This module introduces the theme of climate change in urban areas.

The world is
becoming more and more urban and therefore cities are important actors in
addressing climate change. The module will cover both how cities are affected by
climate change and how cities are contributing to climate change. In addition, the
module will look at how climate change adaptation and mitigation can be considered
in urban planning and identify concrete measures. Several examples of how cities
can play a transformational role in addressing climate change are presented.

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Section 1 highlights that cities hold the potential to play an essential role in the
global transition towards green and climate resilient development. It sets the scene
by looking at some key demographic, socio-economic and environmental trends. It
illustrates the transformative role of cities, both in addressing the challenges and
taking advantage of the opportunities presented by climate change.

The photo on the slide shows Paris, the capital of the host of the 21st Session of the
Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change.

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The world has been urbanising rapidly and this trend will continue. However,
different regions have very different rates of urbanisation. Africa was the least
urbanised region in 2010, with less than 40% of its population residing in urban
areas. Northern America, and Latin America and the Caribbean were the most
urbanised regions, with around 80% of their population being urban. Most of the
future population growth will take place in urban areas in developing countries.

Cities play an important role in the economic development of a country as many

businesses are located in urban areas. Yet the prosperity generated by cities has not
been equitably shared, and a sizeable proportion of the urban population remains
without access to the benefits that cities produce.

Sources: UN-Habitat, Global Report on Human Settlements 2013 and UN-Habitat,

State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013, and UN-Habitat, The Economic Role of Cities
(2011).

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Activity

You can try as many times as you want. Your answers will not count towards the final
assessment at the end of the module.

Correct order: 80%, 70%, 60%

6
The video draws attention, in an animated format, to issues caused by rapid and
uncontrolled city growth. It portrays urban challenges and suggests solutions that
can be taken. Cities can be sources of innovation, solutions and opportunities to
improve the lives of their populations.

The video sets out the vision of a holistic, all-inclusive approach to urban
development that will lead to resilient cities, where citizens benefit from adequate
housing, economic opportunities, public transport and non-motorised mobility, and
access to basic services and public spaces in a clean and greener environment. The
video also emphasises inclusivity and equal opportunities for all.

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Cities both contribute to and are affected by climate change. The world’s cities are
responsible for up to 70 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions while
occupying just 2 per cent of the world’s land surface. This trend is likely to continue
in the future with most population growth taking place in cities. At the same time,
the effects of climate change, such as rising sea-levels and extreme weather events,
can impact negatively on the urban infrastructure and people, and more broadly on
economic growth.

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Not acting on climate change will hamper the effectiveness of other development
policies, such as education, health and poverty. For example, climate change can
lead to detrimental health effects in slums, loss of property and possessions, and
ultimately more poverty.

On the other hand, climate change adaptation and mitigation can lead to benefits in
other policy areas. For instance, climate change mitigation in the form of improving
public transport in a city can both reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air
quality. Similarly, investing in renewable energy is a climate change mitigation
measure that can lead to the creation of new jobs. Building roads that better
withstand the effects of climate change is an example of an adaptation measure that
can stimulate economic growth.

Multiple development goals could be achieved by carefully designed climate change

policies.

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Cities are centres of development and innovation thanks to diverse social and
cultural networks, the presence of highly skilled labour, close exchange between
science and industry, etc. Cities also benefit from economics of scale due to their
higher density. This makes it cheaper and easier to take action. Cities are therefore
ideally placed to test solutions for climate change mitigation and adaptation. There
are many examples of cities implementing innovative solutions.

Source for the quote: UN-Habitat, State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013

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This video presents inter alia the Ecocasa project in Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Ecocasa is a
project implemented by the Mexican government in partnership with international
development banks, which encourages housing developers to build homes designed
to minimize greenhouse gas emissions. The case is particularly interesting because it
includes low income housing illustrating that sustainability is compatible with
affordability.

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Source: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Global Report on Human Settlements,
2011. Original source Zhao, J. (2010) ‘Climate change mitigation in Beijing, China’,
Unpublished case study prepared for the Global Report on Human Settlements 2011,
www.unhabitat.org/grhs/2011

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Photo: "北京国贸CBD夜景" by 网友的作品 - http://bbs.photofans.cn/thread-
419083-1-1.html. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons

Source: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Global Report on Human Settlements,
2011. Original source Zhao, J. (2010) ‘Climate change mitigation in Beijing, China’,
Unpublished case study prepared for the Global Report on Human Settlements 2011,
www.unhabitat.org/grhs/2011

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Source: UN-Habitat, Local Leadership for Climate Change Action, 2011

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Source: UN-Habitat, Local Leadership for Climate Change Action, 2011

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C40 is a growing network of megacities taking action to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. This video illustrates the challenges cities are currently facing and how
best practices can be exchanged in areas such as public transportation, sustainable
lighting, housing, etc.

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The case studies have shown that cities are promoting innovative approaches to
address the challenges posed by climate change and that they also taking advantage
of the opportunities related to low-emission development. However, cities, in
particular in developing countries, also encounter challenges when it comes to
effective urban planning under changing climate conditions.

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Activity
This is a multiple choice activity. Select all the correct answers. You can try as many
times as you want. Your answers will not count towards the final assessment at the
end of the module.

Options A, B and D are correct.

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Hundreds of millions of people in urban areas across the world are already being
affected by rising sea levels, increased precipitation, inland floods, more frequent
and stronger cyclones and storms, and periods of more extreme heat and cold.
Section 2 discusses the different ways in which cities are being affected by climate
change, including effects on economic development, urban ecosystems,
infrastructure, displacement, food and water security, social affairs and health. These
effects are illustrated through three cases studies: Pakse in Laos, Dhaka in
Bangladesh and Kampala in Uganda. The concept of vulnerability is introduced, in
particular how the urban poor are the most vulnerable to the adverse effects of
climate change.

Photo: UNDP

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Climate change affects different aspects of cities, such as economic development
and infrastructure. The effects depend on the location, characteristics and adaptive
capacity of cities. Hover over each of the icons to learn more about the impacts of
climate change.

