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Roman Towns Oriented to Sunrise and Sunset on Solstices

Article  in  SSRN Electronic Journal · January 2016

DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.2777118

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Roman Towns Oriented to Sunrise and Sunset on Solstices

Amelia Carolina Sparavigna

Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy

Email: amelia.sparavigna@polito.it

Submitted SSRN 08/05/2016

Abstract
Many of the modern towns that had their origin from a Roman colonia are still showing in their
urban planning traces of the original layout made according to a regular pattern. This layout
consisted in a chessboard of parallel streets, the main of them being the Decumanus Maximus,
crossed at the center of the town by the Kardo Maximus. In this paper we discuss the orientation of
the Decumanus and show examples of towns having it oriented to sunrise and sunset on solstices.

Keywords: Solar Orientation, Satellite Images, Roman Centuriation, Roman Town Planning.

1. Introduction
In spite of any profound revision the streets of a town could have suffered during the past centuries, for
several ancient towns it is still possible to see in their urban planning the streets crossing each other
perpendicularly. This happens in the case that these towns had been founded (or re-founded) as Roman
colonies. As we have discussed in some previous papers, the Romans mainly founded their towns with a
precise regular scheme, based on two main streets, the Decumanus Maximus, which was crossed by the
perpendicular Kardo Maximus at the sacred core of the town [1-3]. At the ends of these two main
streets, the Roman towns had usually their main gates. The space of the town was further subdivided by
other Decumani and Kardines in a regular pattern of perpendicular streets. Such urban planning was
strictly connected to the Roman Centuriation, the land subdivision of territory [3].
For what concerns the orientation of the Decumanus, it seems that, in the case the location allowed its
free orientation, this main street was determined by the azimuth of the rising sun [4,5]. That is, the
Decumanus was pointing, as told by Francis John Haverfield in his book on ancient town-planning,
"where the sun rises above the horizon on the dawn of some day important in the history of the town".
This orientation was done according to the Etruscan Doctrine [4,5]. Here we discuss the cases of towns
where the Decumani (or Kardines) had been orientated to sunrise and sunset on solstices.

2. Haverfield's discussion on the planning of a Roman Colonia

Before the analysis of the orientation of Decumani, let us discuss the planning of the Roman towns
following a text written by F. Haverfield [4]. Francis John Haverfield (1860–1919) was a British
historian and archaeologist. Educated at the University of Oxford, in 1907 he became Camden
Professor of Ancient History at Oxford. Haverfield was the first to undertake a scientific study of
Roman Britain and, in general, of the Romanization of the Empire. His works include The
Romanization of Roman Britain (1905), Ancient Town Planning (1913), and The Roman Occupation of
Britain (1924), and many others monographs.
Haverfield observes in his book on the Ancient Town Planning [4], that during the later Republic and
the earlier Empire, many Italian towns were founded, or re-founded, by bodies of emigrants to form

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2777118

 2

small coloniae, loyal to their mother-town, that was Rome. The colonists remained subject to Rome and
constituted new centers of the Roman rule.
As explained by Haverfield, in the period of the Roman history corresponding to the dying Republic and
nascent Empire, another quite relevant reason existed for the establishment of 'coloniae'. The reason was
the following. During the civil wars, the rival military chiefs, Sulla, Caesar and Octavian, had used huge
armies; at the end of these conflicts, huge masses of soldiery had to be discharged, and for the sake of
future peace, these men were quickly settled in the civic life. Therefore, these persons were settled and
occupied by creating 'coloniae'. These soldiers were "planted out in large bodies, sometimes in existing
towns which needed population or at least a loyal population, sometimes in new towns established full-
grown for the purpose". It is not surprising then that they used for the colonies the same layout
employed for a military camp, that is, for a castrum. An example is Torino, that was born as a Julius
Caesar’s Castrum and became the Colonia (Julia Augusta Taurinorum) under Augustus [1] (see Figure
1). Therefore, in many towns that can be connected with the later Republic or the Empire, we find
examples of a well definite type of town-planning.

Figure 1 – Romans planned their military castra with a precise regular scheme, based on two main axes,
crossing at right angles at the center of the settlement. These axes are known as Decumanus (D) and Kardo
(K). Sometimes, a castrum evolved in a colonia and then in a modern town. Torino is an example of this
evolution, that was born as a Julius Caesar’s castrum. Today, the Decumanus is Via Garibaldi. In this
Google Earth map, we can easily see the rectangle of the Roman town, composed of several insulae. The
modern town had maintained this layout during its expansion.

