2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak

Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

Chapter 1 Basic concept of environment

I. Definition and basic concept of Ecosystem.

1. Terminology
A. Environment: everything including human that affects an organisms during its
life time
B. Ecosystem: A group of interacting species along with their physical environment
C. Ecology: A branch of science that deals with the interrelationship between
organisms and their environment. The study of the ways organisms interacts with
each other and with their nonliving surroundings.
D. Ecosphere: divided into four sub-classes, Atmosphere (Air), Hydrosphere
(Water) Geosphere (Land, Soil) and biosphere.

2. Ecosystem
A. The concept of environment (ecosystem) is divided into abiotic (nonliving,
physical) and biotic (living) factors.

- Abiotic factors: nonliving things that influence an organism.

Energy, climate, weather, minerals, water, air, pH, salinity, temperature, soil,
sunlight, etc.

-Biotic factors: all forms of life with which it interacts. Plants that carry on
photosynthesis, animals that eat other organisms, bacteria and fungi that
cause decay, bacteria, viruses and other parasitic organisms that cause
disease, etc.
B. Limiting factors
- Although organisms interact with their surroundings in many ways, a
shortage or absence of a factor can restrict the success of the species
- Limiting factors may be either abiotic or biotic and can be different from one
species to another.
Ex:
 Plants: Many plants are limited by scarcity of water, light, or specific
soil nutrient such nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P).
 Butterflies are limited by the number of available milkweed plants, since
their developing caterpillars use this plant as their only food source.
 Climate factors such as temperature range, humidity, periods of drought,
or length of winter are often limiting factors.

3. Environment
A. Environment is a very broad concept.
For example, during its lifetime, an animal is likely to interact with millions of other
organisms (bacteria, food organisms, parasites, mates, predators), drink copious
amounts of water, breathe huge quantities of air, and respond to daily changes in
temperature and humidity.
B. Environmental problems are complex and interrelated.
Ex: Wolf reintroduction in USA
The reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park initiated changes that
rippled through the Yellowstone ecosystem. Wolves kill and eat elk and directly

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

compete with coyote and kill them if they have the chance. As wolves increased,
elk and coyote populations decreased. Decreases in these populations resulted in
increases in the populations of willow and aspen trees, beaver, foxes, and
songbirds.

[Detailed story]
The reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park has resulted in many
changes to the Yellowstone ecosystem. The initial introduction of 31 wolves in
1995 and 1996 has resulted in a current population of about 320 wolves. Several
changes to the Yellowstone ecosystem can be directly attributed to the alterations
brought about by wolves.
Wolves kill and eat elk. This has resulted in a significant reduction in the size of
the elk herd from about 19,000 prior to wolf reintroduction to about 11,000 now.
The presence of wolves also has modified the behavior of elk. Because they must
be more vigilant and move about more because of the predatory behavior of
wolves, elk spend less time feeding on willow, cottonwood, and aspen. Both the
change in behavior and the reduced size of the elk herd have allowed the
regeneration of stands of willow and aspen. This has in turn resulted in increased
numbers of beavers that use these trees for food. The dams built by beavers tend
to slow the flow of water and increase the recharge of groundwater. Furthermore,
the stands of willow along the banks of streams cool the water and improve fish
habitat. The stands of willow also provide needed habitat for some songbirds.
Wolves directly compete with coyotes and kill them if they have the opportunity.
Thus, since the reintroduction of wolves the coyote population has fallen to half
its previous level. There is evidence that the populations of the prey of coyotes-
mice, and other rodents-have increased. The increased availability of this food
source has resulted in an increase in the number of foxes, hawks and owls.

4. Photosynthesis vs. Respiration

A. Photosynthesis
The process plants use to convert inorganic material into organic matter, with the
assistance of light energy. Light energy enables the smaller inorganic molecules
(water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)) to be converted into organic sugar
molecules (C6H12O6) releasing molecular oxygen (O2).

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chlorophyll is responsible for trapping the sunlight energy needed in the process
of photosynthesis. Therefore, photosynthesis takes place in the green portions of
the plant, usually the leaves. The organic molecules as a result of photosynthesis
can be used as an energy source by the plants and by organisms that eat the
plants.

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

Fig. 1 Photosynthesis

B. Respiration
Respiration involves the use of atmospheric oxygen to break down large, organic
molecules (sugars, fats, and proteins) into smaller, inorganic molecules (carbon
dioxide and water). The process releases energy the organisms can use.

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

All organisms, including plants, must carry on some form of respiration, since all
organisms need a source of energy to maintain life. Respiration involves of
energy from organic molecules when they react with oxygen. In addition to
providing energy in a usable form, respiration produces carbon dioxide (CO 2)
and water (H2O)

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

Fig. 2 Respiration

5. Major roles of organisms in ecosystems

Organism’s roles in ecosystems divided into three broad categories;
A. Producers
Organisms that are able to use sources of energy to make complex, organic
molecules from the simple inorganic substances in their environment.
In nearly all ecosystems, energy is supplied by the sun, and organisms such as
plants, algae, and phytoplankton use light energy to carry on photosynthesis.
Since producers are the only organisms in an ecosystem that can trap energy and
make new organic material from inorganic material, all other organisms rely on
producers as a source of food, either directly or indirectly.

