1.

0 INTRODCTION
1.1 About LPG
LPG is an acronym for liquefied petroleum gas, which is (are) hydrocarbon compound(s) which are
vapours at room temperature and pressure but can be converted to liquids through application of
pressure and lowering the temperatures extremely.
These gases/ vapours are either found as condensable products from natural gas at oil or gas fields
(natural gas liquids) or during the processing of crude oil particularly at the stabilization stage when
there is need to reduce the vapour pressure of the oil before shipping it. Another source of LPG is
from the refining activities of crude oil. The quantity here depends on the quality of crude feed
stock and also on the refining process.
The liquid formed by a particular amount of vapour occupies much less space as the vapour would.
This makes it advantageous to store and transport LPG as liquid but not necessarily cheaper because
of the cost involved in building special pressurised containers and systems to keep the LPG in its
liquid state. The liquid is vaporised whenever it is needed and put to use.

7281 litres
233 litres gas/air mixture
1 litre vapour under
Liquid stoichiometric
Fig A showing expansion of LPG vapour

LPG is a very useful compound with a wide variety of domestic and industrial applications.

1.2 Composition of LPG

LPG comprises mainly of C3 and C4 gases. These are hydrocarbons having three and four carbon
atoms per molecule. These hydrocarbons have the unique property of turning into liquid when
compressed moderately at ambient temperatures. The compounds usually found in LPG are Propane
C3H8, Propylene C3H6, Butane C4H10 and Butylene C4H8. However, depending on the source, LPG
may contain some elements in trace quantities such as ethane C 2H6, ethylene C2H4 and some
impurities.
It is not easy to determine the properties of LPG because LPG from different sources have different
compositions making up the mixture. For instance, LPG from distillation processes are usually
made up of saturated hydrocarbons Propane and Butane (both normal and isobutene).
On the other hand, LPG from cracking processes usually contains unsaturated C 3 and C4
hydrocarbons in their mixture i.e. Propylene C3H6, normal and iso-butylenes, Cis and trans
Butylenes. Because of this, what is usually available is an average or typical values of the properties
of the substance.

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However, certain standards have been laid down for which commercial LPG must meet. In the UK,
commercial LPG standards are covered by BS4250. These Standards state that for commercial
Propane it must:
- be a hydrocarbon mixture containing propane and propylene predominantly and must be free from
water and toxic substances
- not contain more than 5 mole percent of C2 gas and not more than 1 mole percent of ethylene.
- not contain more than 10 mole percent of C4 gases and not more than 2 mole percent C5 gases.
- have a vapour pressure of not more than 17kgfcm -2 at 45oC as determined by methods described in
BS3324 codes.
- be stenched and afterwards not contain more than 0.02 percent by weight of Sulphur, 92mg/m 3 at
STP of mercaptan sulphur and the hydrogen sulphide content must be below that which could be
detected by ‘Lead Sulphide stain’ detection method.
- not contain more than 2mole percent of acetylene and must have a distinct and unpleasant odour
which could be perceived for quantities of gas as low as 0.4% volume in air (this is for easy
detection of a leakage by smell).

These standards also state that for commercial Butane, it must:

- be a hydrocarbon mixture containing butane and butylene predominantly and must be free from
water and toxic substances.
- have a vapour pressure of not more than 5.0Kgfcm -2 at 22oC when stored and not more than 4.92
Kgfcm-2 when transported.
- have more than 10 mole percent of dienes.
- be stenched and afterwards not contain more than 0.02 percent by weight of Sulphur, 92mg/m 3 at
STP of mercaptan sulphur and the hydrogen sulphide content must be below that which could be
detected by ‘Lead Sulphide stain’ detection method.
- not contain more than 2mole percent of acetylene and must have a distinct and unpleasant odour
which could be perceived for quantities of gas as low as 0.9% volume in air (this is for easy
detection of a leakage by smell).
LPG could also be used for specialised applications and would require the substance to conform
to standards outside those set for commercial LPG. The LPG for such specialised applications are
usually odourless and must have a high degree of purity. Some of these applications include:

Food processing: LPG does not remain in a nutrient so it is not poisonous when in contact with
human food. However, there is need for it to have a high degree of purity, not containing any
substances that could be harmful when eaten.

