Module 5: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

OVERVIEW
5.0 5.4.5
Introduction
Instructional goals
5.1 The
5.4.6curriculum
Instructional objectives
5.5 development
Instructional objectives
process or
5.2 learning
Models ofoutcomes
curriculum
5.6 development
Classifying instructional
5.2.1 Tyler’s
objectives or model
learning
5.2.2 Taba’s model
outcomes
5.2.3 Alexander
5.6.1 Cognitive domain
& Taylor’s
5.6.2 Affective
model domain
5.3 5.6.3
GoalsPsychomotor
of Education domain
5.4 Levels of goals
5.4.1 Educational
Discussion Questions
philosophy
5.4.2
Readings
Education goals
5.4.3 Curriculum goals
5.4.4 Curriculum objectives

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module you will be able to:

 Describe Tyler’s model of curriculum development
 Explain the features of Taba’s curriculum development model
 Describe the Saylor and Alexander model
 Compare the Tyler, Taba and the Saylor & Alexander models
 Differentiate between the levels of educational goals
 Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains
 Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.

Ethics, moral
education, religious Drug prevention, road safety
education education

Language & National unity, racial

quantitative tolerance, citizenship
literacy education

1
 Science and technology,
Environmental education
Globalisation,
knowledge
economy

How can we help children make sense of these?

[Source: adaptation of www.freeclipart.com]

5.0 Introduction

In Module 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how philosophy, psychology, society and history

events influence curriculum. In Modules 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different
phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning
followed by curriculum design, curriculum
implementation and curriculum evaluation. In
this chapter we examine in general the
curriculum development process by referring
to three well-known curriculum development
model; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba
model and the Saylor & Alexander model. In
the second part of the chapter, we focus on the
first phase of the process namely, curriculum
planning which involves establishing the goals
and objectives of a curriculum based on the
agreed educational philosophy.

[Source: www.iconandclipart.com]

ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 5.1 5.1
What
What is
is the
the message
message ofof the
the cartoon?
cartoon?
How
How far is this characteristic of
far is this characteristic of your
your education
education system?
system?

5.1 The Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a

school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how teachers
are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of
guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the
curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can function

2
efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum a number of questions are raised.
How is it developed? How is it organised? Who develops it? What are the principles
in developing a curriculum? How do we know whether the curriculum is successful?
Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning
experiences that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of
providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum
development. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which
includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and
evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum
improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development, though in
some cases improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982).
Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better
and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation.

5.2 Models of Curriculum Development

What is a model? A model consist of interacting parts that serves as a guide or
procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In
many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements or
revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development, but in
this chapter, we will discuss three well-known models: the Tyler Model, the Taba
Model and the Saylor & Alexander Model. Each of these models is named after their
originator.

5.2.1 The Tyler Model

One of the best known curriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in
1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction in which he asked 4 questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

In essence, Tyler’s questions represent the four-step sequence of (1)

identifying purposes or objectives, (2) selecting the means for the attainment or
achievement of these objectives i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences
have to be provided for students, (3) organising these educational or teaching-learning
experiences, and (4) evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or
achieved. By “purposes”, Tyler was referring to “objectives” and when developing
curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the subject
area (eg. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (eg. economically
disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (eg. ethics, patriotism,
national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1
presents Tyler’s model of curriculum development.
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the
curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen
and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives
which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable. The next step is
the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated

3
objectives. The learning experiences have to take into account the previous
experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning experiences will have to be
selected based on what is known about human learning and human development.
Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning
experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised so as to
enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be used as
organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as
organisers linking content within a particular subject (eg. history, economics, science)
and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. [We will discuss
curriculum design in more detail in module 6].
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the
curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether the
selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the
objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences
selected achieve this objective. Through evaluation it will be possible to determine
whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. [We will discuss curriculum
evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

There is no denying that Tyler’s thinking has greatly influenced the field of
curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he raised had
and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable. Despite much
criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denying
that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).

SELF-TEST
SELF-TEST 5.1 5.1
What
What is the role of
is the role of objectives
objectives in
in Tyler’s
Tyler’s model?
model?
Why
Why dodo objectives
objectives have
have to
to be
be screened
screened byby philosophy
philosophy and
and
psychology?
psychology?
Give
Give 33 specific
specific examples
examples ofof ‘learning
‘learning experiences’
experiences’according
according to
to the
the
Tyler
Tyler Model,
Model,
What
What are
are elements?
elements? Give
Give specific
specific examples
examples
What
What isis the
the purpose
purpose ofof evaluation?
evaluation?