Ecosystems: Climate change impacts on ecosystems and the important services they
provide which include oxygen production and protection from flooding. Climate
change will reduce biodiversity and wetland area, and lead to loss of trees and soil
among other effects. Ecosystems are already often affected by human activities such
as urbanisation, deforestation, and the introduction of alien species. Poor and
vulnerable communities are often relying the most on ecosystem services and are
likely to be the most affected by the impacts of climate change.

Economic development: Climate change will have many impacts on economic

development. There will be effects on industry through damage to buildings,
infrastructure and other assets. Industry can also be impacted by effects of climate
change on city infrastructure and transport networks which can cause delays and
increase costs. Climate change will also affect tourism in some countries through
changing temperatures, disruptions to transport networks, and sea-level rise in
coastal areas, for instance in island countries. In addition, climate change will impact
on the livelihoods of urban residents through, for example, affecting such means of
production as social relationships or natural resources.

Food and water security: Climate change will result in reduced food production in
some countries through changes in precipitation patterns and temperature. Some
areas will no longer be suitable for agriculture and others will require irrigation for
cultivation to be possible. Water resources will be impacted by factors such as

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increased demand and reduced groundwater recharge. Urbanisation and growing
populations will put more pressure on food production and water resources. More
land will be needed for urban expansion while at the same time demand for food
and water is likely to increase in those growing urban areas.

Health: Climate change can affect human health negatively because it may alter the
transmission of diseases such as malaria, cholera and meningitis, meaning that
these diseases will affect more people or different areas. Health is also affected by
urban heath waves, which can result to hospitalizations and heath-related mortality.
More frequent and intense weather events such as storms or floods can also injure
and kill people. In addition, climate change can lead to contaminated water supplies
which can increase prevalence of certain diseases.

Infrastructure: Cities depend on different types of infrastructure such as power,

water, waste removal and transportation infrastructure. Heavy rains, floods,
droughts and landslides can damage roads, bridges and other transportation
infrastructure. Water systems can be affected in various ways. For instance,
saltwater intrusion can affect the quality of water supplies. Water supply
infrastructure will also need to be able to cope with more frequent and intense
storms or floods in some areas. Precipitation patterns can increase or decrease
water supplies depending on location. Energy transmission infrastructure can be
affected by storms and flooding. Homes and commercial buildings, especially in
coastal areas, are vulnerable to flooding.

Displacement: Climate change impacts may also lead to displacement of people and
therefore increased internal and international migration. There is evidence of
impacts such as flooding or drought leading to migration (for example in the
Philippines and in Brazil). In addition to the human cost, displacement will put strain
on the communities accommodating the displaced people, for instance in terms of
competition for jobs and resources.

Social: Climate change has social impacts. As will be discussed later in this module,
climate change affects vulnerable groups more. It can exacerbate poverty and
gender and racial inequalities.

Adapted from UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Academy modules for
universities: http://unhabitat.org/urban-initiatives/initiatives-programmes/cities-
and-climate-change-academy/ and from UN-Habitat (2011). Cities and Climate
Change: Global Report on Human Settlements 2011.

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A vulnerability assessment helps policy makers to understand and prepare climate
change vulnerability in their cities. There are different definitions of vulnerability to
climate change. Here it is referred to as being a function of exposure, sensitivity and
adaptive capacity. Exposure refers to the degree to which a city is exposed to
changes in climate, including projected future changes. Sensitivity is the degree to
which people, places, institutions and sectors are affected now and in the future by
climate change. Finally, adaptive capacity refers to the degree to which people,
places, institutions and sectors are able to adapt and become more resilient to
climate change impacts.

Adapted from UN-Habitat (2014), Planning for Climate Change.

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This video presents a climate change vulnerability assessment that was conducted by
UN-Habitat in the city of Pakse in Laos. Climate change intensifies the seasonal
changes in the area, the dry season becoming much drier and the wet season much
wetter, with more often and persistent floods. This has negative impacts on the
town’s activities, endangering the lives of its inhabitants.

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The answers relate to both what can be seen on the video and the narrative. Drag
the right answers to the funnel. You can listen to the video again by going to the
previous slide.

Correct answers: flooded roads, loss of possessions, impact on business and lack of
water for cooking and sanitation.

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While climate change has an impact on both developed and developing country
cities, often developing country cities are more vulnerable to climate change. The
images give some reasons for different effects based on the categories of exposure,
sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Hover over each image to read more.

•Exposure: Many of the world’s cities are located vulnerable areas such as in low-
lying coastal areas, which are much more exposed to the effects of climate change.
The case study in the next slide will go into more detail.

•Sensitivity: The prevalence of unplanned urbanisation in the form of slums and

informal settlements and lack of adequate infrastructure are making developing
country cities more vulnerable.

•Adaptive capacity: Developing country cities often have lower adaptive capacity,
meaning that they do not have the same human, financial and other resources to
adapt to the effects of the climate change as developed country cities generally do.

Adapted from UN-Habitat (2011). Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on
Human Settlements 2011.

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Coastal urban areas will be particularly affected, especially those situated in low-
elevation zones. The rise in sea level will make them more vulnerable to inundation
and flooding. Saltwater will affect drinking water supplies and coastal erosion, and
can reduce the land space. Damage to coastal cities also impacts on the levels of
tourism. For instance, the coastal city of Mombasa in Kenya could lose around 17 per
cent of its land, which will affect amenities and features that draw in tourism.

Coastal cities will also suffer more from the increased frequency, duration and
intensity of storms. Many cities are located on coasts or near major rivers due to the
advantages that these locations offered historically. The urban population in low-
elevation coastal areas is still growing.

Photo: UN Photo, Hurricane Sandy Causes Heavy Rains and Floods in Haiti

Source: UN-Habitat, Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on Human

Settlements 2011.

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Photo: UN Photo/Kibae Park.

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Photo: „Dhakarushhour (54)“. Licensed under CC BY 2.5 on Wikimedia Commons –

Source: UN-Habitat, State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009: Harmonious Cities and
UN-Habitat, State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013.