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 For Use as aerosol Propellant and in cigarette lighters: for use as aerosol propellant an in cigarette
lighters, LPG must be odourless and free from residues and unsaturated hydrocarbons and have
regulated vapour pressures.

2.0 PROPERTIES OF LPG

2.1 Chemical Properties
Combustion of LPG: The complete combustion of LPG is governed by the equation CxHy +
(x+0.25y) O2 XCO2+0.5y H2O + Heat.
The combustion is usually associated with the increase in volume of products plus expansion due to
heat produced. Combustion of LPG requires large volume of air (about 24vol. of air/vol. of Propane
and 30vol. of air/vol. of Butane), and forms about 75% volume of C0 2 per volume of LPG. This is
why it is very essential that enough ventilation be provided when burning LPG to avoid suffocation
from lack of O2 and presence of excess CO2 n the air.
Calorific Value: This refers to the quality of heat released when a unit volume of fuel is combusted
under given conditions in a calorimeter. The calorific values for LPG (Propane and Butane) are very
high. Typically for propane, the CV is 50.24MJ/Kg and for Butane is 49.45 MJ/Kg.
Effect on Materials: LPG does not react with metals used for piping or storage but usually as a
precaution, the use of aluminium is employed in vapour system components. This is because
sometimes caustic soda carried over from the refining process is present and may affect the pipes.
But where very tight measures are taken to remove the caustic soda, then it would not be necessary
to use Aluminium in such systems.
For some non-metallic compounds however, the case is different. Natural rubber reacts with LPG to
become spongy while plastics become softer and brittle. For this reason, these materials must never
be used in systems for processing, storage and transport of LPG.

2.2 Physical Properties

Boiling Point and Critical Temperature: The constituent gases found in commercial LPG mixtures
all have very low boiling points. This is why they exist as vapour under atmospheric conditions
unless they have been liquefied or refrigerated. The typical boiling points for LPG components at 1
atmosphere are:
Propane -42.1oC n-Butane -0.5oC Mixtures Butane
-2oC
Commercial Propane -45oC iso-Butane -11.7oC ethylene -103.7oC
When LPG is kept at ambient temperature or at temperatures lower than its boiling point, its vapour
pressure will be equal to or less than atmospheric pressure. When kept at temperatures higher than
3
ambient temperatures, the vapour pressure of LPG increases with increasing temperature and in
order to liquefy the vapour, more pressure has to be applied. At a certain temperature, it will not be
possible to liquefy the vapour, no matter how much pressure is applied. Such a temperature is
known as the critical temperature. LOOK for table
Dew Point: Simply put, it is the temperature at which vapour LPG will condense. It is very essential
to keep the temperatures of all the LPG systems and units in the system at temperatures above the
dew point of the gases so as to avoid condensation of the gases. For propane, the dew point is very
low so condensation is not really a problem as it does not occur. For Butane however, there is
usually a need to lag the pipes carrying it especially if low ambient temperatures are expected if
condensation is to be avoided.
Flash Point: The temperature at which sufficient vapour that could mix with air and ignite heat is
applied is formed. For LPG, the flash point is about -76 oF. The flash point of a fuel helps in
assessing the risk of a fire for any fuel during storage or transport. Fuels with Flash Point less than
73oF are regarded as highly flammable for transport while those with a Flash Point of higher than
150oF are regarded as safe.
Latent heat of Vaporization: The quantity of heat required or absorbed by LPG molecules to enable
vaporisation to occur. When LPG vaporises naturally, the latent heat required is gotten from the
surrounding and the body of the liquid. This causes the liquid to cool down extremely. This process
is called auto refrigeration. For LPG, Latent heat is very important because a good knowledge of it
is required in designing the systems for vaporising and cooling of the gases.
Vapour pressure: This is the pressure which LPG can develop in a closed container. It is a measure
of the volatility of LPG. Vapour pressure increases with temperature and is usually equal to
atmospheric pressure at the boiling point of the liquid. The lower the boiling point of a liquid, the
greater the vapour pressure it will exert compared to another liquid with a higher boiling point
under the same conditions. This is why a vessel designed for Propane which has a lower boiling
point than Butane can be used comfortably for storing Butane but one designed for butane must
never be used for Propane.
Adequate information about the Vapour pressure of LPG enables for proper design of pressurised
systems such as tanks and cylinders.
Relative Density: in liquid form, LPG is lighter than water and other petroleum gases (about 0.5 to
0.52 for Propane and 0.57 to 0.58 for Butane). In the vapour phase, LPG is heavier than air (about
1.5 to 2 times heavier). This makes it difficult to disperse compared to other lighter gases. LPG will
always seek to cling to ground surfaces and enter drains, trenches and other low areas.

