Computer-mediated communication

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is defined as any communicative

transaction that occurs through the use of two or more networked computers. While the
term has traditionally referred to those communications that occur via computer-mediated
formats (e.g., instant messages, e-mails, chat rooms), it has also been applied to other
forms of text-based interaction such as text messaging. Research on CMC focuses largely
on the social effects of different computer-supported communication technologies. Many
recent studies involve Internet-based social networking supported by social software.

Scope of the field

Scholars from a variety of fields study phenomena that can be described under the
umbrella term of CMC (see also Internet studies). For example, many take a
sociopsychological approach to CMC by examining how humans use "computers" (or
digital media) to manage interpersonal interaction, form impressions and form and
maintain relationships. These studies have often focused on the differences between
online and offline interactions, though contemporary research is moving towards the view
that CMC should be studied as embedded in everyday life.

Language learning

CMC is widely discussed in language learning because CMC provides opportunities for
language learners to practice their language. For example, Warschauer conducted several
case studies on using email or discussion boards in different language classes.
Warschauerclaimed that information and communications technology “bridge the historic
divide between speech … and writing”. Thus, considerable concern has arisen over the
reading and writing research in L2 due to the booming of Internet.

School of Foreign Languages

The Department of Foreign Languages was established in 2002 with an objective to

develop a university education of the twenty-first century and to cultivate specialists in
the field of economics and financial translations. The department was sanctioned by the
Ministry of Education, evolving from the former Foreign Languages Teaching
department.

The faculty has more than 40 teachers including English, Japanese, Russian and French
nationals. Among them, there are seven associate professors, many senior lecturers
majoring in English, finance, accounting and law, foreign experts and visiting professors.

The department offers bachelor degrees to students majoring in Financial English.

Graduates of the department have a mastery of the English language and a professional
knowledge of finance and economics. They are fluent in the use of English in the fields
of finance, banking, accounting, trade and insurance.

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Learner-internal factors

The study of learner-internal factors in SLA is primarily concerned with the question:
How do learners gain competence in the target language? In other words, given effective
input and instruction, with what internal resources do learners process this input to
produce a rule-governed interlanguage?

Vocabulary acquisition

The vocabulary acquisition is a critical part in Second language learning.

Critical period research to date

How children acquire native language (L1) and the relevance of this to foreign language
(L2) learning has long been debated. Although evidence for L2 learning ability declining
with age is controversial, a common notion is that children learn L2s easily and older
learners rarely achieve fluency. This assumption stems from ‘critical period’ (CP) ideas.
A CP was popularised by Eric Lenneberg in 1967 for L1 acquisition, but considerable
interest now surrounds age effects on second language acquisition (SLA). SLA theories
explain learning processes and suggest causal factors for a possible CP for SLA, mainly
attempting to explain apparent differences in language aptitudes of children and adults by
distinct learning routes, and clarifying them through psychological mechanisms.
Research explores these ideas and hypotheses, but results are varied: some demonstrate
pre-pubescent children acquire language easily, and some that older learners have the
advantage, and yet others focus on existence of a CP for SLA. Recent studies (e.g.
Mayberry and Lock, 2003) have recognised that certain aspects of SLA may be affected
by age, though others remain intact. The objective of this study is to investigate whether
capacity for vocabulary acquisition decreases with age.

A review of SLA theories and their explanations for age-related differences is necessary
before considering empirical studies. The most reductionist theories are those of Penfield
and Roberts (1959) and Lenneberg (1967), which stem from L1 and brain damage
studies; children who suffer impairment before puberty typically recover and (re-)develop
normal language, whereas adults rarely recover fully, and often do not regain verbal
abilities beyond the point reached five months after impairment. Both theories agree that
children have a neurological advantage in learning languages, and that puberty correlates
with a turning point in ability. They assert that language acquisition occurs primarily,
possibly exclusively, during childhood as the brain loses plasticity after a certain age. It
then becomes rigid and fixed, and loses the ability for adaptation and reorganisation,
rendering language (re-)learning difficult.