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While climate change will affect everyone, there are particularly vulnerable groups.
For example, the elderly and children suffer more from extreme heat waves, and
women may be more affected by disasters. In addition, the types of economic
activities that women often undertake, such as small-scale agriculture, are more
difficult to compensate for than those of men. The urban poor are most affected by
climate change. According to UN-Habitat, around 30% of the urban population in
developing regions was living in slums in 2012. The figure was over 60% in sub-
Saharan Africa. These types of settlements are often built in areas that are more
vulnerable to the effects of climate change because they are less expensive. In
addition, houses and infrastructure are often poorly built with little capacity to resist
events such as flooding. Losing their house and possessions can have a devastating
effect on the urban poor. They often do not have insurance and such a loss can push
them further into poverty.

Photos: UN Photo and UN-Habitat

Source: UN-Habitat, Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on Human

Settlements 2011 and UN-Habitat, State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013.

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Source: Based on UN-Habitat, Global Report on Human Settlements, 2011. Original
source: Mabasi, T. (2009) ‘Assessing the vulnerability, mitigation and adaptation to
climate change in Kampala City’,
Paper presented at the Fifth Urban Research Symposium, Cities and Climate Change:
Responding to an Urgent Agenda, 28–30 June, Marseille, France

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Section 3 discusses the role of cities as sources of greenhouse gas emissions, with a
particular focus on some key sectors. Cities are key contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions and therefore play a key part in climate change mitigation.

Section 3 also provides an introduction to the importance of measuring and

monitoring greenhouse gas emissions in cities and presents one concrete method,
the Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories.

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As mentioned in Section 1, cities contribute to about 70% of global greenhouse gas
emissions. How cities develop therefore plays a crucial role in determining whether
global temperature change can be kept below 2°C compared to pre-industrial
levels.

Source for the quote: Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas
Emission Inventories (GPC) https://vimeo.com/114001116

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Data about different sources and levels of greenhouse gas emissions enables finding
the most effective solutions and climate change mitigation measures. Measuring
emissions of cities also helps us to better understand what contribution cities are
making to climate change and to global and national mitigation efforts, and to
establish a baseline against which cities can pledge emission reductions. Comparing
the levels of emissions between different cities can encourage knowledge sharing
and also attract investment.

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This video, produced by Carbon Visuals together with the Environmental Defense
Fund, illustrates the carbon dioxide emissions of New York City, which added up to
54 million metric tons in 2010.

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The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for Greenhouse Gas Inventories are the international
standard for reporting emissions at national level. At sub-national levels different
approaches have been taken. For instance, City A may include some emitting sectors
which City B does not include. How can we then compare the emissions from City A
with the emissions from City B? Another key issue is how to set the boundaries for
emissions. A city could include only those emissions originating from within the city
boundaries or more widely those that are caused by activities undertaken within the
city. Also, there is no universal definition of ‘a city’. Measuring greenhouse gas
emissions from cities is therefore challenging and it is difficult to compare City A
with City B. It is also difficult to estimate the overall emissions from cities because of
differences in methodologies.

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Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (GPC) is
a partnership of the World Resources Institute, the C40 Cities Climate Leadership
Group and Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI). The GPC aims to enable
cities to have one method for measuring emissions, to account for all emissions, and
to make it clear what the trajectory of emissions will be and consequently whether
cities are on track to meet targets. The GPC also seeks to enable the measurement
of city contributions to national efforts. The GPC is the first global standard for
accounting and reporting greenhouse gas emissions from cities and has been widely
used by cities across the world in its current and previous versions. It has also been
adopted by the Compact of Mayors, which is an agreement by city networks to
reduce emissions and take action on climate change.

More information: http://www.ghgprotocol.org/city-accounting

The Carbon Climate Registry at http://carbonn.org/climateregistry/ presents the

greenhouse gas emissions commitments, emissions inventories and climate
mitigation/adaptation actions reported by local governments.

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The contribution of different sectors to greenhouse gas emissions varies across cities.
Important sectors typically include electricity generation, transport, industry, and
commercial and residential buildings.

Energy supply for the generation of electricity: Fossil fuels continue to be the main fuels
used for generating electricity. The choice of fuel greatly affects the levels of emissions in
cities in addition to the actual amount of emissions generated.

Transport: The levels of emissions from transport are related to all types of transport modes
and exacerbated by the prevalence of private transport infrastructure, as well as insufficient
regulatory frameworks to encourage the use of clean technologies and fuels. The
introduction of public transport and transit-oriented development can reduce the emissions
of cities. In this type of development pedestrian-orientated development is concentrated
near public transport, drawing people in to these areas.

Industry: Energy-intensive industrial activities within cities particularly contribute to

emissions. Levels of emissions are also linked to the technologies used for production with
cleaner technologies or energy efficiency measures having the potential to reduce
emissions.

Commercial and residential buildings: This sector needs energy for, for example, the heating
and cooling of buildings, for construction materials for buildings and for more indirect uses
such as street lighting. Energy efficient construction is one way to reduce emissions.

Source: UN-Habitat Global Report on Human Settlements, 2011: Cities and Climate Change
and UN-Habitat Global Report on Human Settlements 2013: Planning and Design for
Sustainable Urban Mobility.

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Transport is one of the emitting sectors within cities. Fill in the blanks in the
sentence with suitable words and click the SUBMIT button.

The correct answers are public, private and urban. Cities can use a combination of
“pull” and “push” strategies to encourage the use of public transport and non-
motorised transport, such as walking and cycling, and to discourage the use of
private motorised transport. Density should be thought of as sustainable density. For
example, slums may be so dense that providing public transport may be challenging.
The concept of transit-orientated development, which is compact, mixed-use and
pedestrian-friendly development concentrated around public transport nodes, is one
model for influencing urban growth and considers mobility and urban development
in a holistic way.

Photo: Hanoi, UN Photo.

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Source: Adapted from Moving Mountains, Cape Town’s Action Plan for Energy and
Climate Change 2011.