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 Co-efficient of cubic expansion: This refers to the increase in volume per unit volume per unit
degree rise in temperature of a substance. LPG expands considerably with temperature change
(Propane has a cubic expansion co-efficient of 0.0016 at 15 oC and Butane has 0.0011), about four
times greater than that of fuel oil and ten times greater than that of water. For this reason, it is
essential that enough space be provided for expansion of LPG contents in transport and storage
vessels and that the temperature of products in these vessels be accurately measured at all times to
avoid losses.
Flammability Limits: Gaseous fuels will only burn when mixed air proportions which lie between
two well defined limits called limits of flammability. The lower limit of flammability refers to the
smallest quantity of gas that will need to be present in a gas air mixture so that the mixture becomes
flammable when ignited.
When 1m3 of liquid LPG leaks, it expands to about 270m 3 of vapour LPG which mixes with air. For
this mixture to become flammable the ratio of the LPG to air must be 1/10. This is the lower
flammability limit of the gas. The gas air mixture will continue to be flammable until the ratio of
the LPG vapour to that of air is 1/50 when it becomes inflammable. This is known as the upper
flammability limit.
Viscosity: LPG in both its liquefied and gaseous state has a very low viscosity of about 15 cp at 15
O
C and flows with ease like water, petrol. This makes it easy for LPG to penetrate any break or
weakness in the installation. It is therefore necessary to employ special jointing compounds for LPG
installations. Viscosity is an important parameter for choosing pumps for liquid transfer and for
predicting pressure drop along flow lines.

Appendix 1 gives a summary of the properties of LPG Propane and Butane.

3.0 PRODUCTION OF LPG

3.1 Some background information.
The use of petroleum products dates back as far as 5000 years ago when the ancient Mesopotamians
used petroleum derived Tar like compounds for many applications like caulking, masonry and as
adhesives for jewellery. However, the basic principle of separating petroleum into various fractions

5
 based on their boiling points and other distinctive properties was only discovered about 2000 years
ago by some Arab scientists. In modern times, petroleum refining is considered to have begun in
1859 with the discovery and drilling of oil in Pennsylvania by Sennaca Company, producing about
305 metric tonnes of oil from the well.
In 1910, a car owner in Pittsburgh asked a chemist by the name of Dr. Walter Snelling why the
gasoline he purchases for his car was always ‘disappearing’ so fast. Dr. Snelling discovered that a
large part of the Gasoline was composed of LPG. He then separated, using a still and other
equipment, gasoline into its liquid and gaseous components, hence LPG was produces. Since then,
other methods have been developed for producing LPG and today LPG production is an industry
worth more than £12 Billion world over.
3.2 Raw Materials: There are no raw materials used to produce LPG, rather, they are found in
petroleum chemical mixtures deep under the earth surface. These petroleum mixtures are rock oil,
combinations of different hydrocarbon rich fluids which accumulate in reservoirs built of porous
layers of sandstone and carbonate rocks.
3.3 The Production Process: LPG production simply involves separation and collection of the gas
from its petroleum sources. The two methods of extracting LPG from petrochemical mixtures are
by separation from the natural gas phase during drilling of petroleum and secondly by refinement of
crude oil. The following outline the process involved in LPG production.

LPG from Refinement of crude:

- when underground oil fields are tapped, the gas–oil mixture is piped out of the well and into a gas
trap to separate the mixture into crude oil and wet gas(comprises natural gasoline LPG and natural
gas).
- Crude being the heavier sinks to the bottom of the trap and is pumped into oil storage tanks for
refining processes during which it undergoes a lot of complex chemical processes like crude
distillation, catalytic cracking, etc. LPG is produced during refinement of crude by distillation of
the crude. The LPG produced is then sent to a gas sweetening unit where DEA is used to sweeten
the gas before it is cooled and sent to storage. The LPG produced from refining crude oil is small
compared to that isolated from the wet gas mixture.