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Modern German

When Martin Luther translated the Bible (the New Testament in 1522 and the Old
Testament, published in parts and completed in 1534), he based his translation mainly on
the bureaucratic standard language used in Saxony (sächsische Kanzleisprache), also
known as Meißner-Deutsch (German from the city of Meissen). This language was based
on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the
grammatical system of Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in
Central and Upper Germany, which already at that time began to lose the genitive case
and the preterit). In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region,
which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics
rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic
standard (gemeines Deutsch) — which, however, only differed from "Protestant German"
in some minor details. It took until the middle of the 18th century to create a standard that
was widely accepted, thus ending the period of Early New High German.

Reform of 1996 and beyond

The German spelling reform of 1996 led to public controversy and considerable dispute.
Some state parliaments (Bundesländer) would not accept it (North Rhine Westphalia and
Bavaria). The dispute landed at one point in the highest court, which made a short issue
of it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in schools could
the reform be made the official rule—everybody else could continue writing as they had
learned it. After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major yet
incomplete revision was installed in 2006, just in time for the coming school year. In
2007, some traditional spellings were finally invalidated even though they caused little or
no trouble. The only sure and easily recognizable symptom of a text's being in
compliance with the reform is the -ss at the end of words, such as dass and muss. Classic
spelling forbade this ending, instead using daß and muß. The cause of the controversy
evolved around the question of whether a language is part of the culture which must be
preserved or a means of communicating information which has to allow for growth.

German as a foreign language

Knowledge of the German language in Europe.

Knowledge of German as a foreign language (second language in Luxembourg) in the

EU member states (+Croatia and Turkey), in per cent of the adult population (+15), 2005.

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By the High German consonant shift, the map of German dialects is divided into Upper
German (green), Central German (blue), and the Low German (yellow). The main
isoglosses and the Benrath and Speyer lines are marked black.
Distribution of the native speakers of major continental West-Germanic dialectal
varieties. German is the third-most taught foreign language in the English-speaking
world, after French and Spanish German is the main language of about 90–95 million
people in Europe (as of 2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the second most spoken
native language in Europe after Russian, above French (66.5 million speakers in 2004)
and English (64.2 million speakers in 2004). It is therefore the most spoken first language
in the EU. It is the second most known foreign language in the EU. It is one of the
official languages of the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the
European Commission, along with English and French. Thirty-two percent of citizens of
the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German (either as a mother tongue or as a
second or foreign language). This is assisted by the widespread availability of German
TV by cable or satellite.

Verb prefixes

There are also many ways to expand, and sometimes radically change, the meaning of a
base verb through a relatively small number of prefixes. Some of those prefixes have a
meaning themselves (Example: zer- refers to the destruction of things, as in
zerreißen = to tear apart, zerbrechen = to break apart, zerschneiden = to cut apart), others
do not have more than the vaguest meaning in and of themselves (Example: ver- , as in
versuchen = to try, vernehmen = to interrogate, verteilen = to distribute, verstehen = to
understand). More examples: haften = to stick, verhaften = to imprison; kaufen = to buy,
verkaufen = to sell; hören = to hear, aufhören = to cease; fahren = to drive, erfahren = to
get to know, to hear about something.

Vocabulary
Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European
language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Latin
and Greek, and a smaller amount from French and most recently English. At the same
time, the effectiveness of the German language in forming equivalents for foreign words
from its inherited Germanic stem repertory is great. Thus, Notker Labeo was able to
translate Aristotelian treatises in pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year
1000. Overall, German has fewer Romance-language loanwords than English or even
Dutch.

The coining of new, autochthonous words gave German a vocabulary of an estimated

40,000 words as early as the ninth century. In comparison, Latin, with a written tradition
of nearly 2,500 years in an empire which ruled the Mediterranean, has grown to no more
than 45,000 words today.

