-electric power stations . P„oeeedings, _etitueion of Jivil Engineers, Part 1 ,
Water Power, Vol 6, Apr 1954, pages 150-155 ;
May, pages 171-175 Vol 4, Mar 1955, pa g es 116-200 .
. Technique of roof bolting - its advantages, particularly whe n
driving through unstable rock, theoretical principles of bolting . Uses ehe Forcacav
a Mar 1955, pages 84-92 . Irofos s
tunnel and underground power station in Brazil to il lustrote
practical application . 51 . JONSSON, S . The So g development . Woeer Power, Vol 7,
; machine hell fully lined wic h
plant of Iceland described . Tailrace surge chamber
ANON . Some recent Swiss hydro-electric schemes false roof .
. The Enoineer, Vol 197, Part 1, Apr 9 ,
1954, pages 518-520 ; Part 11, Apr 16, pages 554-555 ; Part IV, May
14, pages 698-701 ; . Hydro-electric development of the Que d
Part IX, Jun 18, pages 878-882 ; Part X, Jun 25, pages 914-918
. Review of seven majo r 52 . LORDET, J ., OUQUENNOIS, H . and GUILHAMAN, J h
hydroelectric projects in ten articles - Grande Dixence, Mauvoisin, Innertkirchen , Agrioun . Travauc. FEdieioe o' SFeme et Sniuste e i . Special supplement, Fift
pages 203-206 . Darguinah power statio n
Handeck Il, Grinset, Future Gr imsel II, Peccia, Cave r gno and Ve rbano . Il lustra tions . International Congress on -argen Dame, May 1955,
powerhouse 60 -n eue s
on the Qued A.hreerousftis in .Algeria - photographs and drawings ;
;
MERRILL, R .H . Design of under g round mine openings, oil-shale eine, Rifle, Colo underground in rocky tributary canyon wall with taiirace tunnel to develop Full 'need
. U .S . in machine hell ; trans -
Bureau of flines Report of Investigation 5089, 1954 . A 60m Iong room with poor ground heavily supported ; Fully concrete lined ; wehes
a
horizontal roof in oil shale was progressively widened until it failed at a width o f formers above g round .
24 .4m . Roof sag measurements were made over a
p eriod of two years . Failure took plac e power stations . The Eng e iah
in a 5J cm . thick layer of shale . See also item 123 . 53 . JAEGER, C . The new technique of underground hydro-electric
o ;.eeer'fo our^.al, Vol 14, Jun 1955, pages 3-29 .
HAGRUP, J .F . Swedish underground hydro-electric power stations .
Proee n_d'ngs,Inseitueion. WaeerPewerg Vol 7, Jun 1955, pages 202-213 ;
Jivil Engineers, Vol 3, Aug 1954, pag es 321-344 54 . ANON . Developments in the Aegermen catchment .
. Sweden's waten power resources ; . Part I - Angerman River catchrtent in centra l
design of underground waten power stations July, pages 247-253 ; Aug, pages 292-300
; biesting tunnels and underground stations ; ; penstocks verti cal steel lined shafts ; sides o f
costs for power stations with underground machine helle . Sweden ; Kilforsen power station
; transformers and switchgear in separat e
chamber exposed ; cranes on concrete columns
. Part 11 - mechanical an d
RABCEWICZ, L .v . and FOX, P .P . Forcacava hydro-electric
scheme . Daeer Power, Vol 6 , halt ; machine hell roof bolted, wire netted and gunited
electrical equipment . Part 111 - Lasele underground plant .
Sep 1954, pages 353-354 . Letter to editor of Water Power discussing article listed a s
item 39 above . Discusses excavation and construction methods used . Name of plan t
changed to Nilo Pecanha . See also items 25, 31, 33, 39 and 43 .
402 40 3
ENDERSBEE, L .A . and HOFTO, E .O . Civil engineering design and studies in rock mechanic s
107 . CHAPMAN, E .J .K . Pressure teste on rock 118 . Institution of Engineers ,
galleries for the for Poatina underground power station, Tasmania . Journal of the
Trcnsaetions, 7th International Congress on Large Dams, Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Plant . Vol 35, 1963, pages 187-207 . Poatina powerhouse 150 netres underground i n
Rome, 1961, Vol 2, pages 237-260 . Australia,
and 26m high . High
sedimentary rock ; machine hell 91 .4m_long, 13 .7m wide
LANE, R .G .T . and ROFF, J .W . Kariba underground works th, gave eise to rock failure i n
. Desi gn and construction methods . horizontal stress in rock, compared with rock stren g
Transactions, 7th. International Congress on. Lar
ge Dams, Rome, 1961, Vol 2, pages 215-236 . exploratory openings . Design features developed to suit these conditionsincluded
Main chamber is 143m long x 23m wide x 40m high . . Stresses in roof area were measured durin g
Problems caused by the jointed stress-relief slots and special roof shape Permanent support achieved b y
tature of the quartzite in the upper one-third excavation and compared with photoelastic predictions .
pari of the power station, gate shafts and surgeof the works and a fault zone crossin g reinforced gunite lining .
chambers . special dreinage measure s use of grouted, tensioned rockbolts and a relatively thin
Laken ; concrete lining used throughout except on vertical
powerhouse walle and tailrac e
tunnels . See also items 71 and 97 . Highlands hydro-electric scheme . Proceedingg s ,
119 . DICKINSON, J .C . and GERRARD, R .T . Cameron . Gives full engineerin
Institution. of Civil Engineers, Vol 26, 1963, pages 387-424 of the Jor underground powe r
109 . LAURILA, L . The Pirttikoski tailrace tunnel . _T
details of this scheme in Malaya, including construction
on Large Dams, Rome, 1961, Vol 2, pages 317-330ransaetions, 7th Internzat6.cnai Congres s
. Give considerable det*•iI of the dril l station . See also item 128 .
and blast techniques used in excavating this
and gneiss . See item 116 for details 16m wide and 2500m Jong tunnel in granite . Stress and deformation in rock and roc k
of the surge chamber on this project . 120 . ALEXANDER, L .G ., WOROTNICKI, G . and AUBREY, K go, 4th Australia-Pe w
support, Tumut 1 and 2 underground power stations . Proeessdin
SCHULZ, W .G ., THAYER, O .P . and DOODY, J .J . Oroville Adelaide, 1963, page s
under g round power plant . Transactions , Zealand Conference on Soil •echanies, and Foundation Engineering,
7th Inoar,ational Cvngress on. Larve Dams,
165-178 . See also Items 124 and 147 .
description of this project on the Feather Rome, 1961, Vol 2, pages 42 5- ' Genera l
River, California . -o X37 ' installations to resis t
121. COATES, D .F . Rock mechanics applied to the design of underground an Rock ; lechanics ,
OLIVEIRA NUNES, J .M . Underground works in Picote and Miranda fth Symposium
hydro-electric development s ground shock from nuclear blasts . Proceedings,
(in French) . T_ransaceions, 7th InternationaZ Congress
on Large Doms, Rome, 1961 , Minneapolis, 1963, pages 535-56 2 .
Vol 2 , pages 607-636 .
of Civi l
122 . ROSEVEARE, J .C .A . Ffestiniog pumped-storage scheme . .Proceedings, Institution
BOROVOY, A .A . and MAMASAKHLISOV, M .I . details but littl e
Some constructional Features of under g roun d Engineers, Vol 23, 1964, pages 1-30 . Full general engineering
structures in the U .S .S .R . Transactions, 7eh I
nternational Congress on Larve Dams , discussion of geotechnical aspects . See also items 107 and 171 .
Rome, 1961, Vol 2, pages 833-850 . Gives some details
of the Ingouri, Nourek an d
Tche rkey hydro-electric stations
123 . EAST, J .H . and GARDNER, E .D . Oil-shale mining, Rifle, Colo ., 1944-56 . United Stare s
. Gives a very detai led, . well illustrate d
Bureau of Mines Bulletin 611, 1964, 163 pages . demonstration roo m
BOYUM, B .H . Subsidence case histories in Michigan mines
. Proceedings, s th Symposiu m account of the design, development and operation of the U .S .B .M
on Rock Aieckassics, Bulletin, Mineral Industries Experiment . See also item 41 .
Station, Penn . Stet e and pillar oil shale mine
University, No 76, 1961, pages 19-57 . Detailed case histories of subsidence occurrences
Includes the Cliffs Sha ft . power plant . Journal of ehe Power
124 . PINKERTON, I .L . and GIBSON, E .J . Tumut 2 underground
and pillar methods . The maximum unsupported span area is 20 x 23m,is
mine, Oshpeming, Michigan where hematite mined by roo m . Complete description of geology ,
or 27 .4 x 70 m Division, ASCE, Vol 90, No PO1, 1964, pages 33-58
when rock bolted . of the 97 .5e long, 15 .5m wid e
design . support, excavation procedures, and monitoring
. The mein rock types were a graniti c
arid 33 .5 m high machine halt and ancillary works
ANOII . The development of the Ure River - Part 3 intersected one end of th e
. Fiater Power, Vol 14, No I, Jan 1962 , gneiss and a biotite granite . A number of porphyry dykes Support of the machine hel l
PP . 25-35 . Describes the construction of Stornorrfors, machine hell ; the rock was generally sheared and jointed .
ground power station . then Sweden's largest under- See also items 120 and 147 .
The machine hell excavation is 124m long, 18 was by a concrete arch roof and grouted rock bolts .
high . Underground comp lex also includes transformer hell .5m wide and 2 9 m
and large tailrace tunnel .
Smooth blasting techniques successfully used shock mounting, shielding .
; roof supported with rock bolts , 125 . BLASCHKE, T .O . Underground command centre - problems in geology, . Several 3 storey stee l
eechored in mortar, wire mesh and gunite . See also items 55, 80, 89 and 92 Engineering , ASCE, Vol 34, No 5, May 196k, pages 36-39
. Civil
; geological conditions required re -
Frame buildings were built in excavated chambers
KUDROFF, M .J . Titan ICBM hardened facilities . Journal of the In one area concrete lining was require d
Conscruceion Division , alignment of chambers from original design .
ASCE, Vol 88, No COl, 1962, pa g es 41-57 . Missiles See also items 130 and 138 .
are housed in concrete sllos 13 .4 m to reinforce rock .
die and 49 . m deep ; control centre and power station
are reinforced concrete line d
domed structures spanning 30 and 37 .5m New York City . Journal of the Constructio n
respectively . Anti-shock mountings a 126 . KNIGHT, G .8 . Subway tunnel construction in . Tunnel sections in the Manhatte n
major Feature of the design . See also item 101 . Division, ASCE, Vol 90, No CO2, 1964, pages 15-36 A combination
g structures .
schist have variable size, shape and proximity to existin
'OUNI, K ., SISTONEN, H . and VOIPIO, E . Concrete Iining wa s
. Serge chamber of the low-head power plant a t of rock bolt, timber and structural steel is used for support
Pirttikoski . Sink World Power Conference,
Melbourne, 1962, Vol 6, pages 2277-2293 . used on the section of tunnel described .
Describes engineering aspects of this
16m wide, 500m Jong and from 29 to 43m hig h
unlined surge chamber excavated in granite Properties of rock et underground power -
. 127. THAYER, D .P ., STROPPINI, E .W . and KRUSE, G .H .
house, Oroville Dam . '.ancactions, 8eh International Congress o-n. Large Dams,s
Edinbur g h, 1564, Vol 1, pages 49-72 . Gives complete details of in-situ stres
. An approximately hydro -
measurements by flat jecke and borehole deformation gauge .
static stress field of 3 .5 MPa at a depth of 100 m was obtained
_4n
409
146 . LAUGA, H . The underground powerplant . Engineering Journai(En g ineering Institute of Canada)
Vol 52, No 10,1969, pages 35-42 . , Changes in volume and structure o f
Describes general design of the
20 .3m wide, 46 .7 Underground Gpening s, Oslo, 1969, pag es 131-137l . liegs can be reduced by use of "sandwi ch "
high and 27lm Jong power station excavation for the Peace River-Portage Mountain m plastic and wa ter-sensiti v e rocks and joint rock
fi
ment in British Columbia, Canada . Excavation made develop- between and lining .
approx . 150m below surface in layere d lining using a compressible cushion
sandstones and shales between two massive sandstone layers
. Support by grouted an d
ungrouted rock bolts up to 6m long on a nominally 1 power stations in th e
.5 square grid . See also item 142 .
157 . SEELMEIER, H . Engineering geological considerations of underground on Large Permanen t
147 . WORTtrICKI, G . Effect of topography on ground stresses (In German) . Proceedings, International Symposium
Austrian Alps .
Dmfaiu sity of Sydney, Austra "Gia, Feb 1969, pages 71-86 . Rock Mechanics Symposium, Underground Openings, Oslo, 1969, pages 207-213 . Three
underground power houses in th e
. Photoelastic and electrica l geological zone .
analog study of stresses in rock surrounding Turnus 1 and Tumut 2 underground Alps are described, each situated in a different
powe r Austrian
plant excavations located in the steep eastern bank of the
Tumut River valley, a 60 0 underground excavations and
m deep V notch valley in the Snowy Mountains . Results suggest concentration of bot 158 . WEST, L .J . Rock mechanics application at projects involving Soils Engineerin g Symposium,
h
vertical and horizontal stresses and rotation of
principal stresses in location o f a high cut slope . Proceedings, 7th Engineering Geology and
excavations ; site measurements tend to tonfirm these predictions . Published by Idaho Department Highways, 1970, page 2 .
. See also items 12 0 Moscow, Idaho, Apr 1969
and 124 . m high concrete arch dam with variou s
Boundary hydroelectric project consists of 110
hat] in cavernous rock wich a wide range of physica l
r underground excavations ; machine of the Susquehann a
MAMEN, C . Rock work at Churchill Falls power p lant . Canadian Minin g properties . Peach Bottom nuclear generatingstation on the west bank
3, 1969, pages 41-48 . Describes tunnelling and construction work at Journal, in area created by excavation of on e
Vol 90, N o
River in southern Pennsylvania is constructed
Churchill Fall s maximum heights of 60 metres . Roc k
hydro-electric plant in Labrador . Tunnel drilling
techniques and roof control million cubic yards of rock resulting in a cut with
by roc k .
bolting discussed . See also items 164, 165, 180, 201 and 219 . testing techniques and methods of evaluating stability are discussed
149 . . Civil Engineering, ASCE ,
ENDERSBEE, L .A . A.pplications of rock mechanics in 159 . CECIL, O .S . Shotcrete support in rock tunnels in Scandinavia
Pydroelectric Coran ;ssion of Tasmania Report, May hydro electric development in Tasmania . case histories of a number of under -
Vol 40, No 1, Jan 1970, pages 74-79 . Gives brief
1969, 46 pages . Comprehensive review Fuller details given in ite m
of techniques used in Tasrania in designing underground powerhouse ground rock construction projects in Sweden and Norway .
Poatina used as an example to illustrate many of these techniques excavations and dams . 260 .
. See item 118 .
d
GIANELLI, W .R . Oroville dam and Edward . Determination of the stability of undergroun
Hyatt powerplant . Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol 39 , 160 . FINE, J ., TINCELIM,E ., and VOUILLE, G Conference, Frenc h
No 6, June 1969, pages 68-72 openings . (In French) . Practical Applications of Rock Mechanics
. The underground power station was one of the First to b e
analysed by the finite element method Problem of determining under g roun d
. The arched roof has 6 .Im long rock bolts a n Committee on Rock Mechanics, Paris, May 1970 .
1 . Measurement of mechanica l
excavation stability discussed in three sectionsof: stress distributions : 2 . Field test s
1 .2m centres, steel chain link fabric and a 10
cm [hick gunite coating .
properties of rocks : 2 . Mathematical analysis
Si . BREKKKE, T .L . A survey of Lar ge permanent underground openings in and measurements to verify theoretical predictions .
International Symposium on. Lar ge Permanent Underground Gpenings, Norway . Proceedings
Oslo, 1969, pages 15-28 . powerhouse .
