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Structures with Coating and Cathodic

Protection
When steel structures corrode in an electrolyte, all four elements of the
electrochemical corrosion cell are present; anodes, cathode, metallic
path and the electrolyte.
Steel conducts electricity; steel provides its own metallic pathway
between the anodic and cathodic areas on the steel surface. Since
steel is not a perfectly uniform or homogeneous metal, a single steel
plate can have many tiny anodic and cathodic areas on its surface.
The anodic and cathodic areas are formed by areas on the surface of
the steel that differ (perhaps only slightly) from each other in their
electrical potential. Therefore, steel has three of the four elements
necessary to create a corrosion cell. These conditions exist in most
metals.
When bare steel becomes wet from dew or rain, the water will act as
an electrolyte. If the steel has been exposed to the atmosphere,
chemicals in the atmosphere and on the surface of the steel will
combine with the water to form an efficient electrolyte on the surface of
the steel.
Pure water by itself is a very poor electrolyte, but if salts (e.g., sodium
chloride in a marine environment) are present, the salts will dissolve in
the water, creating an electrolyte that becomes more aggressive as
concentration of the dissolved salts increases.
Frequently protective coatings are applied to these structures as the
first line of defense against corrosion.
Salt (sodium chloride) is present in the marine environment, in
produced water in oil and gas production, refining, and in the road
deicing salts used on many highways in the northern hemisphere.
Other common salts include sulfates derived from combustion products
of sulfurous industrial fuels; known as acid rain.
Corrosion on a steel surface may be aggravated by the presence of
mill scale. Mill scale can be seen on the surface of new steel in the

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form of blue-black layers of iron oxide, some of which is harder than

the parent metal. The mill scale is electrically positive (noble) relative
to the steel. That is mill scale is cathodic to the steel. In the presence
of moisture a corrosion cell is set up; the mill scale becomes cathodic
to the steel promoting corrosion on the anodic bare steel surface.
For this reason it is important to remove mill scale from steel surfaces
before applying protective coatings. If a protective coating is applied
over mill scale, corrosion of the steel surface would be encouraged
where moisture migrated through the protective coating and at
holidays. Active corrosion cells under the mill scale would be covered
with the protective coating helping to trap moisture and cause blisters
or disbonding of the coating.

Environmental Affects on the Corrosion

Rate
Corrosion rates are affected by environmental influences. Several
common environments recognized by corrosion control professionals
are:

Marine (offshore oil rig and ships)

Marine environments are very severe corrosion environments resulting
in very rapid corrosion rates.
Topside, above the splash zone, airborne salts, saltwater, and
chemical pollutants may serve to aggravate corrosion, see Figure 3-1.
Humidity and seawater provide electrolytes, which hasten the
corrosion process. Topside corrosion is often controlled with protective
coatings; however, cathodic protection generally is not applied.

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Figure 3-1 Marine Environment–Offshore Platforms

The splash zone area (generally defined as mid-tide level to 12 ft
above high tide) is known to suffer particularly high corrosion. In the
splash zone protective coatings and extra thicknesses of metal
(corrosion allowance) are used to protect the steel structures.
Cathodic protection has very little effect because of the wetting and
drying of the steel surface. There is very little time for cathodic
polarization.
Corrosion in the tidal zone is often controlled by protective coatings
combined with cathodic protection. When the steel structure is
underwater the cathodic protection system can be somewhat effective.
However, during low tide the steel structure is exposed to the
atmosphere where the protective coatings are necessary to protect the
steel structure.
Below the tidal zone steel structures are often protected with cathodic
protection, occasionally in conjunction with protective coatings. Below
the tidal zone cathodic protection can be effective and polarization of
the steel structure can occur. Repair to the coating system below the
water line is difficult. Coatings are used to minimize the surface area
to be protected. These coatings are typically applied before the

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structure is lowered to the seabed.

Figure 3-2 Marine Ship Corrosion

Ships and barges are protected from corrosion with coatings. Because
of the severe ocean going environment maintenance of these coating
is very important, see Figure 3-2. Above the waterline coatings are the
main defense against corrosion.
Below the waterline and in the bilge of the ship cathodic protection can
be effective. Frequently sacrificial anodes are attached to the exterior
hull of the ship. During coating maintenance these anodes can be
replaced as needed. Anodes placed in the bilge of the ship help to
prevent internal corrosion.

Industrial, high humidity (coastal oil refinery,

chemical plant)
Industrial environments are highly corrosive because of sulfur
containing combustion gases, fugitive emissions of chemicals, and
high humidity. Moisture in the air combines with the industrial
environment (gases) creating an acidic environment on the steel
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surface which can result is very aggressive corrosion, see Figure 3-3.
Coatings are generally used to protect steel structures in industrial
environments.
Coatings are used to protect underground piping. Cathodic protection
can be used to provide supplemental corrosion control for underground
piping.