"This type has obvious analogies with earlier Italy and with the town-planning of the Greek world, but
is also in certain respects distinct from either. The town areas with which we have now to deal are small
squares or oblongs; they are divided by two main streets (Decumanus and Kardo) into four parts and by
other and parallel streets into square or oblong house-blocks ('insulae'), and the rectangular scheme is
carried through with some geometrical precision. The 'insulae', whatever their shape—square or
oblong—are fairly uniform throughout. ... The two main streets appear to follow some method of
orientation connected with augural science. As a rule, one of them runs north and south, the other east
and west, and now and again the latter street seems to point to the spot where the sun rises above the
horizon on the dawn of some day important in the history of the town". For instance - Haverfield is
telling - the town of Timgad in Africa was oriented with the sunrise of 18 September, the birthday of
Emperor Trajan, the founder of this town. Here Haverfield is referring to the discussion that he found in
the works of Walter Barthel (Eduard Walter Barthel, 1880-1915), a German archaeologist (Barthel’s
discussion is given in the Appendix).

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2777118

 3

Haverfield defines this Roman town-plan as the “chess-board” pattern [4]. In fact, this planning was
also that of the military forts, the Roman castra. About the foundation of a town, he tells that “we know
that the Decumanus and the Kardo, the two main lines of the Roman land-survey and probably also the
two main streets of the Roman town-plan, were laid out under definite augural and semi-religious
provision” [4]. However, as Haverfield observed, it seems that the land-surveyors, the so-called
Gromatici, had not any legal rules relative to the town-planning as distinct from surveying in general. It
seems that surveyors were much more concerned with the soil of the province and its ‘limitation' or
'centuriation' [3]. Let us remember that the centuriation was the subdivision of the land, characterized by
the regular layout of a rectangular grid traced using surveyor's instruments. In Italy, a large part of the
Pianura Padana is still subdivided in the rectangular insulae of the Roman centuriation, as we can easily
see in the satellite images [3].
As previously told, Haverfield in [4] is referring to a Barthel’s discussion on the orientation of the
Decumanus. Barthel tells that the orientation of the Roman planning was based on the “Disciplina
Etrusca”, the Etruscan Doctrine. This doctrine was mainly a set of rules for the conduct of all sorts of
divination, a religious and political "constitution" for Etruscans [6,7], a collection of rules for asking the
gods questions and receiving answers. So it seems that, before the land-surveyor, the Gromaticus,
started his surveying, an Augur, an official who was practicing augury was acting to find the best place
for land limitation. The augur, was probably practicing according to the Etruscan Doctrine.

3. Decumanus and Kardo

In [6,7], we find more information on the Etruscan Doctrine. Etruscan had a ‘sacred space’, oriented and
subdivided, a concept described by the Latin word ‘templum’. It refers to a sacred area, such as the
enclosure of a sanctuary or of a town, having an orientation and partition given according to celestial
models [6,7]. The orientation is given, as for Roman, by the four cardinal points, joined by two
intersecting straight lines, the Decumanus and the Kardo. In the Etruscan doctrine, if an “observer
places himself at the cross-point of the two lines with his shoulders to the north, he will have behind him
the space to the north of the Decumanus: this half of the total space is in fact called pars postica, 'the
posterior part'. The other half placed before him towards the south constitutes the pars antica, 'the
anterior part'. A similar partition of space also occurs along the Kardo line: to the left of the observer,
the eastern sector, of good omen, pars sinistra or familiaris; to the right, the western sector, of ill omen,
pars dextra or hostilis” [6,7].
If an augur were following this Doctrine, he had to determine the direction of the Decumanus according
to the East, that is, to orient it to the point of the horizon where the sun is rising on equinoxes. In fact,
there are towns in Italy such as Novara and Firenze, which are oriented to this point, and then they have
their central part with streets oriented in the cardinal directions. However, it seems that the Roman
augurs, and probably also the Etruscans, considered more generally the East as the ortive position of the
sun. We can repeat the Haverfield’s words about the axes of the town: as “a rule, one of them runs north
and south, the other east and west, and now and again the latter street seems to point to the spot where
the sun rises above the horizon on the dawn of some day important in the history of the town”. Let us
add that the augural choice could also have been influenced by local lore and tradition, and then,
clearly, he could have decided different directions of Decumani corresponding to any day of the year.