. Prestressed rock anchors and shotcrete for Large underground
161 . BURO, M .R
60-64 . The Hongrin undergroun d
Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol 40, No 5, May,1970, pages
BAWA, K .S . Design and instrumentation
of an underground station for Washington Metro Switzerland . Th e
on Lake Geneva in
system . Proceedings, International Symposium on Large Permanent Under ground Sperlings , power station, a pumped-storaae plant, is located of its semi-circula r
Oslo, 1969, pages 31-42 . Describes the du Pont Circle Station design and cavern is 137m long, 30m wide and 27 .4m high to the crown
instrumentation . mass contains several groups o f
arch roof . The Iimestone and limestone schist rock
The station is a horseshoe shaped
opening 236 n Jong, 23 .5m wide and 13 .4m hi g h . Roc k Excavation began in small long -
cover over the station arch varies fron 7 .5 to 9 .0m and is overlain vertical fractures and a considerable amount of clay .
by 11 m of over- . Rock anchors and shotcreting vier e
burden . The rock is a schistose gneiss grading to a quartz hornblende or biotit itudinal galieries following the contour of the roof
gneiss in spots . e änchors 11-- 13m long with workin g
Support is by a composite system of steel
ribs and shotcret e installed sonn after excavation . A total of 650
supplemented by rock bolts . loads of 1110 - 1380 kN were installed .
Idikki hydroelectric project .
ZAJIC, J . and HEJDA, R . Geotechnical survey applied 162 . LE FRANCOIS, P . In situ measurement of rock stresses for the
in Czechoslovakia . Froceedinos, International Sym to underground hydroelectric plant s Proceedings, 6th Canadian Rock Mechanics Symposium, Montreal, May 1970 . Published b y
posium on Large Permanent Underground 5 d
Gpenings, Oslo, 1969, pages 43-55 . of Energy Mines and Resources, Ottawa, 1971, pages 6 -90 . Project locate
Review of geotechnical surveys carried out i n Department
and an underground powerhouse .
Czechoslovakia during past 15 years presented .
Rock mainly granitic and survey s near the southern tip of India consists of three Largetodams
supplement geological studies .
largely qualitative . In latter part of period more emphasis Stress was measured to give quantitative information
tests in situ and in the laboratory and the results were used was placed on quantitativ e
Design of penstock steel lining and main powerhouse cavern dependent upon the stres s
in designing pumpe d obtained agree with recent data obtained in simila r
storage schemes . field in the rock mass . P.esults
pre-Cambrian rocks .
RAKIC, R. Engineering geological conditions during construction of
Vrla-3 undergroun d dth Canadian
storage . Proeeedings, international Symp 163 . LE COMPTE, P . Useof rock berms in underground power plants . Proceedings, Energy, Mine s
osium on Large Permanent Underground Openings ,
Oslo, 1969, pa g es 57-63 . Collection and intepretation of geological Rock Mechanics Symposium, Montreal, May 1970 . Published by Department of
data for Vrla- 3 berms excavated in the walls of a n
underground storage excavation .
Geological mapping enabled designer to place and Resources, Ottawa, 1971, pages 207-210 . Rock
excavation in good quality rock with significant saving in tost the roof, are proposed as supports for crane rails .
as a result o f underground power house, just below e
presplitting and flame cutting shows that adequat
elimination of concrete lining . Experience of Hydro-Quebec with If plant is favourabl y
excavated, even when adverse jointing is present .
berms can be
is used in critical areas ,
OBRADOVIC, J . Investigation and structural analysis
concerning the Mratinje undergroun d located with respect to major joint sets and rockbolting
power plant . berms can be kept stable .
Proceedings, International Symposium on Large Permanent Underground
Opening s, Oslo, 1969, pages 65-70 . Reports the
geological investigation of this sit e Balls underground
on the Riva River in Yu g oslavia . 164 . BENSON, R .P . Rock mechanics aspects in the design of the Churchili 365 pages . Give s
Illinois, 1970,
powerhouse, Labrador . Ph .D . thesis, University of
work on this scheme and an extensiv e
.:EBER, H . Method of retaining or improving the properties a Full description of the rock engineerin g
constructions . of rock surrounding undergroun d .4m wide, 21 .3m high and 295m Jong . Se e
(In German) . Proceedings, International Symposium on Large Permanent bibliography . The main cavity is up to 24
also items 148, 165, 180, 201 and 219 .
413
416 41 7
6 m wide by 5 m high horseshoe tunnel . Few geotechnical details are given, bu t pumped storage scheme . Quarte±'Zy
construction details are described . 205 . KNILL, J .L . Engineering geology of the Turlough Hille n
Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol 4, No 4, 1971, pages 373-376 . Scheme has bee
l
97 . DOLCETTA, M . Problems with large underground stations in Italy - Lake Delio constructed in Leinster granite, 40 km south of Dublin in Ireland . Geologica
properties and the location
power plant .
Proceedings, Symposium an Underground Rock Chambers, ASCE, New York, 1971, pages conditions are outlined with particular reference to the rock
286 . Peper considers design approach used for three underground powerhouses unde 243- of the underground works . For construction details see item 237 .
construction . r
Lake Delio station described in detail . . Anchoring for the power house shaft at Vianden ,
See also items 173 and 221 . 206 . EGGER, P ., SCHETELIG, K . and STURER, H on. Roc k
38 . WILD, P .A . and MCKITTRICK, D .P . Luxemburg . (In German) . Rock rracsure, Proceedin gs, International Symposium
Northfield mountain underground power station . Proceedings, t
Symposium on Under ground Rock Chorrsere s iechanics, Nancy, France, Oct 1971, paper 3-4, 12 pages . 25m diemeter, 50m deep. shaf
excavated in Devonian schists for extension of the Vianden pumpedet
ASCE, New York, 1971, pages 287-331 . Projec t storage scheme
located in mantled gneiss dome in the northern Appalachians . Although plant Layout wa s thick, dip 57° to the shaft .
dictated primarily by hydraulic and operating requirements, geotechnical Bedding planes, containin g mylonite zones up to 20cm failure and to
were of major significance in the design of underground consideration s Rock mechanics investigations are described . To prevent wedge
excavations . Rock condition s . were installed in shaf t
exposed by excavation were in excellent agreement with test borings and geologica consolidate rock around shaft, anchors prestressed to 1400kN
measurements described .
studies ; support system consisting primarily of rock bolts l walle . Details of installation and results of control
is described and Jong ter m
stability is discussed . See also item 192 . kater Pouter, Vol 24 ,
207 . LOTTES, G . The development of European pumped-storage plants . d
KRUSE, G .H . Power plant chamber under Oroville dam . Proceedings, Syetposizur No 1, Jan 1972, pages 22-33 . A study of the advances made in the design an wit h
in Europe in the 10 years since 1962
Rock Chambers, ASCE, New York, 1971, pages 333-379 . Underg round powerhoubeon Underground construction of pumped storage plants
and caver n
abutment of dam gives least tost and best operating conditions .
under lef t particular reference to reservoirs and intakes, powerhouses, tunnel
g n studies for Waldec k
Feasibility of supportin g excavation, machines and costs . Gives some details of the desi
underground excavation by rock reinforcement evaluated in three year study, includin g
rock and bolt anchor testing and by finite element analysis . II for which see also items 228, 233, 235 and 244 .
Observations durin g
construction indicated that movement occurred during or immediately afcer blasting and U .S .A . Tunnels and Turvaellli>:g,
that rock quickly stabilised ; deformations agreed cl°sely with Finite elemen 208 . KIMMONS, G .H . Pumped storage plant et Raccoon Mountain infacilities include waterways ,
predictions . t Vol 4, No 2, Mar-A p r 1972, pages 108-113 . Underground
See also items 127, 150, 191 and 259 . and transmi ss ion facilities an d
sur g e chamber, transformer vault, tunnels, switching qualit y
RISING, R .R . and ERICKSON, G .A . Design of power plant chamber 21 .9m wide, 149m long and 50 .3m high excavated in good
Details of excavation and grouted rock boltin g technique s
Proceedings, Symposicm an Underground Rockunderground pumping chamber near Lake Mead . horizontally bedded limestone .
Chambers, ASCE, New York, 1971 . pages 381- , cushion blasting or lin e
405 . Rock mechanics measurements and design of underground given . All excavation do p e using smoothwall blastin g
chambers describe d live drilled and a row o f
Hoover dam and powerplant constructed in a complex of metamorphic Pre-Cambrian biofit e drilling . At exterior portale tunnel peripheries were blasting .
g neiss and schist, highly folded and fractured et the surface . To establish preset grouted rockbolts was 46c m . outside line prior to
strength and elastic properties, twelve exploratory boreholes were drilled, compressive scheme . Groun d
ANON . Craig Royston under investigation, site test on eastern storage
percolatio n for pumped
teste and joint surveys were also performed . Stete of stress examined and finit 209. bank of Loch Lomond i n
Site
element study carried out ; borehole extensometers were installed to monitor movements e ginsering, Vol 5, No 3, 1972, pages 27-28 . e
. S ti ri ingshi re . Scheme divided into three pa r t s : I .upper Bise for mein dam and intak
power house, and 3 . Loc h
BENSON, R .P ., CONLON, R .J . and MERRITT, A .H . Rock mechanics et Churchill workn 2 . lower eise including various tunnels and underground
Falls . Ppowe r - Lomond which will act as lower reservoir . Description of geological and geophysica l
Syrrposiurr, on. pndarcrourzd Reck Chairbers, ASCE, New York, 1971, pages 407-486 . In power- teste carried out to date .
house area, rocks comprise gneiss assembla ge intruded by gabbro, diorite and lesse r
amounts of syenites and pegmatites . Geological exploration for the siting of the power- (In French) . Revue L'Tndueerie Minerale, Vol 5 4 ,
house included NX drilling, Jogging and photography of all core, detailed geolo g ica l 210 . CORDELL, R . Presplitting in drivages . ar e
surface map p ing and a petrographic study of rock specimens . No 3, 1972, pages 107-122 . Three falls on the River Are in the Savoy (French Alps) stetion s
joints, groundwater and quality of rock mass are described, orientation,
Faults, shear zones , used for the development of hydroelectric projects in three underground power
Strata varies fron carboniferous sandstone to
of excavations for maximal stability are discussed . Rockbolts major meansshape and siz e recui ring 5 .3 million cu .ft . excavation . resulting in considerabl e
for arch and walle .
of suppor t schist flyschand gneiss . Presplitting is used for all drivages .
Finite element study and monitoring behaviour of undergroun d savings because of reduction of overbreak ; rock bolze and gunltin g used for support
excavations during construction described . See also items 148, 164, 165, 180 and 219
. :r Femen, Viel 24, 11o 6, Juh e
:7
2¢
HEUZE, F . E . and G OODMAN, R . E . Room and p i l i e r structure i n competent rock 211 . ROSENSTROM, Si Kafue Gor g e hydroelectric power project . Full y
4 2 - (P art 2) .
. Preeeeesuge 1972, pages 223-226 (Part J) ; Vol 24, No 7, Aug 1972, pages 237-2
'Symposium an r ,7ro :, .d Rock Chorkiere, ASCE, New York, 1971, pages 531-565 . ihestete, - on the Zambian-Rhodesia n
of-the-art in room and pillar mining is considered under the headings describes the rock engineering associated with this station
x 17 ,e 125 m
strata movement, stress distributions around openings, pillar loads and theories o f border . The machine heil and transformer caverns are 32 x 15 x 130m and 21
underground . The rock e
Stresses
determination of pillar strength, roof stresses in the ground overlying pillars, , an d (height x width x length), respectively, and are located 500m
metamorphos•ed mica-schists ,
determination of roof strength . are a complex of granites and gneisses mixed with highly
amphibolites and querteises .
CORDING, Eid ., HENDRON, A .J . and DEERE, D .U . Rock en g ineering for underground caverns . .
B .N . Rock excavations et Also Anchicaya Project
Proceedings, Symposium an Underground Rock Shc•bers, ASCE, New York, 1971, pages 567 212 . MCCREATH, D .R ., MERRITT, A .H . and MATERON, Fock hcckanies Symposium, Toronto, 1972, page s
600 . General review of rock mechanics problems in underground - Columbia . Fe)ce .=im'-gs, d- - : r di-r
design . Dimensions an d 31-45 . Brief description of geology, powerhouse, power tunnel and dam abutmen t
support details of 13 major underground projects given . and shear zones presented the majo r
excavations . A highly variable weathering profile
LANGBEIN, J .A . The Manapouri power project, New Zealand . Proceedings, Ineeitutiee Reg geotechnical problems .
P --, Heers, Vol 50, 1971, pages 311-351 . Describes the investigations, desig n .
MATHEWS, K .E . Excavation design in hard and fractured rock at the Mount lsa Mine, Australia
and construction of this project which took place in the period 1960-1971 . Th e 213 . Toronto, 1972, pages 211-230 .
machine hell is 111 m long, 18 m wide and 34 m high . Prassedin .s, 3 . . . Caeodiczr : Rock Me_h .nies Symposium,
Rock reinforcement is by groute d
rock bolts w i th sprayed mortar and wire reinforcement added in the arch
roof . Rock s
are gneisses and intrusive granites .
4 18 41 9
.
214 . SINGH, K .H . Reinforcement of an ore pass system - a case Engineerin g, Cambridge University Press, 1972, 417 pages
Canadian Rock iixohan.ice Symposium, Toronto, history . Proceedings, Ro h 222 . JAEGER, C . Rock Mechanics and book deale with general rock mechanics principles . Th e
1972, pages 231-249 . An existing ore pas s The First part of this text
system at Falconbridge Nickel Mines was supported including such topics as minimum overburde n
grouting to stabilize observed Slip of the walle along
by grouted cable bolts and pressur e second part covèrs practical applications Brief details and discussion o n
fault planes . above a pressure tunnel and rock support systems . (Switzerland), Santa Massenza
measurements show a decrease in ground movements in the reinforced areaExtensomete r
several underground powerplants including Innertkirchen
.
(Italy), leere-Ar g (France), Chute des Passes (Canada), Bersimi s
(Italy), Santa Giusti na includes many papers publishe d
'z . BAWA, K .S . and BUMANIS, A . Desion considerations for underground 2 (Canada) and Kemano (Canada) . An extensive bibliographybibliographies . Text contain s
oeeedings, First North American Rapid Exeavation and TunneZZing structures in rock . language
Conference, in Europe which are seldom included in English Firs t
▪1 9 72 , Vol I, pages 393-417 . About one fifth of the Washington Metro system ] A I ME , many typographical errors and Gare should be taken in applying equations without
designed as underground structures (tunnels and will b e Second edition published in 1979 -
stations) in rock . Gives details o f checkin g accuracy .
rock properties and showsss typical tunnel and station
Support typically by 3 . 7 cross-sections and support designs . Tongariro power development . Tunnels and Tunnelllin g,
5 .5m grouted 25mm die . rock bolts and 10 - 15cm
shotcrete i n 223 . GILMOUR, L .W . New Zealand, tunnels for tunnels located in grey -
iuuble treck tunnels . Station excavations supported by steel sets, rock bolts , Vol 4, No 6, 1972, pages 521-524 . Description of powerplant and .
shotcrete and precast concrete arch liners ; span in described
the example given is 20 .9m . wecke and argiliites ; concrete lining and rock support
in
HOPPER, R .C ., LANG, T .A ., and MATHEWS, A .A .
224 . BANG-ROLFSEN, P . Skjomen water power plant - excavation of tunnels in granitic gneiss
Colorado . Proceedings, First ,Tortb AmericanConstruction of Straight Creek tunnel ,
Rapid Ercanceion and TunneZZing Conference , Norway . Rock bursting restrained by bolting .