B. Consumers
Organisms that require organic matter as a source of food. They consume
organism matter to provide themselves with energy and the organic molecules
necessary to build their own bodies. An important part of their role is the process
of respiration in which they break down organic matter to inorganic matter.

- Primary consumers (Herbivors): animals that eat producers (Plants or

phytoplankton) as a source of food. Ex: Deer, elk, rabbits, etc.
- Secondary consumers (Carnivores): animals that eat other animals. Ex: Wolf,
Coyote, Rats, human, Tiger, etc.
- Parasite: Lives in or on another living organism and gets food from it. Ex:

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

Tapeworm, bacteria, insect.

C. Decomposers
- Organisms that use nonliving organic matter as a source of energy and raw
materials to build their bodies. Whenever an organism sheds itself, excretes
waste products, or dies, it provides an source of food for decomposers. Since
decomposers carry on respiration, they are extremely important in recycling
matter by converting organic matter to inorganic material. Ex: many small
animals, fungi, and bacteria, some insects and worms.

Fig. 3 Categories of organisms within an ecosystem

6. Food chain and food webs

- Each step in the flow of energy through an ecosystem is known as a trophic
level. Producers contribute the first trophic level, and primary consumers
(Herbivores) are the second trophic level. Secondary consumers (Carnivore)
that eat herbivores are the third trophic level, and carnivores that eat other
carnivores are the fourth trophic level. Decomposers occupy different trophic
levels, depending on what they happen to be eating at the time. If we eat a
piece of steak, we are at the third trophic level, if we eat carrot; we are at the
second trophic level.

A. Food chain: Food chain is a series of organisms occupying different trophic level
through which energy passes as a result of one organism consuming another. As
one organism feeds on another organism, energy flows through the series. Each
organism occupies a specific niche and has special abilities that fit it for its niche,
and each organism in the food chain is involved in converting energy and matter
from one form to another.
B. Food web: As organisms feed on one another, they establish a web of
relationship known as a food web.

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Food chain (a) and food web (b)

II. Population issues and environment

1. Terminology
A. Population: A group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area
B. Natality (Birth rate): the number of individuals added to the population through
reproduction over a particular time period
C. Mortality (Death rate): the number of deaths in a population over a particular
time period
D. Population growth rate: Birth rate – death rate
2. A population growth curve
A. Typical population growth curve
Population growth often a particular pattern, consisting of a lag phase, an
exponential growth phase, a deceleration phase, and a stable equilibrium phase.
During the first portion of the curve, known as the lag phase, the population
grows a very slowly because there are few births, since the process of
reproduction and growth of offspring takes time. Organisms must mature into
adults before they can reproduce. While the offspring begin to mate and have
young, the parents may be producing a second set of offspring. Since more
organisms now are reproducing, the population begins to increase at an
accelerating rate. This stage is known as the exponential growth phase (log
phase). The population will continue to grow as long as the birth rate exceeds
the death rate. Eventually, however, the population growth rate will begin to slow
as the death rate and the birth rate come to equal one another. This is the
deceleration phase. When the birth rate and death rate become equal, the
population will stop growing and reach a relatively stable population size. This
stage is known as the stable equilibrium phase.

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

Fig. 5 Typical population growth curve

B. A bacterial growth curve

The initial change in population size follows a typical population growth curve
until waste products become lethal. The buildup of waste products lowers the
carrying capacity. When a population begins to decline, it enters the death rate.
Ex: Bacteria
The population growth pattern begins with a lag phase, continues through an
exponential growth phase, and eventually levels off in a stable equilibrium phase.
However, in this small, enclosed space (e.g. bacteria on petri dish with nutrient
agar), there is no way to get rid of the toxic waste products, which accumulate,
eventually killing bacteria. This decline in population size is known as the death
phase.

Fig. 6 A bacterial growth curve

C. Limiting factors for population growth

- Availability of raw materials: Water, minerals, sunlight,
Ex: Plants need nitrogen (N) and magnesium (Mg) from soil as raw materials
for the production of chlorophyll.  Application of fertilizers
Animals also require certain minerals as raw material, which they obtain in
their diets.
- Availability of energy
Ex: Plants requires sunlight energy for photosynthesis, so the amount of light
can be a limiting factor for many plants.
- Accumulation of waste products

Made by Jung Yeon Jung

2011-2012, 2nd semester, Environment Lecturer: JUNG, Yeonjung/Kan Keosopheak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Polytechnic Institute of Cambodia

Ex: Bacteria, other tiny organisms, and many kinds of aquatic organisms that
live in small ecosystem such as pools.
- Interacts among organisms
D. Limiting factors for human population growth
- Disease
- War
- Climate (Weather)
- Artificial regulation (control)
- Etc.
E. Human population growth
- The human population growth curve has a long lag phase followed by a sharply
rising exponential growth phase that is still rapidly increasing.
- Increase of food production (nutrition)
- Control of disease by improving medical science (medicine)
- Technical development
- Improvement of life quality
- Improvement of sanitary facilities

Fig. 7 Historic human population growth

- Influence of rapid growing population of human

High human density in a small space
Shortage of natural resource
Shortage of house
Increment of social stress
Environmental pollution (Water, air, noise, waste etc.)

Made by Jung Yeon Jung