Photo: Kristina Eisele

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Feedback for any response (no right or wrong):
The three highest GHG emissions sectors are residential, commercial and transport
sectors. The potential contribution to reducing GHG emissions by tackling one or all
of these three sectors is the greatest. However, one could also look at the lowest
hanging fruit. That could be the industry sector, depending on the existent
assets/methods that could be used to mitigate the emissions in this specific sector.
The sector with the lowest emission is the government sector with only 1 %. In this
case, the overall impact on emissions might be limited. However, the government
might want to lead by example. That means there is no right or wrong answer but
the selection of priority sectors will depend on various factors.

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The levels of greenhouse gas emissions are influenced by several factors. In general,
cities in the developing world have lower emissions, but there is limited data and
city-to-city variation. The rich in developing cities produce much higher emissions
than the poor.
Hover over the icons to learn more about how these factors influence emission
levels.

Demographic composition of a society: Smaller households can reduce economies of

scale and increase energy consumption per capita. A society with a large proportion
of aging population may experience lower emissions when people enter retirement.

Location: The climatic conditions and the altitude of the city affect its energy
demands for cooling, heating and lighting. For instance, cities in colder climates
would have a higher demand for heating. The location of the city in relation to
natural resources, on the other hand, influences the choice of fuels. For example, in
some areas wind energy is more feasible.

Types of economic activities: The types of economic activities undertaken in cities

affect their levels of emissions. For example, energy-intensive manufacturing will
increase emissions. However, it is important to note that cities also consume
products and trade products which are produced elsewhere and therefore the
emissions are registered elsewhere.

Urban form: More dense cities may have lower levels of emissions. For instance, in a
denser city there is less need for motorised transport and it is cheaper to put in
place public transport systems. Compact forms of housing also tend to have lower
levels of energy consumption. However, higher densities can also lead to higher level
of vulnerability to climate change, for example in the case of slums.

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It is important to note that these relations do not always hold as emissions can also
be affected by other factors, such as the level of income or political willingness.

Source: UN-Habitat Global Report on Human Settlements, 2011: Cities and Climate
Change.

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Section 4 builds on the Introductory Learning Module 6: Planning for Climate
Change, focusing on planning at the sub-national level. This type of planning is
important because the effects of climate change are felt locally, planning and
investment decisions are often taken at the sub-national level, there is increasing
urbanisation, and climate change impacts the services local institutions provide.

Section 4 discusses the importance of integrating climate change into urban planning
and describes what the different approaches for this are. Good urban planning and
climate change adaptation and mitigation are connected. The previous sections have
highlighted some of the ways in which urban planning can address climate change.
For instance, transport planning that supports public transport can reduce emissions.
This section will explain in more detail how urban planning can help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and make cities more resilient.

The photo on the slide shows Maputo in Mozambique. Maputo is one of the cities
featured in the UN-Habitat Guide on Planning for Climate Change (2014), which will
be featured in this section 4.

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The quote in this slide refers to how good urban planning and planning for climate
change are connected.

In fact, urban planners’ responsibilities are generally consistent with planning for
climate change. The examples given by the UN-Habitat guide, Planning for Climate
Change 2014, are:
•Minimizing risk and improving land development activities occurring in areas that
are in or near coastal, slope or flood areas;
•Improving infrastructure, for example for storm water management and solid and
liquid waste management, as well as access to safe drinking water;
•Protecting ecosystems and environmentally sensitive areas in urban and peri-urban
areas;
•Improving disaster risk reduction; and
•Encouraging local economic development.

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There are advantages and disadvantages to the different approaches. However,
mainstreaming helps to ensure continuous consideration of climate change and is
not limited to one-off interventions.

• Ad hoc approaches focus on a specific issue to be addressed and are sometimes

retroactive (responding to an existing issue). In addition, these approaches do not
use a complete planning process, but rather focus on one opportunity at a time.

• Stand-alone plans focus on climate change and can address either adaptation or
mitigation or both. A specific plan is written, which often also includes an
implementation strategy.

• Mainstreaming means incorporating climate change into existing plans, policies

and programmes.

There are advantages and disadvantages to the different approaches. However,

mainstreaming helps to ensure continuous consideration of climate change that is
not limited to one-off interventions.

Source: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Academy climate change modules for
universities, Module 3 Planning for Climate Change.

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Climate change affects many different aspects of cities and people’s lives.
Consequently, climate change should be considered in almost any type of urban
policy, plan or programme. Incorporating climate change considerations can improve
the effectiveness of these plans as well as ensuring that the city is prepared for
climate change and takes measures to mitigate its contribution to climate change.
Mainstreaming helps to ensure that climate change considerations are not only
taken into account for a specific amount of time.

The UN-Habitat guide, Planning for Climate Change (2014), provides guidance to city
planners and other professionals on how to plan for climate change and mainstream
climate change actions into physical, spatial, sectoral and broader development
plans at the local level.

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This is not an exhaustive list of the types of plans in which climate change can be
mainstreamed. In fact climate change can be included in almost any type of plan.
Hover over each example to learn more.

Transport plan: This type of plan improves infrastructure and connections related to
transport. Mainstreaming climate change can mean, for example, identifying the
potential climate change impacts on transport networks and the improvements that
are needed, and undertaking climate change mitigation efforts such as reducing
emissions through supporting public transport.

Town/city plan: This plan identifies different zones for different types of
development, such as commercial or housing. Climate change can be mainstreamed
in different ways. For example, the plan can identify zones which are particularly
affected by climate change. These types of plans can also increase awareness of the
impacts of climate change on the city and the contribution to climate change of the
city, and can give policy direction.

Public health plan: It focuses on disease prevention and public safety improvements.
Mainstreaming climate change into this type of plan could include identifying health
risks related to climate change and facilitating mitigating those.

Energy management plan: This plan improves energy generation options,

distribution and conservation. Mainstreaming climate change into this plan could
involve identifying risks to energy generation and distribution facilities, and
supporting climate change mitigation, for instance through energy efficiency
measures.

Disaster risk reduction plan: This plan examines how prepared the city is for

45
disasters, and improves early warning systems and capacities. Disaster risk reduction
and climate change adaptation and mitigation have some overlaps. Disaster risk
reduction plan can examine climate change related disaster risks and adaptive
capacity.