Tunnels and TunneZZing, Vol 5, No 1, 1973 ,
AIME, 1972, Vol I, pages 501-538 . This project pages 68-70 .
tunnels each approximately consists of dual two-larti vehicula r
of 440m . Excavation and su p15 m wide by 17m high as excavated and with maximum cover o
port procedures are fully described . Extreme difficulty f of the New Austrian Tunnelling Method . Journal e
of th e
225 . NUSSBAUM, H . Recent development . Describes th
caused by the squeezing behaviour of a fault zone and by the wide-spread occurrence o wa s Construction Division, ASCE, Vol 99, No CO1, 1973, pages. 115-132
f Gives some details o f
shear zones, faulte and joints in the g ranite, gneiss and schiss
through which th e theoretical basis and practical application of the NATM tunnel .
tunnel was driven . individual projects including the difficult Tauern
SMART, J .D . and SAGER, J .W . Instrumentation Principles of dimensioning the supporting system for th e
Proceedings, First Eioreh American Rapid on recent Corps tunnelling projects . 226 . RABCEWICZ, L .V . and GOLSER, J . . Werter Power, Vol 25, No 3, Mar 1973, pages 88-93-
Excavation and Tunneiling Conference, AIME, 1972 , New Austriar tunnelling method
Vol 1, pages 623-657 . Describes instrumentation Explains the empirical approach to dimensioningofrecommended for use when applying th e
used on the NORAD Cheyenne Mountai n underlying theory . Gives som e
Complex Expansion and other projects . The NCMC project is constructed in e fine graine d NATM and gives a brief mathematical analysiswhichthe see also items 264 and 295 .
granite intersected by a number of shear zones . The results for the Tauern tunnel, Austria for
largest excavations in the expansion
are the power plant chamber - 52m Jong, 20m wide, and 15m high - and the
chamber 56m Jong, 12m wide and 14m high . Extensometer measurements used cooling towe r et the under g round works of a large dam project .
stability of the excavations are given . to chec k 227 . RABCEWICZ, L .V . Theory and practice 2, 1973, pages 193-224 . Full geotechnica l
See also items 218, 337 and 342 . (In German) . Rock Meehanics, Supplement of the tour Tarbela Dem tunnels, Pakistan .
details of the design and construction
SMART, J .D . and FRIESTAD, R .L . Excavation quality for See also items 241 and 255 .
the NCMC expansion . Stability o f
Bock Slopes, Proceedings, T irteenth Symposium on. Roc(i"ec
643-664 . This expansion of the NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex :anics, ASCE, 1972, page s . and PAHL, A . The construction of an under -
requires the excavatio n 228 . RESCHER, O .J ., ABRAHAM, K .H ., BRAUTIGAM, F taken into consideration . (In German) .
of 50,000 cu .yd . of g ranite for a new diese) power plant and ground chamber with geomechanical conditions
and air handling plant . Smooth-wall blasting and rock associated cooling tower s
Rock iechanics, Supplement 2, 1973, pa g es 313-354 . Full description of the geotechnica l
reinforcement techniques ar e underground power station i n
described . Reinforcement is by grouted pre-bolting aspects of the design and construction of the Waldeck inII banded
rock anchor) and tensioned hollow core deformed rock (an untensioned perfo sleeve typ e the Eder valley in northern Germany . The excavation
sands and dark shale s
bolts . See also item 217 . is approximately elliptical in cross-section wit h
alternating with greywacke sandstone,
GAGNE, L .L . Controlled blasting techniques for is by a systematic arrangement of roc k
the Churchill Falls underground complex . a height of 54m and a width of 33 .5e . Support shotcrete Shell . The rock mass contain s
Proceedings, Firee boreh American Rapid Excavation and bolts and prestressed anchors, and a two-layer
1972, Vol I, pages 739-764 . Details of this project 2Tunnelling Con=erenoe AIME , control the rock mass behaviour .
are given in itens 148, 164, 16 5 a number of open discontinuities and fault zones which
l80 and 201 . See also items 207, 235, 244 and 248 .
.`CKER, H . Yieicing rock and iss consequences in construction 229 . EDLUND, S . and SANDSTROM, G .E . Stockholm puts sewage plante underground . Ci •eiZ Engineering ,
'nasional Symp. eziem on Under ground Jpenines, Lucerne, Sep practice . Proeeedirige , 3 and excavation technique s
1972, Theme 1 . Genera l ASCE, Vol 43, Na 9, Sep 1973, pages 78-8 . Describes lay-out chambers 10-Ilm wide and u p
discussion on stress problems around underground excavations . for underground plante consisting of a number of parallel with reinforced concrete .
construction of ehe Alt Aadel dam in Morocco, Tarbela Problems encountered i n
dam in Pakistan and undergroun d to 135m long . Excavations are in sound rock and are lined
powerhouses in Malaysia and Ireland are briefly
was successfully applied in these constructions . described ; rock anchor-gunite metho d different types of rocke . Ne u
230. MORFELDT, C .O . Storage of oil in unlined caverns in
res , ., -i eons in Rock Mechanics - Proceedings, Fourteenth Symposium on Rock iiechenies, ASCE ,
CC-CETTA, M . Rock load on ehe sup p ort structure
z ants . Proeeedinge, of two )arge underground hydroelectri c 1973, pages 409-420 .
1 972, Theme 3 . Specialineeconstruction
;mzacio>.al Symposium on. Urdergroend Openings,
Lucerne, Se p round power Station . Proceedings ,
solutions were required at Lake Delio and Sa n
Fiorano, zwo recent Italien projects . Based upon 231 . SEDDON, B .T . Rock investigations for Camlough under g Engineering, London, Butterworths ,
preliminary stability studies whic h Symposium an Field Instrumentation in Geotechnieal
included the geomechanical properties oF the rock, vertically beiere th e
it was decided to build soli d 1973, pages 370-381 . The underground power station is located
supporting reinforced concrete structures which could reservoir in this pumped storage scheme in Northern Ireland . lt has a minimu m
roundations . Measurements and finite element be incorporated into the machirr e upper high . In situ stress measurement s
very high openings were successfully studies described . Wall deformations i n rock cover of 185m and is 100m long, 22m wide and 35m station excavation are described .
items 173 and 197 . controlled by rigid supporting structures . See als o usin g flat jecke and stress calculations for the power
completed - Shintoyone pumped storage project .
TAKAHASHI, M . The largest hydro-power plant
Civil Engineering in Tara.', Vol 12, 1973, pages 59-7 4 -
420 42 1
mechanics investigations and design of the powerhouse chamber Sao Paulo, Braznl, 1974, Paper VII-10, 12 pages .
used described in item 242 .
. Excavation technique s AssocSceivn of Engieeerieg Jee=e ; , jointed rock .
Outlines a design method for anchors for cavern walle
9 . PIESOLD, D .D .A ., WALKER, B .C s
. and MURDOCH, G .B . Hydro-electric power development et th The cavern of the Waldeck Il pump storage station - geomec'hanical investigation
Victoria Falls an the Zambeei River . -" ze d e 248. PAHL, A . _
? -e-- Pes,
- ei= . e d r.i n and cn t cal analysis of contrcl measurement
s --,
4
Vol 56, Part I, 19/7'" • pages 275-30! . The underground c r. egg, Sao Paulo, Bra il, 197 ,
nachn eY h e ll is _ excavated i n Ceegrees, .ocJt
nlocky and variable basale as a horseshoe shaped chamber 13 m wide n
. Deformation measurements used to monitor constructio
lining is designed as a restraining arch .
. The concret e Vol 2, P aper VII-16, 8 ✓pages
Other reinforcing is g enerally ligh t For feiler details see items 207, 235 and 244 .
except at recesses etc . are fully described .
Rapid Excavation. and _u eeLieg und°at•enca, AIME, New York, 1976, reges?rot - 7c engineering
truction is expected to commence in 1980 . The underground .caverns are i n greywacke
Descri bes the development of room and pillar satt mining techniques in the Golf Coas The main cavern i s
region, U .S .A . Experience with 46m rooms and 46m square pillar; sug g " t with minor amounts of phyllite, quartzite and quartz vei ns . The rock conditions for th e
square rooms are possible . ests that 60 m expected to be 47 .5m high, 117m long and up to 22m wideclassification) . A triel tos t
power house are et best "fair" (Class 111 an the CSIR
FURSTNEP,, J .M .M . Engineering geology of the Ramu 1 hydro-electric project in Papu enlargement with a span of 22m is being constructed . Considerable groundwater problem s
New Guinea . ? .,Z - .tt ,"re io -t Assoc ation of Engineerio a are anticipated .
._ Ramu l scheme is located in the Eastern g1976,paes- Highlands of Papu ec di
New Guinea in gently dipping Oligocene marble with small doler'te intrusions wir k a 2 83 . C UJNETT, E4P Ruaca a hydro-power scheme - rock engineering studies . pages .
313-324
nJohaesburg,1976Vl
an overlying interbedded shale-siI tstone-greywacke sequence . Excavation problems wer e scheme on the Cunene River e t
caused by the solution and collapse of cave structures in the marble, by block an Description of geology and la out of the 320 MW Ruacana rock type is apparently randoml y
wedge Failures along bedding planes and doleri te dykes in the shale-silts tone - d the South West Africa-Angola border . The principal t
greywacke, and by densely Fractured or crushed rock in the vicinity of the contac t fracturec porphyroblastic gneiss . Very few engineering, construction or suppor
between the two rock units . cetails given .
scheme -
J .C . Drakensberg pumped storageEngineering
BROCH, E . and RYGH, J .A . Permanent underground openings in Norway - design approach an 284 . DOWCOCK, J .B ., BOYD, d .M ., HOEK, E .. and SHARP, .roh iem an c-Zera t ,o• for ,
some examples . Std- .u :_ Space,Vol I, No 2, July-Aug 1976 , pages 87-100 d rock engineering aspects r a
the extensive use . Outline s Johannesburg, 1976, Vol 2, pages 121-139 . The Drakensberg scheme is a multi-purpos e
the underground for permanent installations g roun d
in Norway, and g_ project being undertaken in Natal, South Africa . lt involves three major under
of
the procedure followed in the design of the excavations - choice of location , ive s
excavations for pumping and generating plant and associated equipment . The machin e
orientation of the opening, selection of opening shale and dimensioning . ; the rocke are horizontall y
examples of underground excavations are given - a soorts centre, a swimmingFour pool,recen t hell is 16 .3m wide, 193m long and 45m high .withThis 150m of cover
paper describes the geological an d
telecommunication centre, and a drinking water reservoir . Some tost dato are givena , bedded sandstones, mudstenes and siltstones k
but geotechnical dato are limited . See also item 332 . geotechnical investi gations including in-situ testin g and evaluation of roc
of an enlargement t o
reinforcement and pneumatically applied concrete . The testing a feil scal e
KUHNHENII, K . and SPAUN, G . Damage in a powerhouse cavern and a penstock caused by roc the full cross-sectional dimensions .ofSee the Future machine hell and
slides . (In German) . Rock Vechonioe, Supplement 5, 1976, pa k penstock test chamber are described also items 298 and 350 .
movements and cracking of the concrete lining in the Centrale ges 2 4 5-262 . Excessiv e
Belviso power plan t
cavern could not be stabilised by grouting and prestressed anchors . The cavern in
-.26 427
Results of measurements verify design assumptions . High horizontal stresses justify th . Storage
e 309 . JACOBSSON, U . Storage for Iiquified gases in unlined refrigerated rock caverns
adoption of a span greater then the height .
in Excavated Rock Caverns, M . Bergman (ed .), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 2, page s
g ood qualit y
449-458 . Underground storage chambers for propylene and LPG excavated in
302. WISSER, E . Design and observation of the underground power station Langenegg gneissic granite under low rock cover, have operated satisfactorily for several year s
. Field
:deasurements in Rock Mechanics, Proceedings of the International Symposium, Zurich , at temperatures down to -40°C . A 15m wide, 45m long and 20m high cavern in the Sam e
K . Kovari (ed .), A .A . Balkena, 1977,Vol 2, pages 569-575 rock intended for the storage of ethylene at temperatures at or below -100°C faile d
. The underground excavation s
consist of a machine cavern 18m wide, 33m high and 27m Jong, a transformer heil 13 m s
on coolin g . Following very detailed rock mechanics investigations, the cavern wa
wide, 12m h i g
h and 26m long, a 50m Jong access tunnel and a 120m Jong tailwater gallery . repaired using a polyethylene glycol-water solution sprayed lining and externe ]
The rocks are an alternating sequence of marl, conglomerate and sandstone ; 'the powe r injection grouting of the cracks using an ethylene glycol water mixture . The cavern ha s
station was designed to fit into a 40m thick band of sandstone dipping at 60° becaus e since operated satisfactorily for the storage of propylene at -40°C .
the marl is very weak . Support in both roof and walls was by rock bolts,steel mes
h
and shotcrete . Horizontal in-situ stress found to be twice the vertical stress, no
310 . ANTTIKOSKI, U .V . and SARASTE, A .E . The effect of
horizontal stress in the rock on th e
t
0 . 3 times es originally assumed in desi gn .
construction of the Salmisaari oil caverns . Storage in Excavated Rock Caverns, M .
Bergman (ed .), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 3, pages 593-598 . Three oil storag e
303 . LETSCH, U . Seelisberg tunnel : Huttegg ventilation chamber
. Field Measurements in Rock caverns 14m wide, 28m high and up to 260m Jong were excavated in mixed granite, amph i -
iechanics, Proceedings of the InternaoionaZ Symposium,
Zurich, K . Kovari (ed .), A .A . bolite and gneiss near the centre of Helsinki, Finland . High horizontal in-sit u
Balkena, 1977, Vol 2, pages 577-586 . The 9 .25km Jong Seelisberg tunnel forms part o f stresses caused rockbursts and tensile failure of rock pillars during construction .
the Swiss national motorway N2 . The Huttegg underground ventilation chamber located i
n Systematic roof bolting or concrete grouti n g reduced rock falls fron the cavern roofs .
Valangin marl consists of two parallel tubes 18m dia . and 52m Jong corBlected by a 14 m
wide by 16m high tube . A triel chamber 12m wide, 8m high and 21m long was excavate . Storage i n
and monitored . Sup p
d 311 . 81ENIAWSKI, Z .T . Design investigations for rock caverns in South Africa
ort for the completed chamber was by reinforced shotcrete (15c m Excavated Sack Caverns, M . Bergman (ed .), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 3, page s
thick but up to 100cm in the difficult central section), Perfo rock bolts 3 .8m Iong , n
657-662 . Gives brief but useful details of ten large underground excacations i
and pre-stressed rock anchors 15m Iong . Overburden pressure approximately reaches th South Africa, sie mining chambers some of which are the deepest in the world, and Tou r
e
unconfined compressive strength of the marl . See also item 314 .
underground power stations .
304 . WITTKE, W . New design concept for underground openings in rock Storage in Excavated
. In Fin g 312 . HANSAGI, I . and HEDBERG, B . Large rock caverns at LKAB's mines .
Geomechanics, (G . Gudehus,ed .), John Wiley, London, 1977, pages 413-478 - Elements in a g es 697-704 .
. A desi g n Rock Cava_ °s, M . Bergman (ed .), Pe r g amon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 3, p
concept for underground openings based on a three-dimensional finite element method i s Reprinted nin Gndergroued Space, Vol 4, No 2, 1979, pages 103-110 . Describes th e
described . The approach involves determination of stress-strain relationships for th
e construction of Large underground excavations for mining equipment stor a g e, servic e
jointed rock mass and construction monitoring to check the results of design calculations . areas, crushing stations, canteens, ore passec, crusher bins and storage bunkere a t
The method is applied to three projects - the Wehr underground power house (see item s Kiruna and Malmberget .
253 and 294), the 6 .5m dia . Nurnberg water tunnel, and the 24m wide, 30m Iong and 9
m
high triel excavation for an underground power station at Brenn, West Germany (se e Underground Spaee ,
313 . MARGISON, A .D . Canadian underground NORAD economically achieved .
items 294 and 308) . h
Vol 2, No I, 1977, pa ges 9-17 . A major underground installation for the Nort
American Air Defence system was constructed near North Bay, Ontario, Canada, i n
105 . LIEN, R . and LOSET, F . A review of Norwegian rock caverns storing oil products or ga
s granitic gneiss . Few geotechnical details are given in this paper . The mai n
under high pressure or Iow temperature . Secrage in Ercavated Rock Caverns, M . Bergma installation caverns, which have a width of approximately 12m, were generel l ,/ supported
n
(ed .), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol I, pages 199-201 .0m long bolts an 3 .0 m
. Twenty three Norwegia n by 3 .4m long rockbol ts on 1 .5m centres in the roof, and 3
rock caverns are briefly described and details tabulated
. Fourteen are constructed i n centres in the walls, with heavy wire mesh being added throughout .
Precambrian gneiss, seven in rocks of Cambro-Silurian age and two in Permian syenite .
Most of the caverns are constructed in good quality rock and few stability or operatin g
314. BUBI, F ., HERRENKNECHT, M . and GRINDAT, W . Seelisber g Middle Section construction .
p roblems have occurred
. The caverns as a rule are unlined, but rock-bol ting and shot- ^eels and Tunnelling, Vol 9, No 5, 1977, pages 40-44 . The middle or Hutte g g
crete are frequentiy used for support and grouting to reduce leakage . section of ehe Seelisberg tunnel of the Swiss National Motorway N2 is excavated i n
marly rocks with high overburden Pressures and contains an under g round ventilatio n
)6 . BELLO, A .A . Simplified method for stability analysis of underground openings
. Secrege compiex composed on two caverns each 52m long and 18m in diameter . The rock expose d
Excavated Rock Caverns, M . Bergman (ed .), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 2, page s by excavation was immediately treated with shotcrete and anchored with 4r . Iong Perf o
289-294 . Gives brief details, in useful tabular form, of three large mining excavation s rock bolts on I .Im centres . This was followed by 16-18m Iong anchors on 4 .5m centre s
in limestone in Mexico
. Two are supported by pillars and the third, 120m long by 55 m stressed to 80 tonnes . See also item 303 .
wide, is reported as being unsupported .