Figure 3-3 Industrial Environments + High Humidity–Refinery

Industrial, low humidity (inland oil refinery)

Low humidity generally makes the environment a less corrosive than
high humidity locations. However, both gases and chemicals can
stimulate corrosion. Generally, coating can be used to effectively
control atmospheric corrosion. Figure 3-4 shows a typical inland power
plant.
Coatings are also used to protect underground piping. Cathodic
protection can be used to provide supplemental corrosion control for
underground piping.

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Figure 3-4 Chemical + Low Humidity Environment–Power Plant

Rural, low humidity (inland rural railroad bridge)

Rural environments tend to have the least aggressive corrosive
because clean air provides fewer airborne contaminants and large
amounts of moisture are not present to serve as an electrolyte.
Examples of rural low humidity environments are rural Arizona,
Wyoming, and West Texas. Other examples include desert oil facilities
in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia and most dry or non-industrialized areas.
Protective coatings and galvanizing are very effective in rural low
humidity environments.
Coatings are very effective in controlling atmospheric corrosion in this
environment. Figure 3-5 shows a rail road bridge protected with a
coating.
Coatings are used to protect underground piping. Cathodic protection
can be used to provide supplemental corrosion control for underground
piping.

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Figure 3-5 Rural Environment–Railway Bridge

Pipelines and Related Structures

Most new buried or submerged pipelines are coating and protected by
cathodic protection. In the United States the Office of Pipeline Safety
(OPS) of the U.S. Department of Transportation’s (US-DOT) Research
and Special Programs Administration (RSPA) regulates safety in the
design, construction, operation and maintenance, and spill response
planning for over 2.2 million miles of natural gas and petroleum
pipelines.
From the OPS website: The mission of the Office of Pipeline Safety
(OPS) of the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Research and
Special Programs Administration is to ensure the safe, reliable, and
environmentally sound operation of America's energy transportation
pipelines.

Code of Federal Regulations – Coating

Requirements
Today both 49 CFR Part 192 for gas pipelines and 49 CFR Part 195

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liquid pipelines require that new pipelines be coated. In addition,

coating performance is also described in these regulations.

Coating Performance
Performance requirements for external coatings are described in
Section 192.461 for gas pipelines. In general, these performance
requirements are a good idea for all buried or submerged pipeline
coating, even if the pipeline is not regulated.
Surface preparation is a very important step and often the most over
looked when applying a protective coating. The coating manufactures
recommendations should be followed as a minimum. Frequently,
owner specifications will call for additional surface preparation and
testing such as increased levels of cleaning (e.g. requiring a NACE
1/SSPC-SP5 white metal blast clean), measuring surface profile,
measuring surface salt contamination, and a phosphoric acid rinses.
Good surface preparation can enhance many of the properties needed
for good coating performance.
For buried or submerged piping surface adhesion is important.
Adhesion affects cathodic disbondment, under film creep, and
migration of water under the coating film.
Ductility and abrasion resistance are important in reducing damage to
the coating curing handling and installation. Abrasion resistance and
adhesion are also important to the preventing damage by soil stress.
Federal regulations (Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS)) require that
external protective coatings have all of these properties as given in the
section below from 49 CFR Part 192 for gas pipelines.

Sec. 192.461 External corrosion control: Protective

coating.
Each external protective coating, whether conductive or
insulating, applied for the purpose of external corrosion control
must-
a) Be applied on a properly prepared surface;
1) Have sufficient adhesion to the metal surface to
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effectively resist underfilm migration of moisture;

2) Be sufficiently ductile to resist cracking;
3) Have sufficient strength to resist damage due to
handling and soil stress; and
4) Have properties compatible with any supplemental
cathodic protection.
b) Each external protective coating which is an electrically
insulating type must also have low moisture absorption
and high electrical resistance.
c) Each external protective coating must be inspected just
prior to lowering the pipe into the ditch and backfilling,
and any damage detrimental to effective corrosion control
must be repaired.
d) Each external protective coating must be protected from
damage resulting from adverse ditch conditions or damage
from supporting blocks.
e) If coated pipe is installed by boring, driving, or other similar
method, precautions must be taken to minimize damage to
the coating during installation.
In addition 49 CFR Part 195 gives coating requirement is a question
and answer format. Section 195.559 describes the properties of the
coating.

Sec. 195.559 “What coating material may I use for

external corrosion control?”
Coating material for external corrosion control under Sec.
195.557 must—
a) Be designed to mitigate corrosion of the buried or
submerged pipeline;
b) Have sufficient adhesion to the metal surface to prevent
under film migration of moisture;
c) Be sufficiently ductile to resist cracking;

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d) Have enough strength to resist damage due to handling

and soil stress;
e) Support any supplemental cathodic protection; and
f) If the coating is an insulating type, have low moisture
absorption and provide high electrical resistance.
The OPS regulations also require cathodic protection of buried or
submerged pipelines.