45
Activity

Click on the boxes you think are correct answers.

Correct answers: 3rd box. It is important to gather reliable data that will then be
used in the urban planing process aiming at adaptation to and mitigation of the
impact of climate change.

46
This slide shows the modules of the planning process for climate change presented
in the UN-Habitat guide, Planning for Climate Change (2014). Each of the modules
will be addressed in turn. The modules are supported by planning tools that are
contained in a Toolkit accompanying the guide.

The planning process is flexible and non-linear. Cities may be in different stages of
climate change planning, use the Planning for Climate Change guide for different
purposes, have different planning structures, processes, and authorities, and have
different resources and capacities.

47
The three steps of this module help planners to address the following key questions:

Step 1: Are we ready to undertake a climate change planning process?

Step 2: Who needs to be involved in the city and in the community and how can
they be engaged?
Step 3: How is climate change affecting the city and who is most vulnerable to these
changes?

Each of the steps contain a number of tasks and the Guide provides valuable tools to
support the completion of tasks.

This first module will enable planners and other stakeholders to:

Have a shared, clear awareness of the need to address climate change in their city.
Know which city, community and local stakeholders to involve and how to do it by
completing their Stakeholder and Engagement Plan.
Understand what is happening with climate change in the city through the creation
of a Vulnerability Assessment (including where to source the information required
for it).

48
Module B contains one step:

Step 4: What community and local stakeholder issues must be considered in addition
to any existing city objectives when selecting and prioritizing climate change options,
and how can they be identified?

This module will enable planners and stakeholders to have:

•A clear list of existing city development objectives, from other plans and strategies,
that must also be considered and used as part of the climate change planning
initiative.
•A clear understanding of local community issues and objectives, which may or may
not be addressed by city planning objectives, and which ones matter most to the
community.
•An understanding of which objectives, at city-level and local community-level, are
most affected by, and relevant to, climate change adaptation planning.
•Indicators with which to compare and measure the objectives so they can be used
to evaluate and prioritize climate change adaptation options.

Source: UN-Habitat, Planning for Climate Change, p.83

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Module C has the following three planning steps:

Step 5: What options are there to respond to climate change in our city?
Step 6: How can we assess, screen and choose the best options to ensure resources,
time and capacity are used most effectively and efficiently?
Step 7 How can we best implement the prioritized climate change options
and assemble a Climate Change Action Plan?

This module leads to an achievable, comprehensive and integrated Climate Change

Action Plan. After completing Module C, planners and stakeholders will have:

•Identified, screened, assessed and prioritized climate change adaptation actions,

such as projects, policies, programmes and actions, according to local objectives and
vulnerabilities;
•Developed a stand-alone Climate Change Action Plan with a clear implementation
framework; and/or
•Mainstreamed and integrated climate actions into existing policy instruments, plans
and programmes, where practical and feasible.

Source: UN-Habitat, Planning for Climate Change, p.95.

50
Module D, “Are we doing it?”, is a fundamental part of measuring the success of
climate change planning processes and the Climate Change Action Plan. This last
module contains two planning steps:

Step 8: How can the progress of the Climate Change Action Plan be tracked to ensure
it is having the anticipated impact and that stakeholders are doing what they agreed
to do?
Step 9: How should new information be incorporated in to the Climate Change
Action Plan and how should other changes be made?

After this module, planners and stakeholders will have:

•A clear understanding of what monitoring and evaluation are and why they are
critical to the successful implementation of a Climate Change Action Plan
•Developed a monitoring and evaluation programme for the Climate Change Action
Plan to monitor implementation progress, evaluate actions against plan objectives
(i.e. is it making a difference?), and share results with stakeholders.
•Developed a clear timeline for formal Climate Change Action Plan reviews.

Source: UN-Habitat, Planning for Climate Change, p.127

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This video by UN-Habitat shows how Cambodia's coastal city of Preah Sihanouk is
planning for climate change and how climate change should be mainstreamed into
existing planning processes. Consider the following quote from the video: ‘Local
government is a capable and important implementing partner’. This highlights the
fact that local governments are and should be central actors in taking action on
climate change and that urban adaptation and mitigation are key issues.

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Funding is a key part of action on climate change and on deciding which mitigation
and adaptation measures to take. However, new funding may need to be mobilised
and existing resources may need to be redirected in order to fund mitigation and
adaptation efforts. There are a number of efforts to increase the availability of
financial resources for local climate action. For example, the Cities Climate Finance
Leadership Alliance was launched at the UN Secretary-General’s Climate Change
Summit in 2014 with the aim of accelerating investments in climate-smart urban
infrastructure.

This slide features some of the different options for increasing funding for local
adaptation and mitigation efforts. Click on the options to learn about each one. The
first option is from the UN-Habitat’s guide, Planning for Climate Change. The other
options are based on the chapter on cities in the New Climate Economy 2014 report,
which discusses a number of options for increasing city financing, focusing on
smarter infrastructure.
Click on each box to learn more.

Low regrets options: UN-Habitat’s Planning for Climate Change publication

encourages planners to consider low regrets adaptation options. These options, also
known as no regrets options, contribute to wider development objectives than
climate change. The benefits from those wider development objectives are
worthwhile even before considering climate change related benefits.

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Redirecting funds: Funding can be redirected from business-as-usual urban
infrastructure development. For example, the Bus Rapid Transit system in Bogota,
Colombia benefitted from redirecting funds from urban highway programmes.

Municipal bonds: Large institutional investors are generally not interested in

investing in small, individual projects. Municipal bonds allow cities to finance a
group of projects. The collective assets of these projects underwrite the bond. For
example, Johannesburg has issued four municipal bonds to finance capital
expenditure. In addition to municipal bonds, there are other ways to package
smaller projects, for examples cities can establish pooled financial mechanisms
between cities or exchanges or vehicles to match infrastructure projects with
investors/financing. The Chicago Infrastructure Trust is an example of the latter:
http://shapechicago.org/about/how-it-works/

Use of land value capture: Land value capture refers to financing the construction of
new transport infrastructure through the increase in land values that this new
infrastructure would promote. There are several different types of use of land value
capture, for example development impact fees, public land leasing and land
readjustment programmes.