-term stability in the Colony Oi l
7 . NELSON, L .R . The Minnesota - RANN underground test room 315 . AGAPITO, J .F .T . and PAGE, J .B . A case study of lon g
. Storage in Exeanesie Shale Mine, Piceance Craek Basin, Colorado . Monograph on Rock keoh p n - P.pplSoaeioee
. Bergman (ed .), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 2 dM . Hustrulid (eds .), ATME, New York, 1977 ,
; pages 337-342 . An im Mining, W .S . Brown, S .J . Green and W .A
underground flat-roofed test room 15m wide, 30m long and 25m below surface wa o
s pages 138-143 . Stress determinations and convergence measurements were conducted t
excavated in friable sandstone below a bedded limestone . Instrumentation includin g assess the long term stability of an experimental room-and-pil lar oii shale reine .
piezometers, stressmeters and extensometers were installed before excavation . Method Mining was conducted in a 20m thick seam at depths of 180-260m . Piliere are 17 .7m
s
of strengthening the friable sandstone with sprayed grout and a rational design metho d square and rooms 16 .8m wide . A well defined system of joints and bedding planes exist s
for flat roofs in bedded formations were developed .
in the flat lying oil shale beds . The pillars contain two joint sets approximatel y
s
et right angles to each other . Only one joint set appears in the roof . See also item
i . WITTKE, W ., PIERAU, B . and SCHETELIG, K
. Planning of a compressed-air pumped e storag e 289 and 325 .
scheme at Vainden, Luxembourg . Storage in Excavated Rock Caverns, M . Bergman (ed
.) ,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977, Vol 2, pages 367-376 . In addition to describing eh e 316. HEGAN, B .D . Engineering geological aspects of Rangipo underground powerhouse .
geotechnical investigations for this new compressed-air pumped-storage scheme i n nreseneed eo ehe Symposium on _urnell"ng in New Z fand, Proceedings of TechnicaZ -
Devonian clay slate, details are given of the measurements made at the Bremm tes t Jroupe, NZIE, Vol 3, No 3 (G), 1577, pages 6 .23 - 6 .32 . The Ran g ipo powerhous e
cavern in similar rock in West Germany . See also items 294 and 304 . chambers under construction in the Kaimanawa Mountains are sited in indurated greywack e
4'30 43 1
sandstone and argillite of poor rock mass quality . The dominant rock defects are N- See also item 283 .
underground in good quality granite .
striking, steeply westward-dipping crush zones . The machine hell axis orientation o Sf
272° was seiected to minimize the effect of these zones on roof stability . See also Roof design considerations in underground oi l
items 317 and 333 . 325 . HARDY, M .P ., AGAPITO, J .F .T . and PAGE, J . Mech .enies, State -
shale mining . Preprinl - Proceedings, ?Pari U .S . S y mposium an Rock
i7 . line, Nevada, 1978, Vol I, pages 370-377 . The design of roof spans for ehe Colon y
MILLAP„ P .J . The design of Rangipo underground powerhouse . Papers presented to ehe determinations, observed roc k
pilot oil shale mine is considered on the beeis of stress
Symposium on Tunne Cling in New Zealand, Proceedings of Teeinioai Groups, NZIE, Vol 3 ,
conditions and numerical analysis . Room spans of up to 27m were studied, but such n
No 3(G), 1977, pa g es 6 .46-6 .59 . Analyses of the caverns were carried out using elasti c large spans involved greater bed Separation and required more artificial support tha
and elasto-plastic finite element programs . A plastic zone up to 8m from the machio d
halt boundary was predicted . e the conventional bolting used in the Standard 16 .8m roof spans used in the room an
Empirical methods of rock bolt support design wer e
considered and found to be not applicable to the poor quality rock mass . In additio n pillar mining operation . See also items 289 and 315 .
to rock bolting installed ahead of excavation, a thin concrete lining is used throughout . nuclea r
See also items 316 and 333 . 326 . DODDS, R .K ., ERIKSSON, K . and KUESEL, T .R . Mined rock caverns for undergroundMechanics ,
plants in California . Preprint - Proceedings, lUth U .S . Symposium on Rock
Describes the conceptual design of a
DREW, G .E . Apolications of prestressing techniques to hydroelectric projects . Energy Stateline, Nevada, 1978, Vol I, pages 444-451 .
1300Mal nuclear powerplant to be constructed in a granite foothill location . The plan t e
Resoerees and Exeovation Teehnoiogm, Proceedings, lUck U .S . Symposium on. Rock Mechanies,
involves Tour major underground caverns, the largest in cross-section being 30 .8m wid
Colorado School of i lines, Golden, Colorado, 1977, pages 3A3-I to 3A3-7 . A short bu t
useful description is given of the prestressed rock anchors used to support the mai n and 64 .6m high . A review of stabilization methods is given .
cavern of the Hongrin underground pumped storage scheme in Switzerland . 'The cavern i s
327 . KORBIN, G .E . and BREKKE, T .L . Field study of tunnel prereinforcement . Journa"t of th e
approximately 30m wide, 27m high and 137m long, and has a semi-circular arch roof .
Geotechnical Engineerin g Division, . ASCE, Vol 104, No GT8, Aug 1978, pages 1091-1108 . -
Shotcrete and some 650 anchors, 12 to 14m long with woeking loads of 1110 tc 1380kN ,
were used for support . See also item 161 . A program of field instrumentation was used at two tunnel sites to examine the .mechan
isms by which prereinforcement and, in particular, spiling reinforcement work Result s
MAHAR, J .W . Effect of geology and construction on behaviour of a ler g are presented and analysed for the South Bore of the Eisenhower Tunnel in Colorado .
ground opening in rock . Ph .D . Thesis, University of Illinois, e, shallow under- The 2700m Jong tunnel is excavated in extremely varied ground ranging from massiv e
s
Urbana-Champaign, 1977 ,
333 pages . Reports a study carried out during construction of the Dupont Circle Statio n granite to wide zones of squeezing fault gou g e . The maximum overburden depth i d
442m and the opening is approximately 14m wide and 12 to 14m high . Support varie
of the Washington DC Metro, to relate measured rock movements to geological an d
construction conditions . widely with ground conditions . See also item 323 .
. Journa l
) . HAMEL, L . and NIXON, D . Field control replaces design conservation et world's larges t 328 . HAMEL, L . and NIXON, D . Excavation of worid's largest underground powerhouse . Excavatio n
underground powerhouse . Civil En gineering, ASCE, Vol 48, No 2, Feb 1978, pages 42-44 . of ehe Constreoeion. Division, ASCE, Vol 104, No CO3, 1978, pages 333-351 . The machin e
Gives brief description of the excavation and support of the LG-2 powerhouse caver of the LG-2 powerhouse cavern in northwestern Quebec, Canada, is described
n 22m wide ,
on the La Grande River in Quebec, Canada . For fuller details see items 271 and 328 . halt is 26 .5m wide, 47 .3m high and 483 .4m long . A nearby surge chamber is gneiss and
45m high and 451m Jong . The rock is exceptionally good quality granitic
In the arches ,
rock support is entirely b v, rock-bolts with shotcrete applied locally .
LANDER, J .H . JOHNSON, F .G ., CRICHTON, J .R . and BALDWIN, M .W . Foyers pumped storage
project : . See also items 27 1
planning and design . Proceedings of The Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, Vol 64 , 6 .Im Jong grouted rock bolts on 2m centres are tensioned to 200kN
Feb 1978, pages 103-117 . This scheme incorporates the first shaft-type power station and 32 .
in the U .K . and is located on the eastern bank of Loch Ness, Scotland . In addition t o
the two 19 .35m diameter fully lined machine shafts, the project involves a 18m 329 . GRDONSTON, R .B . Mining oil shale . Underground S p ace, Vol 2, No 4, 1978, pages 229-241 .
diemete The history of test mining of oil snale deposits in the Western United Stetes is given .
surge ehamber and low and high pressure tunnels . A triel shaft was senk on the centre-r y
nee of one of the machine shafts through hard gritty sandstone that was badly broke n Basic room and pilier designs have been used with rooms up to 20m wide being commonl -
with bands of bleck, Iimey, closely jointed shale . used . Date obtained from these experimental excavations will be of great value in full
Considerable inflows of water wer e
encountered indicating shaft sinking and tunnel driving difficulties . construction o f scale oil shale mine design . See also items 289, 315 and 325 .
the project is described in item 322 .
UK . Trans~ore and Roa d
330 . CRAIG, R .N . and MUIR WOOD, A .M . Tunnel lining practice in thefull details of tunne l
A ND, D .D . and HITCHINGS, D .C . Foyers pumped storage project : construction . Research Labcratory Suppleoentary Re p ort 335, 1978 . Gives
Proceedings constructe d
ef Ih,: Institution of Civii Engineers, Part 1, Vol 64, Feb 1978, pa g es 119-136 lining practice in the U .K . with case history details of all major tunnels
. Give s . The diameters of the tunnel s
construction details of the tunnels and shafts described in item 321 . in the U .K ., including a number of historical interest
discussed rarely exceed 10m .
ADAMS, J .W . Lessons learned at Eisenhower Memorial Tunnel . Tunnels
and Tunnellan g, Vo l
10, No 4, 1978, pages 20-23 . The lessons learned from the First bore of the twin-bor e 331 . PLICHON, J .N ., LE MAY, Y . and COMES, G . Centrales hydroelectriques souterraines -
four-lane Eisenhower Tunnel 97km West of Denver, Colorado, aided in the realisations récentes d'Electricite de France . Tunnels et Guvrages Souterrains, Issue
construction o f
the second bore beginning in 1975 . The excavation is 14 .5m wide, 13 .5m high and 2 .7k m 30, Nov-Dec, 1978, pages 272-289 . Describes several recent underground hydroelectri c
Jong . The rock is 75`J granite and 20-.% gneiss and schist with migmatite inclusion power plants constructed by Electricité de France . Plante described include Brommat II ,
and augite diorite dykes . A shear zone of "squeezing rock" produced exceptionall y s Echaillon, Montézic, Orelle, Revin, Saussez II and Sisteron .
difficult conditions . In this section full perimeter drifts filled with concrete :nere
required for support . Elsewhere, combinations of steel supports, concrete lining 332 . RYGH, J .A . Rock installations in Norway - short helle, tel ecommun icat ion centres ,
lan s d Tunneiling under DiT_Picult Coedieions, I . Kitamura (ed .) ,
resin grouted rebar reinforcement were used . swimming pools in rock .
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1979, pages 31-44 . Brief details are given of an undergroun d
LILLOUGHBY, D .F . and HOVLAND, H .J . Finite element analysis of stages of excavation o F sparte centre excavated in granites and gneisses at Odda, the Gjovik public bath an d
interbedded
Helms underground powerhouse . Preprinc - Proceedings, 29eh U .S . Symposium an nec k swimming pool, and the Skien telecommunication centre excavated in limestone
rockbolts ,
lechanics, Stateline, Nevada, 1978, Vol 1, pages 159-164 . Results of a plane strai n with shale . These excavations are 15-25m wide and are reinforced with
.
linear elastic finite element analysis of the Helms project are presented shotcrete and some in situ concrete . See also item 276
. The mai n
section of the machine hall will be 25m wide, 38m high, 98m Jong and is located 300m
433
and the power plant chamber . Su p port was by grouted rockbolts including Perfo bolts t open cut and backfilled . Subsequenz shaftpitch, sinking in s laty gneiss and aeenibolite ra
See also item 342 . . carried out along a helical surface of 3m advencing by sectors . The permanen t
strip arm high and a
lining followed ehe excavation closeiy as a helical concrete
FREIRE, F .C .V . and SOUZA, R .J .R . Lining, support and instrumentation of the cavern fo minimum of 60cm in thickness, rendering any temporary support unnecessary .
the Paulo Afonso IV power station, Brazil . _ nneliiny r
, The Institution of Hini n g gold mine s
and Metallurgy, London, i979, pages 182-192 . The 24m wide, 54n high 346. WALDECK, H .G . The design and sup portAfrica of large un g rground chambers at c p .
main cav e r n is located in a good quality crystalline and 210m lan g .
Precambrian rock mass containin g of the Gold Fields Grouc of Sout` pages 565-571 . The e eter use de t o
migmatite, granite, biotite gneiss, amphibolite and biotite Mo n t reux, 1979 Vol
schist Cavern roo f
support was by Systemabc rock-bolting using 9m lang, 32mm diameter. bolts on a 1 .5m excavate and sup ort large excavations brittle at depths of up to 2000 .zarin-situ
described .
p quartzite but tne stresse s
square grid, tensioned to 22 .5m tons each and cement grouted These excavations are located in good quality
layer was then applied followed by a IOcm square wire mesh . Aa 4cm
and thick
second shotcret e
shotcret are very hi gh compared wich those eneer which most large underground chambers ar e
layer . Wall support was by rock-bolts and !Sm iong tendons with only untensioned e32m excavated . Emphasis is placed an hoist chambers, ehe largest of which has a volume o f
g routed dowels being used near the bottom of the excavation . m ort is generally by ion g ceble anchors wich intermediate rock bolt s
14000m' . Roof sup p
or grouted wire tope tendons about 3m ion g .
ROSENSTROM, 5 ., SPARRMAN, G . and AHLGREN, B . Two underground hydroelectric power plant ,
in fast Africa . ?rot : •egs Bcpdd -Obeeaoctiee s 347 . GEIS, d- P . Cave-in and subsidence 3eeEee at tne Rodsand Mine, Western Norway . Preeeediege
Maevis and W .A . Hustrulid (eds), AIME, New York, 1979,• Vol 2, L pa g es 1354-1371 ,. A .C . fier Fleck _ Nechaoiee, Montreux, 1 9 79, Vol 1, page sn
9
considerable detail of the Kafue Gorge power station, Zambia (see also item 211) and Give s 645-648 . T'he` Rodsand mine V iss l morking anthe iron ti t anium-vanaéiu m deposit which occurs i
the Kidatu power station, Great Ruaha project, Tanzania . irregular lenses 2 to 70m tnick . Until be g inning of 1974 mining was by shrinkag eh
stoping ,•,ithout rill . The empty stopes, the largest of which was 50m wide, 250m hig
LEE, C .F ., OBERTH, R .C . and TAYLOR, E .M . Same geotechnical and p and 200m iong, viere stabie for many many years of. However, followin g robbing of the pilier e
in underground siting lanning_ consideration s around raises and the main leveis, mechanism involved these open stopes collapsed . This pape r d
Tunnelling Con .r'erer:ee, of nuclear power pla nt .?roeeedingc, 1 ,9 :,. and shows how it may b arreste
A .C . Maevis and W .A . Hustrulid (eds),:172.4LNE,
, .::Yok,
describes the pro g ressive failure
E• -
Vol 2, pages 1386-1408 . Describes the conceptual design of an underground New Yorkrk ,, 1979 , the empty stopes .
nuclear by filling
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AUSTRALI A
massive rhyolite . Concrete barre l arch roof 30-38cm thick ; 94
Kareeya powe r 1 95 8 40 13 •'5 x 13 . 5 x 84 .4 Hard ,
end walls fully concrete lined, side wann
st at i o n ' concrete lined over hal f their area .
Q ue e ns l and .
- -- ------------ concrete barrel arch roof ; walls concr et e 10 1
60 13 .7 x 21 .4 x 74 .4 Generally sound granodiori te bat
Kiewa No . 1 1960
Iined to a minimum thickness o f 30cm .
containing a major set of joints
power station ,
dipping at 15° . A major vertica l 25mnt dia . groute d rock bolts on a 2 .4 x
Victori a
fault-dyke conpl ex some 15m wide 3 .0m pattern .
influenced final location .
Horizontal ly bedded mudstone . Trapezoidal roof with 3 .7 and 4 .3m rock 118, 149 ,
Poatina power 1965 150 13 .7 x 25 .9 x 91 .4 Stress relief slots 2 03 •
Horizontal stresses approximatel y bolts on Im centres .
station , cut in roo f haunches . Siele walls support -
twi ce vertical . In situ mudstone
Tasmania ed by 3 .7m bolts on lm pattern . Roof an d
compressive strength approx .
wal ls meshed and sprayed with 10c m
35MPa .
guni te .