LPG from WET GAS mixture

- wet gas from the gas trap is sent into a gasoline absorption plant which employs the use of
absorption oil to remove to remove natural gasoline and LPGs after cooling the wet gas. The
remaining product is known as dry gas and is about 90% Methane. It is usually piped to gas utility
companies for distribution to towns and cities.
- the absorbing oil (saturated with hydrocarbons) is distilled to remove the mixture of hydrocarbons
(known as wild gasoline). The absorption liquid is then sent back to the absorber for reuse. The
6
 wild gasoline is then sent to a stabilizer column where the liquid gasoline is removed from the
bottom and the mixture of LPGs is drawn of the top. LPG makes up about 10% of the total gas
mixture.
3.4 By Products/waste: When producing LPG, a variety of by products that are economically useful
are also produced. So it would be more appropriate to think of these products as co- products rather
than as by- products. These co-products could be solids or semi solids such as Bitumen, or gases
such as methane, or liquids such as crude oil. Crude oil is the most valuable of these co-products as
it could be refined further to give a variety of products. Other co-products of LPG production are
useful in gasoline refining, synthetic rubber manufacture and production of petrochemicals.

Fig B Shows processes involved in producing LPG from Crude (8)

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4.0 STORAGE
The main advantage LPG has over most other fuels is that it can be used a gaseous fuel with all the
advantages (low emissions, high calorific value, low corrosive action on pipes etc) and be stored as
liquid with high energy density. However, at ambient temperature, the natural vapour pressure is
high and thus creates the need for specialised storage systems that can withstand such high
pressures. These vessels are usually in the form of pressure vessels or refrigerated storage. In the
case of refrigerated storage, the liquid is cooled so that its vapour pressure is only slightly above
atmospheric. Economics show that it is only profitable to store LPG using this technique if the
quantity is 5000 tonnes and above.
For pressure vessels, whether storage is at consumer’s place or at large storage depots, the same
principle apply when designing the vessels to store LPG.
For all kinds of storage systems, the integrity of the vessel is key, especially when used by
consumers. For this reason, various codes of practice have been produced in different regions of the
world which cover LPG storage. Theses codes whether from the UK (such as LPGITA, IGE,
ROSPA) or from the US (such as ASME, NFPA), give recommendations covering the following
areas in LPG storage.
i) Vessel design and fittings, ii) Sitting and Installations, iii) Electrical installations, iv) Fire
protection.
i) Vessel design and fittings: when designing vessels for LPG storage, the most important thing to
consider is the pressure to which they will be subjected by the LPG they will store. The pressure
in LPG vessels is usually governed by the LPG liquid surface temperature which is in turn
governed by the ambient temperature. Various codes of practice exist to govern vessel design for
different regions. These codes are usually developed based on the historical data for ambient
temperature of that region. For the UK, LPPGITA recommends that bulk storage and transport
vessels be designed using 55oC as reference temperature, but in other regions such as America or
Middle East where there are higher ambient temperatures, this recommendation cannot be used.
Perhaps the most important fitting for any LPG storage vessel is the pressure relief valve. It helps
prevent excess pressure caused by over filling, thermal expansion of the liquid or excessive
heating of the vessel due to external fire. This relief valve must be able to discharge LPG vapour
at a rate that can match that of vaporization during the scenarios mentioned above.