Reform of multilateral funding: Multilateral funding could be reformed. At the

moment multilateral development banks often offer support cities on a sector-by-
sector basis rather than through more comprehensive holistic approaches. Cities
could also be given greater access to multilateral development bank funding.

Support for project preparation: International support for project preparation and
financing deals can be useful as cities may not have the expertise to prepare projects
that are attractive for private sector investors.

Enhanced creditworthiness: Poor credit ratings are an important factor contributing

to lack of financing for large-scale urban infrastructure. The City Creditworthiness
Initiative of the World Bank works with cities to improve their creditworthiness by
strengthening financial performance, developing an enabling legal, regulatory,
institutional and policy framework, developing sound climate-smart projects, and by
engaging with private sector investors. Read more at:
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/brief/city-
creditworthiness-initiative

Greater budgetary control: Greater budgetary control for cities could enable them to
leverage the co-financing that is often required for large-scale urban infrastructure
investment projects.

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Click on the option you consider to be correct.

Correct answer: municipal bonds

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This slide features some of the funds available for urban adaptation and mitigation.
Examples of multilateral sources are in blue, UNFCCC in red and bilateral in orange. National
sources and market instruments are in green. Click on the boxes to go directly to the
websites for examples in blue, yellow and red.

The multilateral and bilateral sources are from www.climatefinanceoptions.org and from
UNFCCC’s adaptation funding interface on funding for adaptation and mitigation in urban
areas. These funds include urban populations and human settlements as specific sectors of
interest. The list is not exhaustive but rather shows examples of funding options.

Funds can also be mobilised from national sources, such as through tax revenues, use of land
value capture and redirecting funds. Market instruments include green municipal bonds
mentioned in the previous slide and carbon finance. Carbon finance refers to the use of
market-based mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol; the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), or other mechanisms such as the regional EU Emissions
Trading Scheme (EU ETS). Few CDM projects in cities have been registered. (The World Bank,
A City-Wide Approach to Carbon Finance, 2010).

(Links: https://sgp.undp.org/, http://www.adb.org/site/funds/funds/climate-change-fund,

http://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/home, http://www.gcca.eu/,
http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/financial_mechanism/adaptation_fund/items/3
659.php, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/economy/wef/2008/mechanism.html)

55
The previous section discussed the importance of integrating climate change
adaptation and mitigation into urban planning. Section 5 discusses practical
measures for urban climate change adaptation and mitigation with respect to key
areas, including energy, water, green spaces and housing. Concrete examples are
given around the world to illustrate the measures. These will highlight the multitude
of different ways climate change adaptation and mitigation is undertaken in urban
areas.

Photo: Port Moresby, UN-Habitat

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Low carbon development, use of renewable energy sources and taking energy efficiency
measures are some examples of urban adaptation and mitigation in the context of energy.
Hover over each category to learn more

Renewable energy sources: The use of renewable energy sources, such as wind energy,
lowers greenhouse gas emissions and therefore contributes to climate change mitigation.

Energy efficiency measures: Energy efficiency measures, such as light bulbs that use less
energy or more energy efficient public transport, are sometimes called the low-hanging fruit
of mitigation because they are generally less costly than other options. Energy efficiency
measures also have co-benefits, for example better air quality from the lower emissions of
energy efficient cars and buses. The case study on green lighting in Beijing in section 1 is an
example of an energy efficiency measure.

Low carbon development: Low carbon development is generally taken to mean adopting
low-carbon development strategies. Definitions vary but this would involve cities re-thinking
their development trajectories and taking a trajectory with lower emissions.

Source: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Academy climate change modules for
universities, Module 2: The Practice of Urban Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

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Sources: Mousa S. Mohsen and Bilal A. Akash (1997), Evaluation of domestic solar
water heating system in Jordan using analytic hierarchy process, Energy Conrrrs.
Mgntt Vol. 38; Issue 2, p. 18l5~l822.
Soteris A. Kalogirou, Environmental Benefits of Domestic Solar Water Heating
Systems, Higher Technical Institute, Cyprus.
Reproduced from UN-Habitat, Going Green: A Handbook of Sustainable Housing
Practices in Developing Countries, 2012

58
The City of São Paulo entered into agreements with the Brazilian company Biogás.
Biogás constructed facilities at two landfill sites for a total investment of US$ 90
million. At the Bandeirantes site a system captures the methane gas and channels it
in to a combined heat and power plant. The two landfills together now generate 10%
of the city’s electricity requirements. To date, the credits generated by reduced
emissions have yielded some Euros 48 million, which the city splits 50/50 with
Biogás. The City Council of São Paulo has used its share of the revenues to develop
parks and squares in the poor neighbourhoods surrounding these landfills.

Source: UN-Habitat, Local Leadership for Climate Change Action, 2011

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Climate change can affect water resources in many different ways. The rise of sea
levels can lead to intrusion of saline water into urban coastal aquifers, increased
rainfall can decrease water quality, and droughts and decreased rainfall can lead to
reduced water supplies.

Climate-resilient water management is important as is strategic long-term planning.

Climate concerns should be considered in water management plans but also in other
types of city plans. The water management plan could identify and address climate-
related risks to water supplies, treatment and distribution, as well as identifying
water conservation measures. Drought-prone areas can have drought management
plans.

Adaptation measures include water desalination from sea water, storing rainwater
and reusing waste water for other purposes such as irrigation of parks. Water
conservation is important, especially in drought prone areas. This can be encouraged
by measures such as water metres or by installing toilets that use less water.

Photo: UN-Habitat/Julius Mwelu.

Sources: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Academy climate change modules for
universities, Module 4 and UN-Habitat (2014)., Planning for Climate Change.

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The photo shows bus rapid transit (BRT) in Lahore, Pakistan. BRT operates on its own lane,
often making it a fast mode of public transport.

Hover over the boxes to learn more about adaptation and mitigation in the context of urban
transport.