27,50,53 ,
Fair to good quality granite and Ungrouted 4 .6m lang , 25mm dia . bolts o n
T umut 1 p ower 1958 335 18 x 32 x 93 R o of arch concret - 98 , 61 , 95 ,
granitic gneiss . Horizonta l 1 .2m centres in . roo f •
station, Snowy ed and supplementary steel sets placed at 99,103,1 20 ,
stress approximately equal t o 147,203 •
Mountains , request of contractor . Walls supported
vertical . High angle fault inter -
N .S .W . by 3 .7m Jong, 25nm dto . bolts on 1 .5 m
sects one wall . Smooth , sticken -
sided and graphite coated joints centres .
spaced at 0 .15 to 0 .6 du .
AUSTRIA 30 1
Alternat i ng sequ ence of mori , con - Roof and wall support by rock bolts ,
Langenegg powe r 1976 60 18 x 33 x 27
glomerate and sandstone . Power steel mesh and shotcrete .
station
station excavation in 40m thic k
sandstone band dipping at 60° .
Horizontal stress twice vertical .
. _ I-. _ n 1 : r1 rn ,8r*1-nnl-es ci red in the nlain
The reference numbers quoted here refer to tems n t l lograph y heB1b
N te :
text .
srww rula SUPPORT DETAILS REFERENC E
r rre DATE DELO W DIMENSION S NOS .
SURFAC E Width x lieight x
(metres) Length (metres )
Tauern highway 1975 Up to 11 . 8 x 10 .75 x Weakened phyllites of variabl e Support
800 6400 quality . Loose talus deposits For ca [ion . vaAll s with 226 ,
350m fro m Portal . Very heav y ca tegorioes use l shotcrete r P - 26 5 , 2 9
and rock bolts . For the poorer g r o u n d
squeezing ground encountered . conditions stee l sets and forepoling als o
used .
BI1AZ I L
Nilo Pecanha 1954 100 18 .9 x 25 .9 x II5
(o r i g i na ll y Gneiss of fair quali t y trave rsed C oncrete harre! arch roof . Roof and
Forcaca v a ) by faults partially or fully su pporte d by 25mm dia . mechanicall y walls 25, 3I, 33 ,
kaolinized . Joint se t str ik e s 39, 43, 53 ,
prv*r station . anchored rockbolts ; Walls concrete lined 6
parallel to exc a va ti on axis and . 4
dips at 800 .
Paulo Afonso 1952 50 15 x 31 .3 x 60 .2
p ower s t a ti on liigmatite forme d by intrusion o f G enerally no support required .
pegmatite and ap li te into a 91
biotite schist .
Paulo Afonso IV 1978 55 24 x 54 x 210
powar statio n Good quality mi g matite containing
granite , bi ot i te gneiss, amphib - Roof support by 9m Iong, 32mm dia . rock
bolts on I- 5m grid tensioned to 225 33 8
o li te and biotite schist . e te II a
and grouted . A 4cm thick shotcrete
ye r
followed by IOcm square wire mesh and a
further shotcr ete Iayer . Wall support
rock bolts and 18m Iong Londons . by
CANADA
Der'simis 1 1956 150 19 .8 x 24,4 x 172
power station, Granite and Ip aracnei
J ss. Concrete roof arch, suspended ceiIing and 50 ,
northern Que bec bare t•,alls . Sonne spot bolting of roof . 53 , 5 9
65, 87, 24 0
Chute-des-Pass 1959 165 19 .8 x 32 .0 x 144
p oo-, er station, General by soun d granite , g n e i ss
and para g neis s . Af ter drilling , Concrete arch and aluminium rock bolts 87 , 22 2 ,
northern Quebec For roof support .
proposed cavern was rotated by 90°. ' t 24 0
to obtain uxrre favourabl e
conditions .
Very good quality granitic gneiss Roof supported by 6 .Im Iong grouted rock 271, 320 ,
La Grande LG-2 1979 100 26 . 5 x 47 . 3 x bolts tensioned to 200 kN . Wall support 32 8
483 4 with bands of diorile, gneiss,
power station ,
mi g matite and pegmatite dykes an d by bolting wich shotcrete applie d Iocally .
northwester n
sills . Three joint sets presen t Dolts on 1 .5 or 2 .Im square grills .
Quebe c wich subhorizontal joints cantain -
ing gouge the mosl. signi ficant .
Roof supported by 6-7m Iong 25mm dia . 27 2
1976 220 24 .4 x 44 .2 x 237 Good quality quartzitic gneiss with
1Il c a das p ower compressive strength of approx . grouted roc k bo lts on 1 . 5m centres and
station, 0ritis h on 3m grid i n
150 HPa . Ver b ca r an d horizonta l shotcrete cover . 6m bolts
Columbia .
in situ stresses 6 .9 and 10 .3 MPa . W alls .
Some Iocal slab or wedge failure s
e nc o u n te r cd .
Thin concrete barrel arch roof . 142,14 6
20 .4 x 43 .9 x Interbedded sandstone, shale an d
Portage Moun t a i n 1965 150 d expa nsion Shell bolts, 4 .25 ro
Cool Measures rocks dipping at 15 0 . GrouteIong
powe r station, 271 . 3 6 .Im on 1 . 5m centres for wal l
Horizontal in si tu stress twi ce
Peace River, vertical . Roof in shale, Walls i n support .
Oritish Columbi a sandstone .
CHIL E
24 .4 x 3 .4 x 102 Grano di or it e wich o'thogona l 15 o to 17m bolt s orn
r attern
31 Toro powe r oirrtiny . si to 1 o. 8111J L on d o ns Iong r ock
s tat i on . 2 .4m Pattern tensioned to 180 kN in roof .
in wall e
15 .2m Iong tendons on 6 .Im poltern
Z ECH05 LO VAKI A
FINLAND
= RANGE
GERMANY (NEST)
304 ,
200 24 x 9 x 30 Clay slate wich intercalations of 20cm thick reinforced shotcrete and 6 t o 194,
Brennur tria l 1970 8m Iong anchors on I .3m spacing pr e - 308
quartzi tic sandstone . Cleavag e
cavern fo r
power station . approximately parallel to beddin g tensioned to 150 kN .
strikes at 600 to the tunnel axi s
and dips al 500 .
Sackingen o 14 1
1966 400 23 .2 x 30 x 162 Granite and gneiss faulted over 25%L 3m Iong double tone anchor and pett
power sta ti on
of mach inc lull
length .Excavation o f bolts used for roof support vri th 3 t o
elliptical shape for more favourabl e 15cm shotcrete . 60cm thick concrete ri b
stress distribution . used in one faulted zone .
207, 22 8
Interbedded shale and greywacke, Support by 18-24cm thick shotcrete rein -
Waldec k I I power 1973 350 33 . 5 x 50 x 105 235 ,
faulted and jointed . ßedding strike s forced with wire mesh and extensiv e 233,
Station . sys tem of 996 prestressed rock anchors up 244, 248 .
perpendicular to cavern axis and
Faults form wedges i n to 23m lang and 3800 4 or Gm Iong rock -
dies at 32° .
cavern roof . bolts . Cavern Walls curved in horsesho e
shape .
INDIA 188 ,
1 87 ,
32 .5 x 113 Thinly bedded limestones and slaCCS su p o supported
Chibro powe r 1972 230 18 .2 x 3 0 p r es tressed e anchors l of 18 9
Joints, shear zones and bedding average length r 23•5m,capaclty 600 kN ,
Station, Yamuna -
planes isolate potentially unstabl e spaced at 2 to 5m ; 7 .5cnI reinforce d
Ilydel scheure . shotcrete used vrhere necessary .
blocks . Redding dips at 45 to 5o° .
- -••* SUPPORT DETAILS REFERENC E
„ rc DATE DELOW DIHENSIONS NOS .
SURFACE Width x Height x
Length (metres )
IRELAND
Turlough Hills 1971 100 23 x 32 x 82 Coarse grained granite containin g Systemabc rock bolting usin g 3 , 4 and 5 m
p ower S t a ti on 20 5, 2 3 7
thin veins of pegmati te, aplite and bolts on 1 .75 or 2m square grids and u p
quartz . Some zones of intensely to 25ctn of gunite reinforced wich stee l
jointed and partly decomposed rock . fabric .
ITAL Y
Limo Deli o 1970 130 21 x 60 .5 x 195 .5 Gneiss wich sub-vertical foliation Concrete arch roof . Walls heavily rein -
(Roncoval g rande) 173 , 1 81 ,
at ri ght angles to cavern axis . forced wirb 3-5m Iong tensioned rock
power Station 197 , 20 3 ,
Several joint sets in rock mass . bolts, 5-25m Iong prestressed cahles of 221, 30 0
up to 800 k N capacity and reinforce d
shotcrete .
San Fioran o 1972 210 19 .0 x 64 .7 x 96 .7 Phyllite with sub-vertical closel y
p ower Stati on Concrete arch roof . Cables u P to , l a n g 181 , 3 97 ,
s P a ced schistosi L y planes fo nning tensioned up to 80 0 kN an d 5m Iong, 50 kN 221 ,
major discontinuities . 30 0
perfo bolts used for wall reinforcement .
San Massenna 1953 - 29 x 28 x 198 Good quality Iinmestone . Con - Concrete arch roof ; Walls not reinforced
p ower Stati on 12 , 32 , 5 0
struction difficulties caused by but concrete Iined .
water infloty . - 53, 22 2
JAPAN
Okutatarag i 1973 200 24 .9 x 49 .2 x 133.4 Quartz porphyry, diabase arm
p ower St a ti on Concrete arch roof . Walls supported b y 26 6
rhyol ite . 5 to 15m Iong rock bolts , one per 3m 2 o f
wall area, tensioned frotn 80 to 350 WI .
Okuyoshino 1978 180 20 .5 x 41 .6 x 157 .8 Sandstones and shales, sonn tiees
p ower St a ti on Concrete arch roof . Wall Support b y 5 m 35 2
interhedded, dipping at 40° . Ten Iong prestressed bars and 10-20m Ion g
fault zones, wich maximum width prestressed cabl e anchors .
I .5m, intersect cavern .
Shintakasegatw a 1978 250 27 x 54 .5 x 163 Good quality granite with major )•lachine halt roof reinforced with 5 m lang 252 , 34 9
power station (machirre halt) faults nearby . Average joint 25mm dia• and 2m Iong, 22mm dia . rock
spacing 20cm . bolts . Walls reinforced by bolts and 1 5
20 .0 x 35 .3 x 109 Horizontal in situ stress 1 .8 Limes and 20n> Iong anchors tensioned to 1200 k N
(t rans f ormer ball ) vertical . Long axis of cavities 16 to 24cm thicknes s of mesh reinforced
rotated towards horizontal major shotcrete on roof and upper walls .
principal stress direction . Lower Walls concreted .
HALAYA 17 0
•lainly 3m with Some 4 .6m and 2 .9m Iong ,
1968 300 20 . 7 x 27 . 4 x Good quality jointed granite . Shell roc k bolts o n
Sultan Idriss
97 .5 Eeloliation of Walls of excavation 25mm dia ., expansion wire mesh and
II (formerl y an exposure . In situ stress Fiel d 1 .5m grad wlth 75mm square
Woh) powe r unite throughout .
a pp roximately hydrostatic .
Station, Datan g
Padang scheine ,
Caeeron Highlaid s .
unlined . Uppe r 119, 12 8
Good quality gran it e, extensivel y Concrete roof arch . Walls
Sultan Yussuf 1962 260 15 x 24 .5 x 80 5m of side Walls below haunche s rock
jointed .
(formerly Jor ) Horizontal i n situ stresse s 1 .8 and bolted .
power Station , 2 .6 tinies th e vertical stress of
Cameron High -
7 hlPa .
lands schein e
IIOZAHDIQUE
lo reinforcement othe r tha n Concr et e
160 27 x 57 x 220 Excellent quality granitic gneis s
Cabora Dassa 1975 lining .
(machirre ball ) wich sli ght sch is tos i ty ,
powe r Station
21 x 72 k 76
(trp) sorge chamtcrs)
NO RIJAY
Aura powe r 1953 250 Two paralle l Gneiss with thr e e Jo i nt sets .
station Multi-planer concr ete roof with cas t
machine halls, Foliation joints, rough, 25-100mm pillars b e t reten 73
18x17x123 (North ) spacing ; second set smooth, con - rock and roof installed
and J7x15 . 3x9 5 in North hell before excavation complete d .
ti nuous, 50-150mm spacing ; thir d
(Souch) Rock bolts used for initial roof Suppor t
Se t rough, less well developed . in South ball ; concr ete pillars omitted .
One non swelling clay-filled zone .
Rendalen power 1969 16 x 7 x 43 Sparagnii te (feldspar-rich sand -
sCa[ion Afultiple drin . excavation usin g 3m Ion g
stone), thinly bedded, very blockt' I5 1
and seanry . Joints, wams ana Fla t- perfo bolts on 1 .5m spacin g, ei re mesh
and shotcr ete . Final concrete lining
lying bedding p lanes c arry mont - 40cm thick .
morilloeei te with low acti vi ty .
5ta ti on power 197h 13 .4 x 1 x 95 Grani tic gneiss ; in situ pri ncipa l Rock bolts
on I . Om centres in roof an d 22 4
Stresses 17, 2 .3 and -1 .6 I•IPa . I .5m centres in walls plus 12-15cm re -
Rock-burst problems in tunnels an d inforced
shotcrete .
main excavations .
Tafjord I V 150 io-
13 x 7 x 47 0anded and folded gneiss . Roug h
power station 25cm thick concrete arch
schistosicY planes, 5-1Ocm spacing . cast between arch and rockroof wich rib s
Two other less well developed Join t support by bolting and mesh. Localize d
.
sets wich spacings fron' 25cm to Im .
Some slabbing due to high stresses .
PAIU STA K
Tarbela de m 1972 U to Four tunnels u pp t o Poor qualityy,, closely jointe d
dive rsion 1 About IOcn . shotcret e app l ied imnediatel
270 19m dia . and 66 0 y 220, 227 ,
tunnels gabbro core flanked by alternatin g
-770u' Ion g . an e x c avat i on . Wide flanged steel rib s
layers of timestone and chloriti c 241, 25 5
th en we d ged againsc shotcrete . Up to 9 m
schists wich son'e ca r b onaceous an d I ong, 36mm dia . perfo anchors also use d
graphitic schists and p h y llite s . i n transition sections .
PFlPUFl-NEW GUINEA 1975 200 15 x 24 x 51 Gently dipping marble wich small Roof p attern b o lt e d w i rb 4 .3m Jong rock
Ramu I powe r dolerite intrusions and overlying aolts an 1 . 2 tn centres . Roof and parts o f 275
station interbedded s hale-siltstone-grey- end walls Iined with e i re mesh and gunite .
wacke sequence . Difficultie s
c aused by solution Features i n
m arble, block and wedge failure s
a nd fractured zone in contact area .
PERU 34 8
concrete roof arches, 0 .9-I .5m thick in 334,
230 22. 0 x 34 . 5 x 104 .5 Variable quality granite containinc
Mantaro 11 1 machine ball, 0 .6-I .0m thick in tran s -
(machine ball ) kaolInized and myloni ti zed zone s
power station former hell . Anchors prov ide an av era ge
13 .0 x 18 .0 x 88 .0 and steeply dipping joints . Loos -
ened zones in roof and in pilla r of t press ure of 160 kPa in roof an d
(Iransformer ball) 1
between excavations . sup .
walls
SOUTH AFRICA
Groute d an d t en sioned rock bolts 32m m 284, 298 ,
16 . 3 x 45 x 19 3 Mor i zontally bedded mudstones , 311 , 35 0
Drakensber g 198 1 13 0 dia ., 2 to 5m Iong on Im grid wir b
san d s t on es and silts tones . Roc k
power statio n shotcrete and eire mesh .
mass of fair quality . Horizonta l
in situ stress three timesvertical .
2, 31 1
concrete roof arch 0 .5m thick reinforce d
1948 1500 16 . 5 x 8 .9 x 19 .0 Hard, unjointed quartzi te of very
Durban Roodepot with steel arches at 1 . 2 m cen tres an d
good quality wich tight bu t
Deep gold min e resting an reinforced concrete beam s
p ronounced bedding planes .
holst chamber . 0 .9 x 0 .75m located on 0 .9n ledges o n
ei ther side . Sidewalls covered wic h
bricks back-filled with concrete .
Vaal raine
Reefs 1966 1700' 10 x 12 x 13 .5 Very good quality quartzite . Reinforce d concrete roof ; occasional roch
gold ran e 13 7
hont chamber bolts as temporary Support . Mass tont ra t e
in side r-falls .
power rkloof 1976 30 25 x 4 9 .e 100 Very good quality doleri te of high
power station concrete arch vault reinforced wirb 3m 286 , 31 1
strength . Iong resin bonded bolts at 2m centres .