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Language learning

CMC is widely discussed in language learning because CMC provides opportunities for
language learners to practice their language. For example, Warschauerconducted several
case studies on using email or discussion boards in different language classes.
Warschauerclaimed that information and communications technology “bridge the historic
divide between speech … and writing”. Thus, considerable concern has arisen over the
reading and writing research in L2 due to the booming of Internet.

Interlanguage

Interlanguage is a term coined by Selinker (1972). Interlanguage scholarship seeks to

understand learner language on its own terms, as a natural language with its own
systematic rules. Interlanguage scholars reject, at least for heuristic purposes, the view of
learner language as merely an imperfect version of the target language. Interlanguage
work is a vibrant microcosm of linguistics. It is possible to apply an interlanguage
perspective to learners' underlying knowledge of the target language sound system
(interlanguage phonology), grammar (morphology and syntax), vocabulary (lexicon), and
language-use norms found among learners (interlanguage pragmatics).

By describing the ways in which learner language conforms to universal linguistic norms,
interlanguage research has contributed greatly to our understanding of linguistic
universals in SLA. See below, under "linguistic universals".

Social effects

The process of language learning can be very stressful, and the impact of positive or
negative attitudes from the surrounding society can be critical. One aspect that has
received particular attention is the relationship of gender roles to language achievement.
Studies across numerous cultures have shown that women, on the whole, enjoy an
advantage over men. Some have proposed that this is linked to gender roles. Doman
(2006) notes in a journal devoted to issues of Cultural affects on SLA, "Questions abound
about what defines SLA, how far its borders extend, and what the attributions and
contributions of its research are. Thus, there is a great amount of heterogeneity in the
entire conceptualization of SLA. Some researchers tend to ignore certain aspects of the
field, while others scrutinize those same aspects piece by piece."

Community attitudes toward the language being learned can also have a profound impact
on SLA. Where the community has a broadly negative view of the target language and its
speakers, or a negative view of its relation to them, learning is typically much more
difficult. This finding has been confirmed by research in numerous contexts. A widely-
cited example is the difficulty faced by Navajo children in learning English as a second
language.Other common social factors include the attitude of parents toward language
study, and the nature of group dynamics in the language classroom. Additionally, early
attitudes may strengthen motivation and facility with language in general, particularly
with early exposure to the language.

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Input and intake

Learners' most direct source of information about the target language is the target
language itself. When they come into direct contact with the target language, this is
referred to as "input." When learners process that language in a way that can contribute to
learning, this is referred to as "intake."

Generally speaking, the amount of input learners take in is one of the most important
factors affecting their learning. However, it must be at a level that is comprehensible to
them. In his Monitor Theory, Krashen advanced the concept that language input should
be at the "i+1" level, just beyond what the learner can fully understand; this input is
comprehensible, but contains structures that are not yet fully understood. This has been
criticized on the basis that there is no clear definition of i+1, and that factors other than
structural difficulty (such as interest or presentation) can affect whether input is actually
turned into intake. The concept has been quantified, however, in vocabulary acquisition
research; Nation (2001) reviews various studies which indicate that about 98% of the
words in running text should be previously known in order for extensive reading to be
effective.

A great deal of research has taken place on input enhancement, the ways in which input
may be altered so as to direct learners' attention to linguistically important areas. Input
enhancement might include bold-faced vocabulary words or marginal glosses in a reading
text. Research here is closely linked to research on pedagogical effects, and comparably
diverse.

Interaction

Long's interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by

the use of the target language in interaction. In particular, the negotiation of meaning has
been shown to contribute greatly to the acquisition of vocabulary (Long, 1990). In a
review of the substantial literature on this topic, Nation (2000) relates the value of
negotiation to the generative use of words: the use of words in new contexts which
stimulate a deeper understanding of their meaning.

In the 1980s, Canadian SLA researcher Merrill Swain advanced the output hypothesis,
that meaningful output is as necessary to language learning as meaningful input.
However, most studies have shown little if any correlation between learning and quantity
of output. Today, most scholars contend that small amounts of meaningful output are
important to language learning, but primarily because the experience of producing
language leads to more effective processing of input.