Adaptation: Transport infrastructure can be vulnerable to extreme weather events such as

heavy rainfall or heat. For instance, roads and bridges can get flooded and damaged.
Measures such as storm drainage or building roads in more elevated areas are examples of
adaptation to such events.

Mitigation: Transport is a significant emitter of greenhouse gases in cities. Investment in

public transport networks and disincentives for the use of private vehicles, for example,
congestion charges or taxes on vehicles, can reduce emissions from transport. Private
vehicles and public transport can also be made more energy efficient, leading to lower levels
of emissions. Other examples of mitigation measures include promoting car sharing and
building bicycle lanes. The case study on the cable car transport network in Medellin in
section 1 is an example of mitigating emissions from the transport sector.

Photo: https://www.dawn.com/news/1186130
Photo credit: dawn.com

Source: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Academy climate change modules for
universities, Module 6: Climate Change and Urban Mobility

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Planning for green spaces in urban areas affects climate change adaptation and mitigation.
The boxes on the slide show some of the actions that can be taken.
Hover over each of them to learn more.

Carbon sequestration is listed in the white cloud. Vegetation in cities can contribute to
carbon sequestration, that is to the removal of carbon from the atmosphere and its storage
in carbon sinks such as forests or oceans. Urban vegetation, such as trees, can store carbon.
Urban agriculture, that is farming in cities or nearby areas, also provides green spaces and
carbon sequestration benefits.

Green spaces can have numerous benefits relating to a wide range of issues from cooling
temperatures to important co-benefits. Green facades and roofs can cool buildings during
the summer and provide insulation during the winter, reducing energy use. Trees also
provide shade for buildings. Urban agriculture also reduces the urban heat island effect.
Green roofs and green spaces can improve drainage of rainwater and thus reduce rainwater
run-off in case of extreme weather events.

Planning for green spaces can have important co-benefits. For instance, trees can reduce air
and noise pollution in cities. Public green areas, such as parks, improve the quality of life of
urban dwellers and be an easily accessible public area for all. Urban agriculture can have a
positive impact on food security and reduce urban poverty.

Source: UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change Academy climate change modules for
universities, Module 5: Climate Change and Urban Energy

62
This slide shows the UN-Habitat publication Going Green: A Handbook of Sustainable
Housing Practices in Developing Countries. The quote highlights the importance of
housing and buildings in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Naturally, this is
not only an important issue in developing countries. According to the handbook, this
sector is a major user of the world’s electricity supplies and has great potential for
reducing its use.

The way buildings are designed and constructed affects their energy needs, and
hence their levels of emissions. For instance, the design of the building can reduce
the need for air conditioning or heating. Design and construction also impact on how
buildings can withstand extreme weather events and other changes due to climate
change. For instance, some materials and designs are cooler and thus better in areas
with rising temperatures. Adaptation to extreme weather events, such as storms and
floods, may involve using more robust materials or locating buildings at higher or
more stable ground or on stilts. Sewage systems and storm water run-off systems are
also important.

Source: UN-Habitat (2012)., Going Green: A Handbook of Sustainable Housing

Practices in Developing Countries

63
Source: UN-Habitat, Local Leadership for Climate Change Action, 2011

64
Some of the previous examples of climate change action in this section have
highlighted density. This quote from the UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change
Initiative Newsletter, March 2014, summarises the importance of promoting
compact urban development.

For instance, urban sprawl increases distances people must travel and generates
higher emissions. A more compact city makes investments in public transport
infrastructure more viable. Urban sprawl also encroaches into the surrounding green
areas that can act as carbon sinks.

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All options are correct except for C. Bicycle pathways can be included on the
sidewalks which are considerably wide. This is one of the different strategies to
encourage the use of bicycles. Only private cars can be seen in the image. At best
you can improve the public transport making it reliable and efficient so it encourages
people giving up the excessive use of private cars. The roofs of the buildings can be
used for solar panels. Of course there are many more measures that can be taken if
we extend our imagination further from what can be seen in the image. What other
measures could you suggest?

Photo: Shutterstock

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In the previous sections of this module the importance of local action on climate
change has been highlighted. Section 6 of the module focuses on initiatives
undertaken by networks and alliances of cities, as well as those undertaken by local
and sub-national governments. Cities are increasingly forming networks to act on
climate change by making emissions reduction commitments, by adapting to the
effects of climate change, and by advocating for national and international action.

This module also features an initiative, Non-State Actor Zone for Climate Action,that
records commitments made by cities, regions, companies and investors.

Photo: Accra, Ghana, Shutterstock.

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Cities are working together to address climate change in many different ways and
through different mechanisms and organisations. They are providing data on
emissions and reduction targets, sharing best practices on mitigation and adaptation,
making city-level commitments, and advocating for action at national and
international levels, amongst others. Cities are also actively participating in
international processes and negotiations. Cities are undertaking these actions
through existing city networks, by forming new alliances and by supporting
international processes.

The rest of this last section of the module will focus on giving examples of the
different types of initiatives undertaken by cities.

The rest of this last section of the module will focus on giving examples of the
different types of initiatives undertaken by cities.

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Before looking into specific joint city initiatives, this section presents some statistics
on recorded city commitments.

NAZCA is the Non-State Actor Zone for Climate Action. NAZCA was launched by the
government of Peru in December 2014 and developed with the support of the
UNFCCC. Its aim is to showcase commitments by cities, regions, companies and
investors. This slide shows that on the 4th August 2015, 411 city commitments were
recorded in NAZCA. This includes both individual actions by cities and cooperative
actions taken by cities.

Data for NAZCA is provided by CDP, the carbonn Climate Registry, the Climate Group
and Investors on Climate Change.

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Cities, and local and sub-national governments have become active participants in
international climate change negotiation processes and in advocating for action on climate
change. This slide shows some examples of the different compacts, declarations and pacts
undertaken. The list is not exhaustive. In the next slide more information is given on a recent
initiative called the Compact of Mayors.

Hover over the examples provided.