Grouted 6m Iong bolts at 2 .5m centres i n
Walls .
Western Dee p 1974 2750 16 .6 x 12 x 32 Hard quartzite under very high
Levels g old Steel rope s 3Gnm dia . , cenrenC g rout e d , 7 ni 31 1
stress ; rock hurst hazard .
m i ne h o l s t Iong at 1 . 5m cent res w ich w i rr mesh an d
chambe r 7cm sho tcrete .
SWEDEN
Stockh ol , 20 20 x 24 .5 x 30 0 Massive gneiss with fett joint s
Stockholm , Trin e No support other than 50 Spot bolts .
(M o para l le l (RQD =100) ; major normal faulting 26 0
and liquo r caverns, separattrl in the vicinity .
stora g e rooms by 16m)
SWITZERLAN D
Fully concrete li ne d . 40 , 50, 5 3
28 22 x 103 11i ca schist wi th fol iatio n
Caver g no powe r 1955
Station di pping at 4 20 . 14achi ne hall axi s
perpendicular Co foliation strike .
UNITED KINGDOM
Excavation in diori te near boundary concrete arch roof . Other support b y 13 6
Cruachan powe r 1965 320 2 3 .5 x 38 x 91 . 5
wich phyllite . Diorite wel l 4 .6m Iong, 25mm dia . expansion Shell roc k-
Station , bolts on 2 .3m centres, ßol ts up to 9 .2 m
jol nted t-ri th some kaol ini zati on ;
Scotland . Iong on I .Sm spacing used in faul ted and
6m wide "crush" band russ frans -
versely to machine ball axis . closely joI nted zones . Prestresse d
Vertlcal and horizontal in sit u anchors, Ilm Iong an 3 .5m centres used
strenes both approx . theee Lime s In conj unction wi th tont re ce beim a n
north well I ,
overburden stress .
, ea Aqu uuHu tIIONS SUPPORT ütTAJLS
ru+ ' _ utl'l u EXCAVATIO N ;.I-ERENC f
fYP DAiI- Xi ,Tr s
.. DINENSION S
SURFAL E Width x Height x
(metres ) Length (metres)
Dinorwi c 1980 300 24 .5 x 52 .2 x 180 . 3 Good quality slate with numerous Primary reinforcement by 1200 kN capacit y 269 ,
power station , ( mac h irre half) 290 ,
doleri te dykes and some faules . anchors, generally 12m Iong on 6m centres
North Wale s 291, 297 ,
21 .5 x 18 .9 x I55 Five principal discontinuiCY sets Secondary reinforcement b Y 3 .7m Ion s 34 4
([ransfonner ball) Identified . Most major dlscont - rock bolts on 2m centres tensioned to 10
inuities haue low shear strength . tonnes, Tertiary support by 50mm minimu m
Wedge or block failures the mai n thickness of mesh-reinforced shotcrete .
geotechnical problem .
UNITED STATES
OFAMERIC A
Bear Swam p 1973 24 x 46 x 69 Good quality chlorite mica-schist Roof supported by 1Ocm shotcrete and 6 .I m
porxr station , 238 , 24 2
with well developed schis tosi ty . Iong, 25mm dia ., hollow groutable bolt s
MassachuseCts
Major principal stress parallel t o on 1 .5m centres . Same pattern in hype r
cavern axis . 51n of walls ; 6m Iong bolts an 2 .4q' centre s
perpendicular to foliation in downutrea m
wall .
Dauerarg Da m 1965 200 22 .5 x 58 x I46 Good to excellent quality time - ô
power station , Roof support by 4 .6m Iong grouted bolt s 132 , 139 ,
starre . on 1 .8m centres with wire mesh and some
Washington 158, 20 3
gunite . Walls bol ted only where required
Additional 9 .2n1 Jong bolts used in roo f
where wedges appeared to form .
Edward ratio 1966 90 21 x 43 x 170 Generally massive amphibolite wich
povre r statio n , Fully grouted 25mm dia ., 6 .Im Io ng, expan - 127 , 150 ,
three prominent joint sets . Shears sinn Shell rock bolts o n 1 .2m centres in
Oroville Dam , IJI, 199 ,
and schistose zones strike 600-8 0 0 roof and 1 .8m centres in walls .
California . Addit - 203 , 25 9
across the chamber axis . They dip Tonal bolts angled across slabby rock
steeply, are fron' 2 to 7m apart, where shears intersect roof . Surfac e
are 2 to 15cm wide and contai n covered with chain link mesh and 10c m
crushed rock, schist and clay gx'g_ . thickness of gunited applied .
Haas garer 1957 150 17 x 30 x 53 Massive grani te with widely spaced Fully grouted perrorated-sleeve
rock 85
station , fractures . anchors of 25nmr dia . reinforcing bar ,
California 3 ,
3 .8 and 4 .6m Jong spaced an Im centres i n
arch roof . 10cm sgware wire mesh attad'rr1
t° Bars and IOcm thickness of gunite
applied .
120 17 .4 x 42 x 63 Micaceous quartzite and mi ca schist Fully grouted 25mm dia . expansion Shell 134, 140 ,
M orrow P o i n t 1963 190 ,
wich some pegmat i te intrusi Ins, rock bolts on 1 .2m centres, 6 .Im Iong in 167,
powe r station,
During construction, a 30m wide roof and 3 .7m lang in walls . Special 20 3
Colorado reinforcement to stabllize side-wal l
Wedge isolated by 'am intersectin g
shear zones moved 5cm into excav - Wedge : 9 off 60 tonne grouted rebars, 18 -
ation . 30m Jong ; 25 off 110 tonne tendons ; 2 7
off 35mm dia . bolts, 8-24m Jong ,
tensioned to 27 tonnes .
Alternating layers of low strength In roof, 10n' lang, 28mm dia . bolts on 203, 34 1
Neva da Test 1965 400 24 x 43 x 37
d 0 .9m centres . In wall, 7 .3m lang bolts
Sire , Test Wird hemisphcricah ruft, predomi nently massive an
on 1 .8m centres . Dolts tensioned wi t h
Cav i t i es 1 an d crorm dorre-shaped) thick-bedded, dipping at 8-15 ° •
back 2 .4m grouted . Gunite applied t o
II, Panier Mesa Occasional thin beds (7-45cm thick)
prevent drying and cracking . Same chai n
Nevada of soff , friable white tuff . In
Cavity II, high angle Joints Imre link fabric supported from I .Bm Ion g
Water content of tuf f Perfo-bolts used for primary support .
prevalent .
=21% Additional support by 14 .6m Iong hol's o n
0 .9m centres in 'arge areas of Cavity 1 1
where unstable wedges formed .
Northfiel d
Floun t a i n poeie r. 1 970 170 21 x 47 x 100 Interbedded Iayers of gneiss, In roof, 25mm dia . ful ly grouted expan - 192, 19 8
quartzite and schist . Two major sion shell rock bolts on 1 .5m centres ,
station ,
joint sets steeply dipping and 10 .7m Jong in central part of arch, 7 .6 m
tlassachusec t s
widely spread . Jong in lower arch . In walls, sann:
pattern except top row 6 .Im long, remain -
der 4 .9m . 7 .5cm square welded wire nas h
with 10cm thickness of gunite on roof .
Racoon Mooratom 1973 200 22 x 50 x 150 Good quality, horixontally bedded All excavations supported by Williams 20 8
power station , limestone wich two major nea r groutable bolts, with wire mesh and
Tennessee . vertical joint sets . Machirre hal t shotcrete as required .
axis parallel to major principal in-
situ stress which is 2 to 3 time s
the vertical stress .
Rosslyra Station, 1973 16-21 25 x 17 x 220 Gneiss, highly fractured and weath - Roof pre-reinforced with "drilled in" 24 3
Washington 0 .C . ered at top, improving in qualit y 6 .Im Iong spiles . At least 15cm shot -
Metr o wich depth ; 5 prominent joint Set s trete and steel ribs on 1 .2m centre s
identified ; shear zones and cla y provide roof support . Walls reinforce d
filled joints common . Join t by horizontal and angled 5m long hol' s
pattern caused overbreak during on 1 .5 and 2 .4m centres .
blasting .
ZAMBI A
Karue Gorge 1972 500 15 x 32 x 130 Good quality granite, g ranitic 25mm dia ., 4 .5m long rock hol's on 2m 21 1
power station (rnachine ball ) gneiss and gneiss . Cavern axe s centres and mesh in roof ; 6m long bolt s
17 x 21 x 125 aligned approx . parallel to major on 2m centres in walls . Grane beams and
(transformer hal t principal stress . Horizontal in sit u Cheir anchors provide additional wal l
stress approx . 1 .5 . times vertical . support .
ZINBAUWE (form -
erly Rirociesia ) . ct
Kariba I Power 23 x 40 x 143 Generally sound biotite gneiss with Main excavations upstream of dam ; rock 71, 97 ,
station . (machirre ball) granitic pegmatite dykes . A faulte( cover extensively grouted . Rock bolting 10 8
17 x 18 x 163 zone affected a 30m Iength at 'res' used during excavation . Excavations full y
(transformer hall t end of north wall of rnachine halt . concrete Iined except for downstream ma -
Three 19m dia . r. Fraclured and altered gneiss mic h chine halt wall . Voids between concret e
52m high sorg e slickens ides in upper sect ions o f walls and rock and joints in rock grouted,
cilambers, i sorge cbambers .
OF DIP D IRECTION 60 .
STRIKE RND DIP LINES OF PLRNE S STRIKE RND DIP LINES OF PLRNE S
STRIKE RND DIP LINES OF PLRNE S STRIKE RND DIP LINES 0F PLANE S
OF DIP DIRECTION 170 . OF DIP DIRECTION 160 .
v
vcu
STRIKE ONO DIP LINES OF FLOHE S STRIKE RND DIP LINES OF PLRNE S
STRIKE DND DIP LINES OF PLFlNE S STRIKE NND DIP LINES OF PLRNE S
46 7
KEY
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Appendix 4 : Two-dimensional boundary element stress anaiysi s
Introductio n
the rufe is that when the boundary is traced from the initia l
since they in no way correspond to the forces applied t
o to the final point and one faces the direction of travel, th e
the boundary of the real plate . The procedure is now t o
solid material lies on the right hand side .
adjust these forces so that the normal and shear component s
0
of stress (c, f) at the centre of each element are equal t o
Stra ght line segment s
the corresponding normal and shear tractions (-f, -,) of th e
real plate . There are various ways of achieving this result
, Xo, ZO = co-ordinates of the initial poin t
but in the present program an iterative procedure is used .
Starting with element 7, the forces F n „ F t , are adjuste d XL, ZL = co-ordinates of the final point .
so [hat c l = - c l and `1= We then pass to elements 2, 3 ,
etc . in turn and carry out a similar adjustment
. In cor- CircuZar segment s
recting the values of e and r for any given element, we
XC, ZC = co-ordinates of centre of circl e
disturb the stresses on all the other elements, and henc e
the procedure must be continued for a series of cycle s P.DS = radius of circl e
around the "boundary" until no further adjustment is con-
THET1 = polar angle of initial poin t
sidered necessary .
Z THET2 = polar angle of final poin t
Circular segmen t
Once this process is complete, the distribution of traction s
f
on the real boundary is identical to [hat on the imaginar y Line CB is drawn from the centre C in the direction o
boundary . Since these tractions determine the stress dis-
the +Z axis . i e
tribution in the surrounding medium, this will .,âlso be th e The polar angles are measured in a counter-clockw s
same for the two cases . To compute the stresses at any poin direction from CB .
t
in the imaginary plate, all that has to be done is to su m X
0
the contributions of the various fictitious forces Fnl, ElZiptical segments
Fn 2 , F t2 F tl '
etc . Standard expressions exist for the component
s XC, ZC = co-ordinates of centre C
of stress at any point in an infinite medium due to a loa d
applied at some other point (see Timoshenko and Goodier i 3 SEMIAX = length of one semi-axis (a )
Page 713, for example) . As it has been assumed that th e
RATIO = b/a, where b is the length of the other semi-
Fictitious forces are distributed uniformly over the lengt h
axi s
of each element, it is necessary to integrate the expression s
for the influence of point loads, taking into account th e PSI = polar angle of axis a
orientation of stress components .
THETI = polar angle of initial poin t
Once the stresses due to the negative surface tractions hav e THET2 = polar angle of final poin t
been determined, they may be added to those of the origina l These polar angles are measured as described above .
stress Field to give the required stresses following exca-
vation . Elastic displacements around the excavation ca
n These segments may be combined to form a boundary of virtuall y
be calculated by making use of standard solutions for dis- any arbitrary shape as illustrated in the lower margin sketch .
placements in an infinite medium due to point or tine loads .
The listing of the program given on the following page s = the total number of segments used in definin g
NSEG
includes the calculation of elastic displacements . all the boundary surfaces of the problem .
EZliptical segment
As a consequence of the method used for calculating displace- Elements
ments, there may be a tendency For the excavation and it s
.
surrounds to " Float" numerically in space causing small rigi Each segment is divided into a number (NELR) of elements
d
body movements of ehe p roblem field to occur . This can happe n In the Gase of straight line and circular segments, th e
. To understand the positio n
for unsymmetrical excavation shapes in which there is an im- elements are all of equal length
n
balance of elements an opposing sides of the excavation bound- with elliptical segments, note is made of the fact that a
X ary . In these cases, all calculated relative displacement s ellipse may be represented in earametric form by the equa -
will be accurate, but the absolute values of displacements a t tions
particular points may be in error . This problem does no
t m = a .cos X
(XL,ZL) arise for symmetrical excavation shapes .
n = b .sin X
A two-dimensional boundary element program for determinin g
elastic stresses and displacements around undergroun d resent co-ordinates measured parallel t o
where m and n re p
excavations . . Each element correspond s
the a and b axes of the ellipse
to the same increment of the angle x . lt feilews that th e
'>7,ZO) Segments length of the element varies, being small where the radiu s
of curvature is small .
In representing a boundary of arbitrary shape, the boundar y
r
is divided into a number of segments (NSEG) . These segment s lt may be necessary to divide a single segment into a numbe
Sing _ „ mene h
may be of three types : a) straight lines, b) circular arcs of separate segments, a) to achieve a variation in lengt
, -
and c) elliptical arcs . In the following specifications , along the original segment, and b) to allow for the applica
h
reference is made to the end points of the segment, describe d tion of loads to specified portions of the segment whic
as the initial and final points . would not be possible with a uniform division of the original
In deciding which is which,
49 49 7
. Fo r
. In 6segmnt connection with the First reason, it should be the number of cycles of i t eration has to be decided
most problems, 20 cycles (NCYC = 20) is sufficient, but a
pointed out that a relatively high density of elements i s e
desirable in regions of high stress g radient . The element s greater number may be required where the boundaries ar
. a thin cylin -
are numbered progressively from 1 = 1 to I = ?MAX, over al l approximately parallel and close together (es
segments . der) .
s) Blank card .
FPX and FPZ denote the principal Field stresses, parallel t o
the x- and z- axes respectively . The program solves tw o lt is desirable that the segment cards relating to any give n
r
ciasses of problem defined by the value assigned to KODE . boundary element be grouped together and placed in the orde
For KODE 1, FPX and FPZ are uniform and the problem i s which the boundary is traced .
of the infinite medium type . For ICODE = 2, FPX and FP Z
vary with depth and the problem is of the gravitational stres s Information on the date cards is arranged as shown on th e
field type . In this case, a constant field stress rati o Foliowieg sage , using the following definitions :
(FPX/FPZ) muss be defined and a value assigned to F56 . Fo r
KODE = 2, ehe origin of coordinates must be at the groun d TITL E = Any title up to a maximum of 80 charatter s
surface . m
KOD E = Code for problem type (= 1 for infinite mediu
= 2 for gravitational medium )
BPX, (BPZ) denote the x (z) components of the load applie d ICODE = 1, use card F .
When
to a given boundary element per unit of area projected ent o ICODE = 2, use card G .
When
the x (z) plane . The range of elements over which this loa d
ecified = number of segment card s
is applied is specified by giving the numbers (LP1, LP?) o f NSE G = Total number of se g ments s p
the First and last elements of the loaded section .
= Uniaxial com p ressive strength of intact rock materia l
SIG C
Cycius = Strength parameter, m
RM
= Strength parameter, s
5
Part of the analytical procedure involves the inversion o f
a matrix . This is carried out by a simple iteration, and
498 49 9
7 shear loading .