4. The Decumanus and the Solstices

Of all the days of the year, besides equinoxes, solstices were the days which were more relevant for the
subdivision of astronomical time, being them considered as special moments of the annual cycle since
the Neolithic times. The astronomical ancient celebrations connected to solstices passed into those of
the Roman Catholic Church, in the Christmas and in St. John's Eve.
It seems natural to consider that, for Romans, the solstices were important too. For what concerns the
planning of a settlement, in a recent paper [8] we have shown that a fort in the Roman Britannia, the
Hardknott Fort, has Kardo and Decumanus oriented to sunrise and sunset on both summer and winter
solstices. Probably, the Kardo and Decumanus were oriented to confer a symbolic meaning to the place
too, because the fort is at the precise latitude where the perpendicular Kardo and Decumanus are
coincident to sunrise and sunset directions on solstices (see Figure 2).
 4

Figure 2 – The Hardknott Fort and sunrises and sunsets directions on solstices. The fort is at the precise
latitude where the perpendicular Kardo and Decumanus are coincident to the sunrise and sunset azimuths
on solstices.

The Hardknott fort was a castrum, that is a military camp. However, other evidences of the same nature,
had been found in the ancient center of Aletrium, today Alatri, where the gates of the city are also
oriented to sunrise on solstices [9].
In fact, we have other towns which are oriented according to solstices. Examples are Como, Verona and
Vicenza. In the Figure 3 we can see the Decumanus oriented towards the sunrise on the summer solstice
(the directions of sunrise and sunset - yellow and orange lines - are given by SunCalc.net software) for
Verona and Como. However, the decumani of Verona and Como could also have been oriented to
sunset on the winter solstice (see Figure 4). In [10], it is explained that, according to Adriano Gaspani
(Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera), augurs and surveyors decided a planning of Como towards the
sunset on winter solstice, according to a solstitial orientation proper of Celtic cultures. Also in the Ref.9,
it is told that Verona and also Vicenza had been oriented towards the sunset on winter solstice.

Figure 3 - The direction of the sun on the summer solstice, given by Sollumis.com. Haverfield [4] is telling
that the Decumanus is oriented to sunrise; then, the decumani of Verona and Como could have been
oriented to the sunrise on summer solstice.
 5

Figure 4 - The direction of the sun on the winter solstice, given by Sollumis.com. In fact, the decumani of
Verona and Como could also have been oriented to sunset. In [10], it is explained that, according to Adriano
Gaspani (Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera), augurs and surveyors decided a planning of Como towards
the sunset of winter solstice, according to a solstitial orientation proper of Celtic cultures.

Figure 5 - The direction of the sun on summer solstice, given by Sollumis.com. For Rimini, it is the Kardo,
not the Decumanus, oriented to the sunrise on summer solstice (and also to the sunset on winter solstice).

To the towns oriented to solstice let us also add Rimini and Bene Vagienna. In the case of Rimini
(Figure 5), it is the Kardo which is oriented to the sunrise on summer solstice. Of course this is also the
direction of the sunset on winter solstice. The site of Augusta Bagiennorum, today Bene Vagienna, had
its Decumanus oriented to the ortive point of the sun on winter solstice [9].
In the Reference [9], it is told that “Dall’antica abitudine di solennizzare questa data dell’anno,
rimangono, come abbiamo potuto vedere, diverse testimonianze materializzate in questo antico polo
insediativo (Bene Vagienna), essenzialmente connesso allo sfruttamento delle risorse agricole del suo
territorio”. In fact the observation of sunrise and sunset on solstices was a very important and simple
calendar for people having the life based on agriculture. The winter solstice was the most important
moment of the year, marking the beginning of the year at the Kalendae Januarii [9].
As remarked by Haverfield, the Romans surveyors for the centuriation of lands and settlements were
often using guidelines established according to practical criteria. However, in some cases, as those
given in this paper, they could have also followed an astronomical criterion based on solstices. In such a
manner, we find towns such as Verona and Como where the Decumanus is oriented to the sunrise on
the summer solstice and to the sunset on the winter solstice. This Decumanus was then a remarkable line
connecting the two extremal moments of the year.

Appendix
Walter Barthel (Eduard Walter Barthel, 1880-1915) was a German archaeologist. He wrote a
dissertation entitled “Zur Geschichte der römischen Städte in Africa” and the “Römische Limitation in
der Provinz Africa” [5]. As previously told, Haverfield is referring to a discussion written by Barthel on
the orientation of the Decumanus. The reference given by Haverfield is not precise, but probably it was
Reference 5. Barthel tells that the orientation of the Roman planning was based on the “Disciplina
 6