The World Summit Climate & Territories Declaration in 2015 is the most widely supported
climate declaration to date. Its signatories, 50 networks of subnational and local
governments, as well as civil society organisations, represent over two thirds of the world
population. In addition to affirming commitment to taking action on climate change,
signatories called for greater access to financial resources for local and subnational
governments to address climate change.

The signatories of The Nantes Declaration of Mayors and Subnational Leaders on Climate
Change in September 2013 committed to advocate for a new strong global climate regime,
urged for increased funding for local climate action and for national governments to adopt a
global climate regime at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Conference of the Parties in Paris in 2015.

The Durban Adaptation Charter has over 1000 signatories and was launched at the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Conference of the Parties in Durban in

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2011. Local governments committed to local climate action in adaptation to climate change
risks.

The Global Cities Covenant on Climate - the Mexico City Pact in 2010 established voluntary
commitments for mitigation and adaptation and promised to register commitments, actions,
inventories and measures. Signatories also committed to cooperation and looking for ways
to enhance funding for local climate actions.

Photos: UN/Ariane Rummery, UN Photo/Kibae Park and UN Photo/R Kollar.

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The Compact of Mayors was launched in September 2014 at the Climate Summit by
the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and the UN Special Envoy for Cities and
Climate Change, Michael R. Bloomberg. Major city networks, Local Governments for
Sustainability (ICLEI), United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) and the C40 Cities
Climate Leadership Group are the founding partners of the Compact of Mayors, with
support from UN-Habitat. In addition to the founding partners, there are a large
number of other partners such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the World
Resources Institute.

The Compact is the world’s largest coalition of city leaders. Cities will take action by
registering their mitigation and adaptation commitments, taking inventories, setting
reduction targets and creating action plans. The data on commitments and actions
will be available to the public.

Learn more about the Compact of Mayors at http://www.compactofmayors.org/

Photo: UN Photo/ Zach Krahmer. The quote is from the website of the Compact of
Mayors.

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This slide shows some examples of city and regional networks. This is not an
exhaustive list as many more exist. In this section we focus on networks that are
managed by cities themselves. Other types of networks of cities working on
addressing climate change also exist. One example of such a network is the Asian
Cities Climate Resilience Network (ACCRN), which was launched by the Rockefeller
Foundation and works on building climate change resilience capacity in over 50 cities
in Asia. Please note that there are also regional networks, such as the Networks of
Regional Governments for Sustainable Development (nrg4DS) and R20, which also
focus on sustainable development.

Click on each box to learn more.

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C40, a network of the world’s megacities, is committed to addressing climate
change. Bus rapid transit, municipal building efficiency, green growth and climate risk
assessment are examples of some of their networks that connect cities on specific
topics. C40 is a founding partner of the Compact of Mayors, partner to the Global
Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories, discussed
earlier in this module, and to the carbonn Climate Registry, to be covered later.

Click on each example on the slide to learn about concrete examples where C40
cities have worked together to address climate change.

Learn more at http://www.c40.org/cities and check if your city forms part of this
network.

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ICLEI was founded in 1990 and today has over 1000 members. ICLEI works on climate
change through networks, tools and services, advocacy and public commitments. Its
programmes include the GreenClimateCities Program and the Urban-LEDS project.
ICLEI is also a partner of the Global Protocol for Community-Scale Greenhouse Gas
Emission Inventories, covered earlier in this module, and a founding partner of the
Compact of Mayors.

Click on each example to learn more about two initiatives managed or facilitated by
ICLEI.

Find out more about ICLEI at http://www.iclei.org and check if your city is part of
ICLEI.

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The carbonn Climate Registry is a global registry for greenhouse gas emissions reduction
commitments, emissions inventories, adaptation and mitigation actions, and action plans. Its
524 reporting cities and regions from 50 countries represent 14% of the world’s urban
population.

Local governments can report on commitments, such as targets for reduction of CO2
emissions and renewable energy targets. 376 jurisdictions have reported energy or climate
commitments and 81% of the jurisdictions have set climate targets to be reached by 2020.
The committed greenhouse gas reductions by 2020 are equivalent to 1 billion tCO2e.

Local governments also report on mitigation and adaptation actions. So far, 4,013 mitigation
and 1,188 adaptation actions have been reported with most focusing on policies, strategies
and actions plans, and on technical and infrastructure investments.

The bottom-up and disaggregated reporting of the carbonn Climate Registry enhances
transparency, accountability and credibility of local and sub-national governments’ climate
action. It also showcases the importance of local action and commitments.

The carbonn Climate Registry is the reporting platform for the Compact of Mayors, the core
data partner for NAZCA, the Non-State Actor Zone for Climate Action of the UNFCCC, and
supports reporting to the Compact of States and Regions.

Find out more at http://carbonn.org/

Find out more about NAZCA at http://climateaction.unfccc.int/

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The TAP programme will be officially launched at the COP21 in Paris in December
2015. The TAP has four action pillars: TAP Project Pipeline; TAP Platform; TAP
Advocacy for Accelerated Climate Action; and TAP Pavillion. The TAP Project Pipeline
is a collection of the projects selected every year, the TAP Platform is a depository of
projects and action plans and a global facilitation platform, the TAP Advocacy for
Accelerated Climate Action helps to raise awareness, and the TAP Pavillion is a
physical space where TAP projects can be presented at UNFCCC COPs.

The TAP programme is launched and managed by ICLEI. Partners include C40,
EUROCITIES, UCLG and WWF.

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UCLG represents interests of local governments and is actively involved in advocating
for global climate regimes and the active role of local governments. UCLG is a
partner to the Local Government Climate Roadmap, the carbonn Climate Registry
and is also a founding partner of the Compact of Mayors.

Find out more about UCLG at http://www.uclg.org and check if your city is part of
UCLG.

79
This section has covered some of the initiatives and actions cities and local
governments have taken on climate change, working together in networks, alliances,
and through joint projects and declarations.

Please select the answer you think is correct to the question on actions cities can
take on climate change when working together.
Correct answer: D

This slide marks the end of the module on cities and climate change. Having
completed the module, find out how your city is being impacted by climate change,
how it contributes to climate change, and what kinds of actions it is undertaking to
mitigate and to adapt.

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