6 , tt 16 27 26 37 41 51 6t 71
ITL E c) Internal stresses, tabulated under the same heading s
as in b), but now I, CX, CZ and ALPHA have differen t
770 C00 NSEG KXS KZS NCYC NSL DELN neanings :
E RNU
-la ) I = normal grid line numbe r
,,ties SIGC Ri'I
CX, CZ = co-ordinates of an interior poin t
n
aedium FPX ( FP Z ALPHA = angle that a l makes with the axis .
-**--- 1 200m belos, surface
a Y' z GA, 4A FS R E:camp l o
9 elements
NELR XO A cavern with a circular roof is located at an equivalen t
Seg ZO XL ZL depth of 300m below surface . The properties of the roc k
ent mass are defined by :
:-. NELR XC ZC THET1 THET2 P,O S 22m
T Uniaxial compressive strength o f
?tica l intact rock ac = 150 MP a
meint idELR XC ZC SE"IiAX
THET1 THET2 RATI O PS I 9 elements 42m m = 2. 5
(a) Material constants
naar y ( b/ a ) (of a ) s = 0 .00 4
j LP1 LP2 9 elements`
BPX BPZ Unit weight of rock nass Y = 0 .027 MN/m 3
_- 1 Young' modulus of rock mass E = 7000 MP a
All integer s p ecifications are 15 except NELR, (110
)
r9 elements ®_L Poisson ' s ratio of rock mass v = 0 .2 5
Note that there are 9 input cards, the last being a blan k
500 50 1
Sl 9 26 .0
1 -I.
1AL MEDIA )
REAO(1,324) GAMMA,FS R
324 FORMAT(2F10 .3 )
341 .0 26 .0 313 .0
=RITE(7,325) GAMHA,FS R s ,2F10 .3 )
S2 9 13 .0 313 .0 90 .0 325 FORMAT(1H ///,7X,25HGA MMA , mORZ . STR RATIO
St
270 .0
1
13 .0
1 336 CONTINU E
NN 0
9 0 .0 313 .0 0 .0
1 341 .0 1 PI = ATAN(1 .0) * 4 . 0
1 TA = 2 .0*(1 .0 - RNU )
1 BLANK CARD TJ = 1 .0/(2 .0*PI* T A )
TU=3 .0- u .0* RN U
G=E/(2 .0*(1 .0+RNU) )
TV=0 .5*TJ/ G
The results of this analysis are presented after the progra m C
listing given below .
INTERPRETATIO N OF SYMMETRY COD E
C
Eoundary element prog ram listing C
KAS = 0
INPUT = TAPE1, OUTPUT = TAPE T IF(KZS .EO .-1) KAS= 1
.KOT = 2*KXS + 1
KZT = 2*(KZS + KÄS) + 1
************************************************A******A*****A****
BOUNDARY ELEMENT PROGRAM FOR T w *
C
0-DIMENSIONAL STRESS DISPLACEMEN T DIVISISON OF BOUNDARY INTO SEGMENT S
AND FAILURE ANALYSIS IN HOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC MEDIA UNDER UNIFOR M C
OR GRAVI T A TIONAL LOADING . C
*1**AA***AA**A*******A*AA*1*****************AA**A************AA*** 1 = 0
A NSEGG = 0
DIMENSION Cx(36),CZ(36),EX1(36),EX2(36 =HITE(7,1b )
),EZI(36),EZ2(36),P
I PNH(36),OM(36),ON(36),BMH(36 , 36 ),B MN (36,36),8NM(36,36) , :N(36) , 16 FORMAT(// / THE 11 THÉT2" ,
2 * ELEMENTS CENT x CENT Z
ANN(36,36),DM(36,36),DN(36,36),SB(36 ),CB(36),SIG1(36),SIG3(3
3 6) , " RADIUS RATI O PSI" /
ALPHA(36),SINe(36),COS9(36),UX(36 ), U Z(36),F05(36),BETA(3 (LAST-x) (LAST-Z) " / )
u FPx(361 , FP Z(36,,TITLE(20 ) 6) , A " (FIRST-O ) (FIRST-Z )
C
READING AND PRINTING OF INPUT DAT A 70 0 IF(NSEGG .EU .NSEG) GO TO 5 0
NSEGG = NSEGG + 1
wR ITE(7,12 ) NELG = 0
FORMAT("1",// / RELG = NEL G
110* A. A. * * * * * * * * * 9EAD(1,17) NELR,xO,ZO,xL,ZL , ROS,RATIO,PS i
* * * * * A" /
110X,"* 2-D STRESS ANALYSIS BY THE BOUNDARY ELEMENT METHUD *" / 1 7 FURMAT(7x,I3,7F10 . 0 )
110x,"* PLANE STRAIN CONDITIONS, RELR = NEL R
FICTITIOUS STRIP LOADS *" / IF(ROS .EO .0 .0) GO TO 60 0
READ(I,10) ( TI T LE(I),I=1,20 ) *"///) C OF ELLIPTICAL OR CIRCULAR SEGMENTS INTO ELEMENT S
0 FOR u AT(20A4 ) C DIVISIO N
*RITE(7,9) (TI T LE(I) I=1,20 ) C
A
FORMA T(IOX,20A4 ) IF(RATIO .EQ .0 .0) RATIO = 1 . 0 RATIO,PS i
READ(I,11) ICODE,NSEG,KXS , KZ S, N CYC,NSL,DELN,E,R N U ARITE(7,18) N ELR,xO,ZO,XL,ZL, RO S,
FORMAT( 6(25,I3),3F10 .3 )
tRITE(7,317) ICOD E
SUD 503
18 F ORMATC1H ,6X,I3,7F10 .3 )
Q m (l ) a PNM(I )
SINPSI = SI N CPSI*PI/180 . )
CDSPSI = COS(PSI*P1/180 . ) ()NU) a PN(I )
GD = .1E-1 0 100 CONTINU E
GA = RATI0*C0S((XL-PSI)*PI/180 . ) C TRACTIONS DUE TO BOUNDARY LOAD S
IF(ABS(GA) .LT .GO) GA=G D C ADDITIO N OF BOUNDARY
G8=RATIO x COS((ZL-PSI)*PI/180 . ) C
IF(A8S(GB),LT,GD) GBaG D 106 READ(1,19) LP1,LP2,6PX,B P Z
CHII = AT AN 2(5IN((XL-PSI)*PI/180 .),GA )
19 FORMAT(5x,I5,5X,I5,2F10 .0 )
CHI2 = ATAN 2(SI N ((ZL-PSI)*PI/180 .),GB ) IF(LPI .EG .0) GO TO 10 5
DCHI a (CHI2 - CHII)/REL R +RITE(7,20) LP1,LP2,5PX, BP Z
IF(ABSCDCHI) .LT .GD) GO TO 60 6 FORMAT(///6Xr "BPX a°,F10 x',16/6X ,
20
GC = DCHI/ABS(DCHI ) .3/6X P, * B P Z ,F10 .3/// )
*1
GO TO 60 5 a
00 107 I LP1,LP 2
606 GCa-1, 0 2+BPZ )
PN(I) a PN(I)-2 .0*((6PX-BPZ)*(SI NB ( I))x *COS5(I )
x05 DCHI a DCHI + ((ZL- X L)/ABSCZL-XL)-GC)*PI/REL R PNM(I) = PNM(I) - 2 .*(BPX-8PZ)*SI N 5( I )*
600 1 = I + 1
107 CONTINU E
CHI = CHI1 + RELGxDCH I
GO TO 10 6
EX1(I) a RDS * ( COS(CHI) * SINPS I+SI N (CHI)*COSPSI*RATIO)+X O
C
EZI(I) = R DS*(COS(CHI)*CDSPSI - SIN (C H C DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS IN EXPRESSION S FOR STRESSE S
I)*SINPSI*RATIO) + Z O
CHI = CHI + DCH I C INDUCED BY FICTITIOUS LOAD S
EX2(I) = RDS *(COS(CHI)*SINPSI + SIN(CH I) x C
COSPSI*RATIO) + X O
EZ2(I) = RD S*(COS(CHI)*COSPSI - SIN ( CH 105 DO 101 I = 1,HAX I
I)*SINPSI*RATIO) + Z 0
CXCI) a 0 .5*(EX1(I) + EX2(I) ) CXI = CXCI )
CZ(I) = 0 .5*(EZI(I) + EZ2(I) ) CZI a CZ(I )
DX = EX2(I) - EXI(I ) IF(NN .GT .0) GO TO 10 4
DZ = EZ2(I) - EZI(I ) COS28I = 2 .0 * CCOSB(I))**2 - 1 . 0
IF ( A8S (OX) .LT .C .1E-13)*RDS) O X SIN28I = 2 .0 * 5IN6(I) * COSB(I )
.0
IF ('ASS (DZ) .LT .( .1E-13)*R0S) D Z 104 DO 118 J a 1,MAX J
.0
OS = SWRT(DX*DX t DZ*OZ ) TK = 0 . 0
SINB(I) _ -DZ/D S TL = 0 . 0
CU56(I) = DX/D S TH = 0 .0
NELG = NELG + 1 TN = 0 . 0
RELG a NEL G TO = 0 . 0
IF(NELG .LT .NELR) GO TO 60 0 TP = 0 . 0
GO TO 70 0 DU 102 KXU a 1,KXT, 2
Kx = 2- KX U
DIVISION OF STRAIGHT LINE SEGMENTS INTO ELEMENT S RX a K X
DO 102 KZU=1,KZT, 2
CONTINU E KZ = (2-KZU)*(1-KAS)+ KAS * K X
*RITE(7,15) N ELR,XO,ZO,XL,Z L RZ a K Z
15 FORMAT(3H ,bX,13,4F10 .3 ) CDSBJ a RX*COSB(J )
Ox a (XL-XO)/REL R SIr66J a RZ*SINB(J )
DZ = (ZL-ZO)/REL R EX1J = RZ*EX1(J )
OS a SDRT (DX*DX+DZ*DZ ) Ex2J a RZ*EX2(J )
J I= I t 1 EZ1J = RX*EZ1(J )
SIN8(I) = -02/D S EZ2J = Rx*EZ2(J )
CO58(I) DX/O S LL = KX+KZ-2+10*(I-J)+1 000 * N N
E x 1(I) = x0 + RELG*O X IF(LL .E0 .0) GO TO 13 5
EZ1(I) a ZO + RELG*O Z RN a (CZI - EZ1J)*C05BJ + (CXI - EX1J)*SI N B J
CXCI) = EX1(I) + 0 .5*0 X RM1 = (CXI - EXIJ)*CDSBJ - (CZI - EZ1J)*SINB J
CZ(I) = EZ1(I) + 0 .5xD Z R^'2 a (CXI -EX2J)*COSBJ - (CZI - EZ2J)*SINB J
EX2(I) = EX1(I) + D x RSG1 = RM1*RM1 + RN*R N
EZ2(I) = EZ1(I) + D Z RSG2 = RM2*9M2 + RNxR N
)
NELG = NELG + 1 TB a 2 .0*ATAN2((RM1 - RM2)*RN,(RN*RN + RM1*RM2)
'FFLG = N EL G TC a 2 .0 *RN * (RM1/R501 - RM2/RSG2 )
I"('ELG .LT .NELR) GO TO 90 0 TO = (RN**2 - RM1**2)/RSO1 - (RN**2 - R42**2)/RSD 2
GO TO 70 0 TE a ALOG(RS01/RSG2 )
+ SIN281*SIN8J*COS B J )
O +AXI a 1 COS2F a 2 .0*(COS2BI*(CDSBJ**2 - 0 .5) COS2BI*SINBJ*CDS B J )
x xxJ = I SIN2F a 2 .0*(S I N 28I*(C D S8J * * 2 - 0 .5) -
GO TO 13 7
DETERMINATION OF 8OUNDARY TRACTIONS EGUIVALENT TO FIELD STRESSE S 135 TB = 2 .0*P I
TC a 0 . 0
GO 100 I a 1,MAX I TO a 0 . 0
:FCICODE .E0 .1) GO T O 328 TE a 0 . 0
'Z(I) a G AM MA*CZ(I ) COS2F a 1 . 0
= = X(I) a FSR*FPZ(I ) SIN2F a 0 . 0
GO TO 32 9 137 CONTINU E
F P Z(I) a FPZ Z
E 'x(I) = FPX X
''+(I) a 2 .0*(FPZ(I)*(C088(I))**2 + F P
'NM(I) a 2 .0*(FPXCI) - FPZ ( I XCI)*(SINB(I))*x2 )
))*SINB(I)*COSB(I)
50 4
TK x TK + T8*R9*R Z Kx=2-K x U
TL x TL + TE RX x K X
T M = TM + (TO + TA*TEE)*COS2F + (TC - T A
*T8)*SIN2 F 00 603 KZU=1,KZT, 2
TN = TN ( (( 1 . 0 - TA )*TB-TC)*C0E2F + ( TD+(1
.0 - TA )*TE)*SIN2F)*Hx*R Z KZ=(2-KZU)*(1- KA S)+ K AS* K X
TO = TO+(TD+TA * T E)*3IN2F-(TC-TA*T8)*C052 F RZ x K Z
TP = TP + (((1 .0-TA)*TB-TC)*SIN2F -
(TD+(1 .0 -T A )*TE)*C052F)*RX*R C058J = RX*COSB(J )
102 CONTINU E Z
SINBJ = RZ*5IN8(J )
BMM(I,J) _ (TL + im) * T J Ex1J = RZ*EX1(J )
8MN(I,J) _ (TK t TN) * T J Ex2J = RZ*EX2(J )
8NM(I,0) _ (TL - TM) *T J EZ1J = RX*EZ1(J )
8NN(I,J) _ (TK -TN) * T J EZ2J = Rx*EZ2(J )
D M (I,J) = TO *T J RN x (CZI-EZIJ)*COSBJ+(COI-EX1J)* S I NB J
0N(I,J) x iP *T J LL=KX+KZ-2+10*(I-J)+1000*N N
118 CONTINU E
',01 CONTINU E IF (LL .EG .0) RN x 0 .000 1
RMO = (CxI - EX1J)*COSBJ - (CZI - EZ1J)*SIN8 JJ
IF(NN .GT .0) GO TO 40 4 RM2 = (CXI - EX2J)*COSBJ - (CZI - EZZJ)*SONB
M x u
8501 = SGRT(RM1*RM1 + RN*RN )
0502 = SDRT(RM2*R M 2 + RN*RN )
DETERMINATION OF FICTITIOUS LOAD S RNO = -EZZJ*COSBJ - Ex1J*SIN8 J
IF(ABS(RNO) .LT .0 .0001) NNO = 0 .000 1
00 00 401 1 = 1 ,MAXI RMIO = E0IJ*C058J - EZ1J*SIN8 J
0MI x PNM(I ) RM20 x EX2J*COS8J - EZ2J*SIN8 J
UNI = PN(I ) 05010 = SDRT(RM10*RM10 + RNO*RN0 )
00 402 J = 1,MAX J 45020 = SGRT(RM20*R M 20 + RNO*RNO )
IF(I .EO .J) GO TO 40 2 IF(RSD10 .LT .0,001) RSG10 = 0,00 1
GMI = QMI - DM(1,J)*DM(J) - D N (I,J)*0N(J
) IF(R5020,LT .0 .001) 05020 00 .00 1
UNI = DNI - BN M (I,J)*GM(J) -8NN(I,J)*DN(J ) IF(ABS(RNO) .LT .0 .0001 .AND .RSD20 .LT .0 .001) RS020 = 0 .00 1
)2 CONTINU E TS = - HN*ALOG(RSG2/RSO1 )
DENOM = AN N(I,1)*OM(I,I) - D N (I,I)*8NM(I,I TR = -RN*ATAN2((RM2-RM1)* RN , (NN*+N+RM1*R M 2) )
)
U m (l) _ (OMI*BNN(I,I) - O N TT = TU A(-RM2*ALUG(RSC2 )
I*DN(I,I))/UENO M
G N U) _ (0 N I*D M (1,I) - O M 1 +RM1*ALOG(RSG1)+R M 2- RM 1+T R )
I*BNM(I,I))/DENO M
1 CONTINU E UM = Tv*CTS*ON(J)*Rx*RZ - (TT+TR)*GM(J) )
n = M + .IN = TV*(TS*OM(J) - (TT-RM2+RM1-TR)*Rx*RZ*DN(J) )
IF(M .LT .NCYC) G O TO 400 U xx = uxx-UM*COSBJ-UN*SI N 8 J
ULZ = UZZ 4 UM*SINBJ - UN*COSB J
DETENMINATION OF STRESS COMPONENTS, PRINCIPAL STRESSE S 603 CONTINU E
AND DIRECTION S 602 CONTINU E
00(I) = Ux x
00 500 I = 1 , MAX I UZ(?) = UZ Z
IF(ICODE .EQ .1) GO TO 40 3 601 CONTINU E
FPZ(I) =GAMMA*CZ(I ) =RITE(7,119) N N
FPX(I) = FSR*FPZ(I ) 119 FORMAT(*1",SX,* N N =",I3 )
SMI =2 .0*FPX(1 ) IF(SIGC .E0 .0 .0) GO TO 42 0
301 = 2 .0*FPZ(I ) IF(NN .GT .0) GO TO 61 1
SOMI = 0 . 0 ARITE(T,612 )
IF(NN .GT .0) GO TO 40 5 612 FûRMAT(1H ///,4x,82HSTRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS , A N D FAILURE CRIT E
SNI = 2 .0*((FPX(I) - FPZ(I))*(COS0(I))**2 + FPZ(I) 1Ri0N AT CENTERS OF SOUNDARY ELEMENTS )
)
SNI = 2 .0*((FPX(I) - FPZ(1))*(SIN8(I))**2 + FR2(1) ) GO TO 61 3
3001 = 2 .0*(FP1(I) - FP
Z(I))*SINB(I)*COSB(I ) 611 ,NITE(7,614 )
DG 501 J = 1,MAX J 614 FORMAT(1H ///,4X,68MSTRESSES AND DISPLACEMENTS, AND FAILURE CRITE R
SNI = SNI - 8NM(I,J)*GM(J) ° 8NN(I,J)*GN(J ) 1ION AT INTERIOR POINTE )
SMI x SMI - BMM (I,J)*UM(J)-8MN(I,J)*GN(J )
SNMI = SNMI - U M (I,J)*U 613 •,PITE(7,25 )