Code of Federal Regulations – Cathodic Protection

Requirements
Sec. 195.563 Which pipelines must have cathodic
protection?
(a) Each buried or submerged pipeline that is constructed,
relocated, replaced, or otherwise changed …
(b) Each buried or submerged pipeline converted …
(c) All other buried or submerged pipelines that have an
effective external coating must have cathodic protection…
(d) Bare pipelines, breakout tank areas, and buried pumping
station piping must have cathodic protection in places where
regulations in effect …
The criteria used for determining the adequacy of the cathodic
protection is given in Section 195.571
Cathodic protection required by this subpart must comply with one
or more of the applicable criteria and other considerations for cathodic
protection contained in Paragraphs 6.2 and 6.3 of NACE Standard
RP0169. The three criteria defined are:
• A negative (cathodic) potential of at least 850 millivolts
with the cathodic protection applied. This potential is
measured with respect to a saturated copper-copper sulfate
reference electrode contacting the electrolyte. Voltage drops
other than those across the structure-to-electrolyte boundary
must be considered for valid interpretation of this voltage
measurement.

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• A negative polarized potential of a least 850 millivolts

relative to a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference
electrode.
• A minimum of 100 millivolts of cathodic polarization
between the structure surface and a stable reference
electrode contacting the electrolyte. The formation or decay
of polarization can be measured to satisfy this criterion.

Other Structures that can be Coating and

Cathodically Protected
Most metallic structures that are immersed or embedded in an
electrolyte, which is required for an electrochemical cell, can be
cathodically protected. Protective coatings can also be applied as part
of a corrosion control program. Examples of structures where coating
and cathodic protection is often employed include:
1. Above ground storage tanks (AST)(internal and soil side
bottoms)
Water can collect on the interior of storage takes causing
internal corrosion. In crude tanks water can separate from
the crude oil. This water also contains high levels of salt.
For product tanks such as gasoline tanks, water is carried
into the tank by the air entering the tank as the tank is
emptied. To protect the tank and minimize contamination of
the stored product the tank can be coated and protected with
cathodic protection. For crude tanks cathodic protection is
typically applied using sacrificial anodes. For large water
tanks (reservoirs) cathodic protection can be supplied by
impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP).
The bottom of the tank in contact with the soil can be
cathodically protected. In some cases the bottom of the tank
is coated to minimize the surface area to be protected. Only
the area of the tank in contact with the soil can be externally
cathodically protected. If settlement or “oil canning” caused
the tank bottom to lose contact with the soil, cathodic
protection may not be an effective means of corrosion

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control.

2. Underground storage tanks (UST)(internal and external)

Underground storage tanks can be externally protected from
corrosion with protective coatings and cathodic protection.
The exterior of the UST is normally coated with a protective
coating. Cathodic protection can be provided by sacrificial
anodes or impressed current cathodic protection.
As with ASTs water can collect inside a storage tank. To
protect the tank and minimize contamination of the stored
product, the tank can be coated and protected with cathodic
protection.
3. Vessels and tanks used for storing, transporting or treating
various products (usually internal)
Internal corrosion can be controlled using protective
coatings. When electrolytes are present cathodic protection
can also be applied.
Foundation reinforcing bars and other below ground
structures can be protected with protective coatings and
cathodic protection.
4. Water and sewer pipe
AWWA uses polyethylene film to protect cast iron piping. If
the cast iron is bonded together, cathodic protection can be
applied to the cast iron.
Pre-stressed concrete piping is also used for water and
sewer piping. The reinforcing bar can be protected by
cathodic protection if the piping is bonded together.
5. Water tank interiors and exteriors (in contact with soil)
Steel water tanks are internally coated. Cathodic protection
can also be applied to the interiors of water tanks.
6. Docks
Steel or galvanized docks can be coated and protected with
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cathodic protection. As with marine structures cathodic

protection is effective below the water and in the tidal zone.
7. Sheet piling
Sheet piling used for docks and river controls can be
protected from corrosion by the application of protective
coatings and cathodic protection.
8. Foundation piles on land and in the water
Driven piles for bridges and buildings can be coated for
external corrosion control. Where water is also present
cathodic protection can also help to mitigate corrosion on
pilings.
9. Bridge decks and substructures
Cathodic protection can be applied to bridge deck for the
protection of reinforcing steel.

Cautionary Note: It is possible to overprotect some materials such as

prestressed wire, lead, and aluminum. High cathodic protection
currents may cause hydrogen embrittlement in highly stressed steel
and may actually increase corrosion of amphoteric metals such as
aluminum and lead.

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