8
 LPGITA, NFPA58 and IPC9 suggest that all pressure relief valves must be able to discharge
vapour at a rate Q= 53.632 x A.
Where ‘A’ is vessel external area in square feet. For buried vessels, the rate is required to be 0.3Q
Another important fitting is the Fixed maximum liquid level gauge. This fitting helps to prevent
storage vessels from getting over filled. Because of thermal expansion, it is required that 3% of the
vessel volume be left empty. This fitting helps in achieving this requirement. Other fitting such as
drain point for draining out liquid, earthing for protection against electricity, and bunds are also
used in vessels storing LPG
ii) Sitting and Installations: Leakage from LPG pressure storage always results in a vapour release
and in vapour form, LPG is heavier than air so catch pit or bund used for this liquid is undesirable.
Maximum ventilation is the aim, this is why it is preferred that storage tank locations be selected
so as to minimise the potential hazards from and to d sorroundings.
When sitting an LPG storage facility, the following should be put into consideration.
- The storage shall be in open air to allow for good ventilation.
- Distance from residential areas: preferably, the larger the storage, the greater their distance
should be from any fixed source of ignition or residential areas. This is so because possibility of
a fire depends on how far the leaked vapour will have to travel before it gets to a source of
ignition and in the event that a fire does occur, there is a greater threat to the residential areas.
- Availability of Space for future expansion and addition of storage installations.
- Easy accessibility for fire fighting team and their equipment
- Contour of the ground: Storage facilities/ installations should be uphill of a process, a source of
ignition or residential area; they should not be sited in natural depressions so as not to encourage
formation of gas pockets heavier than air.
- Trenches and Drainages system: any trenches leading outside the storage area should have walls
or bunds at the boundary between the storage area and the surrounding environment and should
be built with vented gas traps so as to stop any for from spreading via the drained content of the
environment and to prevent the discharge of the products into other drainage systems.
- Prevailing wind: any escaping gas would travel or be carried by the wind blowing in a directed.
So it is safe practice to consider the direction the wind travels so that escaping gas wouldn’t get
carried to an ignition course.
iii) Electrical Equipment: static electricity could be a source of ignition for many hydrocarbon
vapours, LPG vapours being one of them. It is thus very essential for LPG storage vessels to be
earthed an all pipe works should have electrical continuity. Static from electrically charged
transport vehicles could also be a source of ignition of LPG vapour. This is why it is essential

9
 that transport vehicles be connected to a vessel’s earthing point before a hose is connected from
the vehicle to the storage vessel while transferring LPG from the vessel to the vehicle.
iv) Fire protection: certain measures have to be put in place to help control the spread of a fire in
the event that a fire does occur. These measures include water spray cooling system (simple
water hose could be employed for small vessels) which helps in cooling down the vessel surface
so that excess heat from the fire does not cause the integrity of the vessel to fail. Another of such
measures is the use of insulations to reduce the rate at which the vessel is heated up by
surrounding fire thereby reducing rate of vaporization which in turn reduces the rate at which gas
is vetted out of the storage vessel by the relief valve. Insulations can only be used for large
storage vessels which employ liquid withdrawal, and must able to protect the vessel from fire for
at least one hour before fire fighters arrive, it must protect the vessel from corrosion due to
moisture and dew from the atmosphere and must not retain any moisture, it must allow for
inspection of the vessel’s shell integrity and the insulation must not be dislodged by water
streams from water sprayers and must not obstruct such streams.

4.1 Types Of Storage And Storage Vessels: Basically, there are two ways of storing LPG in vessels;
Ambient temperature storage and refrigerated storage. To store LPG at ambient temperatures, the
storage vessel must be pressurised to avoid vaporization of the liquid LPG. The fabrication of
such vessels, whether mobile or fixed type is covered by Codes of Practice, such as LPGA ‘Health
and Safety’ (HS-G/34).
On the other hand, to store LPG under atmospheric pressure would require the use of refrigerated
storage so as to keep the temperature well below the boiling point of the liquid and prevent
vaporization. The table below shows the various kinds of vessels that are used for Ambient
temperature and Refrigerated storage.
4.1.1 Pressure storage vessels.
For pressurised storage of LPG, the following types of vessels are employed.
CYLINDRICAL STORAGE VESSELS: These storage tanks also called Bullet-shaped vessels, are
designed for use with low operating pressure and relatively low storage capacity between 0.5 – 100
tonnes. The vessel has hemispherical or dished ends can be mounted horizontally or vertically
depending on the availability of space.
Vapour
return line

10
 Relief valve

One valve to
slope
be remote

Max 2ft
Sliding foot

Fixed
foot
Fig C1 A cylindrical vessel. Fig C2 Piping of a
cylindrical vesel
SPHERICAL STORAGE VESSELS: These are normally used for large storage capacities between
100-200 tons. Construction of such vessels is usually on site. In accordance with safety regulations,
these tanks must be equipped with the necessary fittings such as pressure relief valves, cooling and
fire fighting systems, etc. Figures below show a spherical tank. They are widely used in refineries
and large inland depot and considered to be most economical LPG storage vessel.
Relief valve Vapour return line