M (J) - DN(I,J) *DN(J ) 25 FORMAT(lh ///,3X,2H I,6x,2NCX,9X,2HCZ,ox,uhSIG1,t x , 4H SI G 3,5 x ,
CO N TINU E
1 5MALPMA,6X,3M 00,70,30 uZ,7X,5MF .0,S,6x,ü^6ET A )
SDI = 0,5*(SMI-SNI )
C
TAUMAI 0,5*SORT(SDI**2 + 3NMI**2 ) C FAILURE CRITERION AND FACTOR OF SAFETY DETEPMIN A TID N S
5IG1(I) = 0 .25*(SMI+SNI) + TAUMA X
C
5103(I) = 0 .25*(SMI+SNI) - TAUMA X
TN x 2,0*TAUMAX + SNMI - SD I OD 620 I=l,MAX I
IF(A8S(SIG1(I)) .LT .0,00 U 1) SIG1(I) = 0 .000 1
IF(TR .EG .0 .0) TR = 0,0000 1
ALPHA (1) _ (180,/PI)*ATAN(1 .0 + 2,*SDI/TR ) SOGT = 0 .5mSIGC*(RM-SGRT(R M * RM + 4 . 0 *5 ) )
CONTINU E IF(SIG3(I) .LE,SIGT) GO TO 62 2
C
C CHECK FOR SMEAR FAILUR E
DETERMINATION OF INDUCED DISPLACEMENT S C
TSC = SDRT(RM*SIGC*SIG3(I)+S*SIGC*SI GC )
00 601 I=1,MAX I POS(0) _ (SIG3(I) + TSC)/SIGI(I )
_xO=CX(I ) IF (FU5( I) .G7 ,1 .0) GO TO 62 1
:ZI=CZ(I ) TAU . = 0 .5*(SIG1(I) - 5I03(1) )
)XX=0, 0 TCM = 0 .25*SIGC*R M
)ZZ=0 . 0 TCM1 = SORT(TAUM*T A UM + TAUM*TCM )
i0 602 J=1,MAX J
TCn2 = 0 .5*TC M
603 KXU=I,KXT,2 BETA(I) x 0 .5*(180 .0/PI)*ATAN(TC M i/T CM2 )
ÄRITE(7,616) (I,CX(I),CZ(I),SIGI(I),SIG3(I),ALPHA(I) , UNOERGR0UNU CAVERN-CIRCULAR ROOF- G RRAVITATIONAL STRESS FIEL D
1 ux(I),UZCI),FOS(I),6ETA(1) )
*1b FOPMAT(IH ,I4,2F1043,2G10,3,F10 .3,2G10 .3,2F10,3,4x , 2
COCE OF PROBLEM TYPE =
) rSHEAR FAILURE )
GG TU 62 0
NN = NN + 1
1F(NN .GT .1) GO TO 50 4
C0525I = 1 . 0
5IN28I = 0 . 0
'AxI = MAx J
10 502 I = 1,MAX I
K = 1
CX(I) = CX(K )
CZ(I) CZ(K )
54(I) = SINB(K )
C8(I) = COSbCK )
CUNTINU E
oEL N
:D 505 I = 1,0Ax 1
Cx(1) = CX(I) + S6(I)*T O
CZ(0) = CZ(I) + CV(I) A T G
5 CUNTINu E
,U TU 10 5
3 CiNTI++u E
_TO P
:NC
WWW WW W w J
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5 1 3
T-v Z - ExiEyi
n n (A .2 )
c2 = r - i 2 (EOi) 2
r LW E;K
n (A .3 )
Cc T- 2 _ ((rsn_2
r.
where xi and yi a r e successive data pairs and n is the total number of such
date pairs .
The coefficient of determination r2 is g iven by
E-irui '-
E= i.Zdi - n (A .4 )
r2 =
( y2 -
(t ^i)2 H Eyi 2
The closer the value of is to 1 .00, the better the fit of the empirical equation
to the triaxial test data .
For or heavily jointed rock, the strength of the intact rock pieces, a c , i s
broken
determinedfrom an analysis such as that presented above or it is estimated fro m
a test such as the Point Load Index (see page 52) . The value of m for the broke n
or heavily jointed rock is found from equation A .3 and the value of the constant s
is given by :
1
.,.
E 2
s = QC2 [Zn - mm n
Ji
(A .5 )
Eyi
ac E_- ,.
(A .6)
ID
Part 3 - Mohr envelop e The values of the constants A and B are found by linear regression analysis o f
.14 for a range of values of c and r calculated from equations A .11 an d
Balme r 135 expressed the equation for a system of Mohr circles (see page 94) as equation .4
: A .12 .
Eyi - Exi
cl - c 3 log A = B (A .16 )
n n
c = 03 + 2c l
(A .8)
3c3 + 1
Substituting equation A .8 into equation A The instantaneous friction angle pi and the instantaneous cohesion ci for a give n
.7 and solving for r gives :
value of c are defined by :
c l _ c3
2 --
.jhsj_ (A .17 )
+ 1 (A .9)
20'3 Tap p i = AB(c/ - ac /c
2c 3 0c c)B -
(A .18 )
ci - T - aTa n
For the relationship given by equation 43, the partial derivative of c l with respec t
to c 3 is :
2c , mc c
(A .10 ) Calculation sequenc e
20.3
2(cl - 03)
m-
The analysis presented in this appendix can be carried out with the aid of a progra
Substitution of equation A .10 into equations A .8 and A d
.9 gives : mable calculator . The following calculation sequence can be use
Intact roc k
T2
Notatio n
A l , A, A 3 - areas of face s
W - weight of wedge
hy , ho = (fyg. - f . gy) , ( fzg= - fxg ,,), ( f-'y - fyg. )
12. 1 1 = f,„i„,, + fy iy + fs i„
14 : i 3 = f kx + fy ky + f,2,k z
15 . m i = (hsi x + hy i y + hi,, )/ 7, 1
h y )/Z 2
16 . m 2 = ( hsjs + ky,iy +
h)n ,
17 . m 3 = (h sk r + ;:yk y +
''48/1m3 ad
18. - W b/I M 1 M 21, e2 1". W b/1 M2 - M31, e3
e = least of e i , e3
19.
k, = - e/Z. l , k 2 = -e/1 2 , k 3 = -e/z 3
20.
rock contact s
U i = uiAi, U 2 = = 2A 2 , U 3 = u 3A 3
c, - cohesion and angle of frictio n 25.
- factor of safe[ Y
26 . r1 = dy''Y dzb '' '
27 . r2 amds ay'=y +
an sequenc e
28 .
,iefinedby span crsidewall heighu W b
29 . Tx , T To = T .c,, T .cy , T .c ,
ay a = Sin O i Sin a 1 , Sin ;b i Cos , Cos ■g l
= U i ax - U 2b„ - u 3=„ T„ .W/IW I
30 . R
hy , = 92 S in a 2 , S in 02 Ces =2 , Los 4 2
Ry = - U i oy - 0 2 by, - 0 3 ay Ty - W/IW I
31 .
= Sin g Sin a, , Sin 9 3 Los a 3 , Cos 9 3
U 2 b, - U3d„ +W T„ .W/IW I
32. = - U l a„ -
;Jep honging facgg c7e for u e r 7icai ftc g s ag s.we a sZight euerhang in orale r
the the die directicn determinatz ) = R xy x + Ryiy + R„i ,
=
33. 91
, f„, = S in Ih, Sin aL, , S in ■tu Cos au , CosPe,
34 . R,b, + Ryhy + R„h , h2 = RA R::,,i .
92 =
oce g with auerhon h 3 = R,k„ + Ryky + Rb k;,
93 . R= d„ + Rydy + R zcls ,
35-
f3 = - Sin 0 4 Sin a,,,
g, - Sin :4,Cos - Co s 31 A 2I
= (91 - r 3 g 2 )A I /t 3 lAl l N2 = (92 - rsg l )A2/t
36 -
,g, = Cos 05 Sin ag , Cos 0 5 Cos ag , -Sin 0 5
37 . 5= k 3A 1 A2 /IAI A 2I /h 3
= Cos Sin ae , Cos 9g Co s a 6 , -Sin ,p,
5 20
52 1
If N, > 0, N, > 0 and S < 0, the active forces drive the wedge into the roc k
mass and there is no tendency to fall or slide . 57. Contact on plane 2, separation on planes 3 and 1 ,
The factor of safety has no meaninn and the wedg e Factor of Safety Fs = (N,Tan p2 + c,jA 2 I)/ S
is stable . Terminate computation .
Terminate computation .
If N I > 0, N 2 > 0 and S > 0, contact occurs an planes 1 and 2 with separation o
n
plane 3 - 58. N 3 = g3 A 3/IA3 I
Factor of safety F s (N I Tan p 1 59 . If N3 < 0, separation on plane 3, wedge is unstable since it falls out, floats out
+ c t! A II + N,Tan p 2 + c2I A 2I) / S or is forced out by water pressure- Terminate computation .
Terminate computation .
S x = Rx - g 3 d. , 5y = Rt, - g3 dy , 50 Rz - g 3d,
60 .
N 2 = (g2 - r i g 3 )A 2 /t 1I A 2I , N3 = ( g 3 - r i g 2 )A 3 /t 1I A 3 I
S = ^ A2A 3 61 . (S T 22 + 5y 2 + Sz 2 )
/JA A , 1 ✓t 1 s=
If N, 0, N 3 > 0 and 5 > 0, contact occurs on p lanes 2 and 3 wich separation o n For wedge defined by Zength w t of Grace of plane 3 an free fac e
plane 1 .
Calculation is identical to that described above except for the following step s
Factor of Safety F s = (N,Tan h 2 + c 2 IA 2 I + N,Tan p 3 + c 3I A 31 )/ 5
Step 5 - not require d
Terminate computation .
Step 7 - h' h.'y h'y = (Jydo f ..dy ) ( ' zdx f fdz) , (f..4y - fydd. )
N 3 = (g 3 - r, ai (A 3/ o ,133I , NI = (gl - r 2g 3 )A I /t 2I A i I
= (h' x2 + h'y22 - h' ') =
5= h 2 A 3 A 1/I A 3 A I j/t 2
hx , h y , hz = h'_/s , h' y /s , h' z /s
If N 3 > 0, N I > 0 and 5 < 0, same conditions apply as For step 38, wedge i s
stable . Terminate computation . Step 17 - not require d
If N 3 > 0, N I > 0 and S > 0, contact occurs on planes 3 and 1 with separation o n Step 18 - not required
plane 2 .
Step 19 - = W L/ jm l -m 2 J
Factor of Safety F s = (N 3 Tan p3+ 3I A 31 + N,Tan 91+ c I IA I J)/ 5
c
Terminate computation .
N I = g 1A Exam p le s
,/IA I I
If N I < 0, 2robCam 1 .
separation on plane 1, continue wich step 5 3
op'er -
A, '5 3 Py ca v5 "> q5 `-5
5x = Rx - g l a. , 5y = Ru - g l ay , Sz = PI e1 - °3 gang
(s,2 + 5y2 + S )- Ro - g iaz
no 90 180 45 90 0 0
45 240 45 120 45 0
s -
11 2 = g 2 A 2/IA2 1 Output
= 20 .41241 , A 3 = 40 .8248 3
If N 2 < 0, separation on plane 2, continue with step 5 8 A1 = 20 .41241, A2
w = 1 .5909 9
Sx = R - g 20x • 5y = - , S z = Rz - 5 = 0 .7115 1
g 2 by N I = 0 .9000 , N2 = 0 .9000
Imperia l Metric SI
an 2
Length 1 mil e 1 .609 km 1 .609 k m
_ntical to problem 1 except that overhang exist s 0 .3048 m 0 .3048 m
1 ft
Areas and wedge weight identical to problem 7 . 1 in 2 .54 cm 25 .40 mm
N3 = 1 .125 , S = 1 .12 5
Area 1 mile '- 2 .590 km 2 2 .590 km 2
Contact on plane 3 , separation on p lanes 1 and 2 1 acr e 0 .4047 hectare 4046 .9 m2
1 ft 2 0 .0929 m '- 0 .0929 m2
Factor of Safety F s 0 .5773 5 6 .452 cm'-
1 in 2 6 .452 cm 2
ove two cases represent opposite vertical faces of an excavation and show th e marked 0 .7646 m 3 0 .7646 m 3
Volume 1 yd '
ili ty of the wedge on one side as compared with the other . t3 0 .0283 m 3 0 .0283 m '
1 ft 3 28 .32 litres 0 .0283 m 3
1 UK gal . 4 .546 litres 4546 cm 3
1 US gal . 3 .785 litres 3785 cm 3
1 in ' 16 .387 cm3 16 .387 c m 3
Pressur e
= 0 .89273 A2 = 0 .93425 A3 = 2 .3109 8 15 .44 MP a
or stress 1 ton f/in '- 157 .47 kg f/cm 2
1 ton f/ft '- 10 .936 tonne firn = 107 .3 kP a
A = 0 .5436 1
1 lb f/in 2 0 .0703 kg f/cm '- 6 .895 kP a
NI = -0 . 34943 N, _ -0 .27181 N3 = -0 .44530 4 .882 kg f/m 2 0 .04788 kP a
1 lb f/ft 2
1 standar d 101 .325 kP a
al reactions are negative and hence wed g e falls out . 1 .033 kg f/m2
atmospher e
14 .495 16 f/in 2 1 .019 kg f/cm '- 1 ba r
1 ft water 0 .0305 kg f/cm'- 2 .989 kP a
1 in mercury 0 .0345 kg f/cm 2 3 .386 kP a
r. problem 3 but with no overhang .
Permeability 1 ft/year 0 .9659 x10 - '3 cm/ s 0 .9659 x 10 -e m/ s
4reas and weight of wedge identical to p roblem 3 .
N1 = 0 .31271 N, = 0 .05231 S = -0 .4147 6 0 .02832 m 3 / s
Rate of flow 1 ft 3 /s 0 .02832 m 3 / s
= fable under conditions defined in step 38 .
1 lbf f t 0 .1383 kgf m 1 .3558 N m
Moment
two cases represent wed g es in the roof (problem 3) and floor (problem 4) of an
1 ft lb f 1 .3558 J 1 .3558 J
Energy
1 c/ s 1 c/ s 1 Hz
Frequency
Si unit prefixe s
giga mega kilo min i micro nano pic o
Prefix tera
Symbol T G M k m u n P
10 6 l0 3 10 _ 3 10 _6 10 _0 10 31 2
Multiplier 10 12 10'
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more branches of the minerals industry-mining, metallurgy, mineral processing or geology . It is a founde r
member of the Council of Engineering Institutions and its corporate members are Chartered E ngineers . l t operate s
on a non-profit basis and organises regular technical meetings and symposia . The Institution also publishes book s
of interest to the minerals industry . Full details of the conditions of membership, future meetings and publication s
can be obtained from the Secretary, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 44 Portland Place, London W1 N 4BR ,
England .
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