Etrusca”, the Etruscan Doctrine; it was mainly a set of rules for the conduct of all sorts of divination, a
religious and political "constitution" for Etruscans [6,7]. However, it was not a set of laws indicating
how the men must behave. It is rather a collection of rules for asking the gods questions and receiving
answers. Here in the following, we report what we can find in the Barthel’s text [5].
“Hauptlinien teilen das System in vier Regionen, welche fest ausgeprägte Bezeichnungen haben. Frontin
berichtet darüber: limitum prima origo, sicut Varro descripsit, α disciplina Etrusca; quod Aruspices
orbem terrarium in duas partes diviserunt, dextram appellaverunt quae septentrioni subiaceret, sinistram
quae ad meridianum terrae esset, ab oriente ad occasum, quod eo sol et luna spectaret, sicut quidam
architecti delubra in occidentem recte spectare scripserunt. Aruspices altera linea ad septentrionem α
meridiano diviserunt terram, et α media ultra antica, citra postica nominaverunt. ab hoc fundamento
rnaiores nostri in agrorum mensura videntur constituisse rationem. Primo duo limites duxerunt; unum ab
oriente in occasum, quem vocaverunt decumanum; alterum a meridiano ad septentrionem, quem
vocaverunt cardinem. Decumanus autem dividebat agrum dextra et sinistra, cardo citra et ultra. Die
Regionsbezeichnung gebt also aus von dem im Mittelpunkt des Kreuzes stehenden Limitanten. Dieser
schaut in der Richtung des von Osten nach Westen laufenden Decumanus. So wird die nördliche Hälfte
zur regio dextrata, die südliche zur sinistrata, die vor ihm liegende (antica) westliche zur ultrata, die
hinter ihm liegende (postica) östliche zur citrata. Innerhalb dieser vier Regionen werden die Limites und
Centurien je nach ihrer Lage rechts oder links vom Decumanus, diesseits oder jenseits vom Kardo
maximus bezeichnet und gezählt. Nach der Lehre der Feldmesser soll der Decumanus alter heiliger
Ordnung gemäss nach Westen gerichtet sein, doch erwähnen sie mit grösserer oder geringerer
Missbilligung auch andere Orientation. Zunächst die Umkehrung des Decumanus in die Richtung nach
Osten, welche sie mit einem Wandel der religiösen Anschauung erklären: postea placuit omnem
religionem eo convertere, ex qua parte caeli terra inluminatur. Sic et limites in Oriente constituuntur.
Hierbei verdrehte sieh natürlich mit dem veränderten Standpunkt des Limitanten die Bezeichnung· der
Regionen; die dextrata war nunmehr im Süden, die ultrata im Osten. Statt des wahren Ost machten
„unwissende Mensoren" wohl auch den Punkt, an dem die Sonne am ersten Tage gerade aufging, zur
Norm ihres Decumanus. Auch wird eine völlige Verkehrung der Anlage, so dass der Kardo nach Osten,
der Decumanus nach Süden schaute, bezeugt. Und oftmals waren statt solcher Rücksicht auf Himmel
und Sonne auch lediglich irdische Gründe für die Orientation massgebend. So richtete man etwa die
Limitation nach einer durchlaufenden grossen Strasse aus, oder man wählte die Richtung des
Decumanus nach der grössten Ausdehnung des Gebietes, oder aber man nahm Rücksicht auf eine
benachbarte Limitation und legte die neue, um eine bessere Abgrenzung zu erzielen, im Winkel zu jener
an. Das sind etwa die wichtigsten Züge der gromatischen Überlieferung über die Orientation”.

References
[1] Sparavigna, A. C. (2012). The Orientation of Julia Augusta Taurinorum (Torino). arXiv preprint
arXiv:1206.6062.
[2] Sparavigna, A. C. (2012). The Orientation of Trajan's Town of Timgad. arXiv preprint
arXiv:1208.0454.
[3] Sparavigna, A. C. (2015). Roman Centuriation in Satellite Images. PHILICA Article number 547.
Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2742223
[4] F. Haverfield (1913), Ancient Town-Planning, Oxford, Clarendon.
[5] Barthel, W. (1911). Römische Limitation in der Provinz Africa, 1911, Carl Georgi Verlag, Bonn.
[6] Pallottino, M. (1975). The Etruscans. Bloomington & London: Indiana University Press.
[7] Pallotino, M. (1955). The Etruscans, Harmondsworth, 154-177; reported in The Religion of the
Etruscans, according to Massimo Pallottino (2005), www.ancientworlds.net/ aw/Article/643090
[8] Sparavigna, A. C. (2014). Solstices at the Hardknott Roman Fort. PHILICA Article number 549.
Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2745184
[9] P. Barale, M. Codebò and H. De Santis (2012), Bene Vagienna, Augusta Bagiennorum, Una Città
Astronomicamente Orientata, Convegno di Archeoastronomia 11/2002 (Sanremo - IM).
[10] L. Morandotti (2011). Quel Solstizio che Disegnò il Volto di Como, Corriere di Como, 19 Maggio
2011.

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