Maximum level

One valve to be
slope remote operated

Max 2ft

slope
Fig D1 Spherical Storage vessel (11) Fig D2 Piping of a Spherical
Vessel

4.1.2 Refrigerated storage

This type of storage is used when a very large storage capacity is required. The tanks’ storage
capacity is in excess of 2000 tons. The tanks could either be single-skinned dome roof tanks with
external insulation, cylindrical or spherical as used in pressurised storage when storage is at
moderately low temperature and near atmospheric pressure. For high storage pressure and
moderately low temperature, double-skinned dome roof tanks are popularly employed. They are
mounted either above or below ground.

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 ABOVE GROUND DOUBLE-SKINNED CYLINDRICAL TANKS: When storing a large volume
of LPG at atmospheric or slightly above atmospheric pressure, double skinned cylindrical tank with
dome roof is the most suitable option. This tank is available in various capacities from 80,000 m3 up
to 105,000 m3. Typical construction of the double skinned cylindrical tanks is in appendix 2.
Similar to spherical tanks, the double-skinned cylindrical tanks are also equipped with necessary
safety appurtenances such as pressure relief valves, foam system, and the likes. In addition, the dike
or bund wall sufficient to contain spillage of the largest tank must be constructed around the tank.
4.1.3 Caverns.
Under suitable ground conditions, underground LPG storage offers an alternative to vessel storage.
It is considered as safe and most economical way of oil and gas preservation. The gas storage
design relies on the principles that hydrostatic pressure in surrounding rock is more than the escape
pressure of the stored gas.

MINED CAVERNS are caverns created by blasting a suitable quality rock formation. The rock
must not permit the entry of water or leak out of gas. The cavern must be purged first before LPG is
pumped into it.

SALT DOME CAVERNS are naturally occurring. A well is drilled into high purity natural salt
formation and water is then injected into it to dissolve the surrounding salt up to a desired volume.
A huge excavated overhead water curtain gallery is built to maintain the gas storage pressure.

12
 Access into the cavern is via a waterproofed shaft.

Fig E salt dome cavern (10)

5.0 TRANSPORTATION OF LPG.

LPG could be transported from its production point to bulk distribution terminals using a variety of
modes of transport such as pipelines, railroad, barge, and truck or tanker ship.

5.1 Pipelines: Pipelines are convenient means of transfer of massive quantities of LPG from the
refineries either to the secondary bulk supply plants located in highly industrialized location or to a
very large customer organization like power plant. Pipelines must be fitted with appropriate lagging
and earthing for safety and loss prevention purposes.

5.2 Rail and Road Trucks: In the late 1920s Rail cars were introduced as a means of transporting
large LPG quantities which are too small to be moved by pipelines. Bulk shipment is done in a
special pressure vessel with 40-50 tonnes capacities. The vessels are fitted with necessary uploading
facilities based on safety specification. Supply via rail transport was however limited to areas
around the train terminals. Road trucks were later used for distribution of relatively small quantities
of about 33,000 to 41,600 Litres of LPG from the refinery or secondary supply to the locally placed

Unloading system 13
 customers or to the retail fuelling station. These trucks usually carry their own on board unloading
system to facilitate quick unloading of the product.

Fig F1 LPG transport truck (7)

2 Vapor Eliminator
3 Meter
4 Differential Regulator
5 Manual Shut-off Valve
6 Bypass Valve
7 Tachometer
8 Power Take-Off Control
9 Throttle Control
10 Tank Outlet Valve Control
11 Hydrostatic Relief Valve
13 Liquid Delivery Hose
14 Vapor Return Hose
15 Thermometer
17 Rotary Liquid Level Gage

5.3 Sea Transport: in ships, LPG is transported in liquid formFig

andF2at
showing unloading
pressures highersystem
than on board a
truck (7)
atmospheric or at temperatures lower than ambient temperatures or a combination of both. LPG
carrier ships are divided into Pressurised, Semi pressurised, Semi refrigerated Semi pressurised-
Fully refrigerated Fully-refrigerated and Insulated. The table below outlines the features as well as
advantages and disadvantages of each category.

Table 1 Showing features of various types of LPG cargo ships.

Vessel/ carrier Capaci Design Advantages Disadvantages

Type ty Pressure and
Temperature

Pressurised 2000 17.5kg cm-2, -Needs no re-liquefaction -Very heavy because of their
m3 45oC plant. thick tank wall.
-Simple and easy operations Cannot carry as much LPG as a
14
 -No insulation is required as refrigerated vessel of similar
cargo is carried at ambient size
temperature Un optimized utilization of
ship space.

Fully 101000 0.28kg cm-2, Can transport very large Costs more to build compared
Refrigerated m3 -50oC quantities of LPG, with good to other vessels.
utilization of ship’s available
hold space.

Insulated Light in weight so it can carry Storage tanks have little

more LPG strength

Semi Betwee 5-8 kg cm-2, Can carry more cargo than Quite complex on board
pressurized, n 5000 -10 to -48oC Pressurised ships, operations.
semi to Relatively lighter in weight Requires on board re-
refrigerated and 12000 Liquefaction plant
semi pressurised m3 Requires Insulation
fully
refrigerated

Fig G An LPG cargo ship (9)

6.0 CYLINDER FILLING PLANT:

LPG for small scale industrial use and for domestic use is normally stored in either steel cylinders
or small bulk fixed storage tanks ready for use. The filling of these small cylinders is carried out in
special small filling plants called cylinder or bottle filling plants. These plants need to be equipped
with special units to carry out this task. Cylinders or bottles are usually filled by weight. Scales with
automatic trip-valves, such as those shown in Figure below are widely used. For larger operations,
the pump size depends on the number of bottles to be filled at any one time. The design of the

15
 plants varies according to levels of automation and complexity, but their principle of operation is
the same.
Basically, a cylinder filling plant consists of a storage tank(s) with capacity range according to
customer demand, pumps for filling the cylinders at filling points, a supervision System for reading
of levels of Temperature, pressure and liquid level reading in the tank(s), pump room composed of
compressors and pumps for product transfer, transfer points with complete off-loading arms for
liquid and vapour phase, a cylinder requalification unit for cylinders maintenance (complete with
devices for palletising, shot blasting, hydraulic testing and LPG cylinders water/powder painting,
tear marking and sealing), and an optional LPG evacuation unit from cylinders.

Figure H1 and H2 Cylinder filling Machine (7)

To ensure safety, the plant must be fully equipped with fire fighting equipment. The fire fighting
equipment required include: water injection pumps, hydrant, etc, an effective and sensitive Gas and
temperature alarm system with field sensors connected to main alarm board.

7.0 APPLICATIONS OF LPG

7.1 Industrial Application: LPG is a pure, clean energy source, which provides even and controllable
heat. This makes it the ideal heat and power source for a wide range of industrial uses. Such as fuel
for furnace, fire heaters etc.

16
7.2 Agriculture/ Horticulture: Clean burning LPG is particularly useful where livestock or food
crops are involved and because it can be supplied in bulk for tank storage, LPG is invaluable in
rural areas - often far from the source of traditional fuels and meets the needs of Agriculturists and
Horticulturists who are always looking for dependable energy solutions to increase output and
improve the quality of their produce.
7.3 LPG as an automobile fuel: LPG is known to have lower emission levels than any other fuel, has a
high octane rating (between 90 and 110) and very high energy content. It is widely known as auto
gas and is widely used for internal combustion engines. LPG vehicles are quicker to fill and LPG
tanks are both lighter and give more miles between refuelling than Natural Gas.

7.4 Domestic Uses: Because of its High calorific value (94 MJ/m³), higher than natural gas (methane)
(38 MJ/m³) LPG is greatly utilized as a cooking fuel and for central heating. It is also used in
‘umbrella-style’ terrace heaters in fancy restaurants and inns as it provides a greater opportunity for
outside dining.

Elevated Flaming Torch lights with the LPG supply housed at the base of the light are now
replacing conventional street lights.

7.5 For refrigeration and Air-conditioning: Highly refined LPG with very high level of purity and
properly stenched (usually propane) can be effectively employed as a replacement refrigerant in
systems designed to use CFC-12, R-22 and R-134a as refrigerants. LPG is instrumental in providing
off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption refrigerator.

Blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (refrigerant designator R-290a ) and isobutane (R-600a) have
negligible Ozone depletion potential and very low Global Warming Potential However, because of
its high flammability, such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air
conditioning systems so as to avoid the risk of fire or explosion

8.0 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

8.1 LPGs are extremely flammable and for this reason there is an inherent risk of fire when handling
the substance. It is thus very essential that Personnel who handle or use LPGs be informed of the
potential hazards and the necessary safe handling procedures and precautions. Also, because of
their low boiling points, LPGs can cause cold burns. Propane (boiling point -42°C) presents a

17
 greater hazard than the butanes. Various codes of practice describe the safe sampling of LPG.
However the following are very important things to know when handling LPG:
- In order to prevent cold burns, contact with liquid and with containers or delivery lines from
which LPG has just been drawn, should be avoided except with the use of suitable protective
clothing,
- Where there is a risk of exposure to high vapour concentrations either from leakage or during a
process, respiratory protection breathing apparatus should be worn to avoid inhalation of LPG
vapours.
- Use of suitable eye protection such as goggles and/or face-shield should be employed to protect
the eyes when handling the liquid.
-Sometimes LPG remains trapped in the fibres of clothing when it spills on it and may be ignited
later, for example, when the wearer enters a warm room or by static, giving rise to a fire hazard. So
clothing which has had liquid LPG spilt on it should be removed as soon as possible
-The use of protective clothing such as impervious gloves, overalls or apron and face-shield and/or
goggles, protective footwear hearing protection should be worn when in cylinder filling plants and
when handling cylinders..
-LPG has a dissolving effect on petroleum and rubber products and as such, these products must not
be used in LPG systems so that do not adversely deteriorate under operating conditions.
- In the event of a liquid spillage, efforts should be made, for example with water fog sprays, to
direct the flow of vapour to a safe location. Because of fire and explosion hazards, persons should
be evacuated and not be allowed to re-enter the area until it has been declared safe by a competent
person. The possible accumulation of potentially explosive/flammable atmospheres and of high
concentrations which could lead to asphyxiation, occurring in confined spaces or low lying areas
must be recognized.
- Storage of LPG should be outdoors or in adequately ventilated storerooms. Some situations might
warrant for the cylinders to be kept inside a building such as in use for space heating. In such
situations, only the cylinder in use should be kept inside the building. Sources of ignition should be
kept well away from the LPG cylinders in storage.
- LPG cylinders should not be stored close to pressurised oxygen cylinders.
- Emergency response plans should be developed for each depot and filling plant.
Disposal of LPG: There is often very little need to dispose of LPG this is because:
- LPG is highly volatile under normal ambient temperature and pressure conditions.
- End uses for LPGs result in their combustion, when used as fuels, incorporation into other
chemical structures when used as chemical feedstock or their dispersion into the atmosphere, when

18
used as aerosol propellants. For these reasons, there are no specific recommendations regarding
disposal. Uncontrolled combustion should however be avoided.

REFERENCES

1. Connor, N.E. LPG: Module 1 Lecture note. School of Computing, Science & Engineering,
University of Salford. Greater Manchester. UK. 2007

2. Williams A.F, and Lom W.L., LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GASES. Guide to Properties,
Application and Uses: 2nd Ed. - Revised and Extended. Ellis Horwood. Chichester. 1982

3. Glennon E., Gas service technology 1, Basic science and practice of gas service. Benn
Technical Books, Croydon. 1994.

4. http://shelbygas.com/shelbygas/history.html (Accessed on 21st November 2009)

5. http://en.wikiepedia.com/LPG (Accessed on 21st November 2009)

6. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/marine/articles/41077.aspx?image=18390
(Accessed 16th November 2009)
7. Blackmer Dover Company, Liquefied gas Handbook, 2008 edition
8. http://www.madehow.com (Accessed 10th November, 2009)
9. http://www.maritime-connector.com/Administration/_Upload/LargeImages/lng1.jpg
(Accessed on 21st November 2009)
10. http://www.aglresources.net/about/gt/SaltDomeStorage.jpg (Accessed on 21st November
2009)
11. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Gaskessel_gr.jpg/140px-
Gaskessel_gr.jpg (Accessed 10th November, 2009)

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 APPENDIX 1
SUMMARY OF LPG PROPERTIES

PROPERTY PROPANE
n-BUTANE

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