Curriculum Planning

Society Philosophy
Philosophy

Subject
matter Objectives Instructional
SOURCES Scree
Objectives
ns
Learner Psychology
Psychology

4
 Organisation of
Selection of Learning Evaluation
Learning Experiences
Experiences

Curriculum Design Curriculum

Evaluation

Figure 5.1 Tyler’s Curriculum Development Model

[Source: adapted from Allan C. Ornstein & Francis P. Hunkins, Curriculum: Foundations,
Principles and Issues, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p.198.]

5.2.2 The Taba Model

Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in
her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She
argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that
teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led to
the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted 7 major steps to her
grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure 5.2). She was
of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler
model involved too much top-down decision making, The greater portion of
curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the Central Office or the
Ministry of Education.
Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme.
Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for
their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum
development. This meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general
design This was just the opposite to the more traditional deductive approach which
starts with the general design and than working toward the specifics.

Teacher Input

Evaluation

Diagnosis of

Needs Organisatio
n of
Learning
Teache Formulatio Activities r
Input n of
Objectives

Selection of
Learning
Activities 5
 Selection of
Content

Organisatio
n of Content

Teacher Input

Figure 5.2 Taba’s Curriculum Development Model

Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have
major input throughout the curriculum development process:

1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the
process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is
planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.

2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require
attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.

3. Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject

matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content
match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be
determined. i.e. the relevancy and significance of content.

4. Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must

organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of
learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will discuss
curriculum design in more detail in Module 6].

5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students and

students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects
instructional methods that will involve the students with the content.

6. Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and

organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning
activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind
the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.

7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine

just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to

6
 be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will discuss curriculum
evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

Taba’ model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement
throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more
importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity.
Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not
necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an effective
curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.
However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the
involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals
from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers,
principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even
students. Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are given the task of
directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum
development. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum while
the main part of the curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education,
academics, content specialists and employers.

SELF-TEST
SELF-TEST 5.2 5.2
Explain
Explain why Taba’s model
why Taba’s model is
is called
called the
the grass-roots
grass-roots model
model
Do
Do you
you think
think teachers
teachers should
should bebe the
the main
main decision
decision makers
makers in
in the
the
development
development ofof aa curriculum?
curriculum? Why?Why?
To
To what
what extent
extent are
are teachers
teachers involved
involved in in developing
developing curriculum
curriculum in in
your
your country?
country?

5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development
as consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is “a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related
specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre”
(p.24).

Bases (external variables)

Goals, objectives
and domains

Curriculum Curriculum Curriculum

designing implementation evaluation
Feedback

7
 Figure 5.3 Saylor and Alexander’s Curriculum Development Model

a) Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners
begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they
wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they
advocate 4 major goals or domains: personal development, human relations,
continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains
are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such as
findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of
community groups and others.
b) Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been
established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here
decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain
and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum
be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student
needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need
to be answered at this stage of the development process [We will discuss
curriculum design in more detail in Module 6].
c) Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step
is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the
curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select
relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning
outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss curriculum
implementation in more detail in Module 7].
d) Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. The
model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety of
evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational
programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of
instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process,
curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or nor the goals of
the school and the objectives of instruction have been met. [We will discuss
curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].

SELF-CHECK 5.3
1) What is meant by ‘domains’ in the Saylor and Alexander
model?
2) What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?
3) What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander
model?

The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All
models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.
Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum
development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to pass
through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete; they do

8
not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process.
To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum development process would require
an exceedingly complex and intricate model.
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to
another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with
considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the
ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with
it.

5.3 Goals of Education

The cartoon at the beginning of this chapter shows the kinds of decisions that
curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world.
Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a course or
making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-
reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary
or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary
and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or
elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or
matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of curriculum
development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the
education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing
primary school or after completing secondary school?
In Chapter 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern
philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In
Chapter 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which
provide guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be
taught. In Chapter 4, we examined what society demands of its education system
providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, the
curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the
goals of education may be derived.

5.4. Levels of Goals

Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum
workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers,
administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels
at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational
philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroom
level.

5.4.1 Educational philosophy

The initial task of curriculum planners is identification of an educational
vision or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of
the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement or
philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and
incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic vision
is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country and also
from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of realities to enable

9
the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in schools rather remaining an
ideal that is unachievable.
The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of
national policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the
different communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common
national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will
also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, socio-
cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different
cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation to the priorities. For
example does the country want more graduates or should the emphasis be on basic
education.
In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions
etc. could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school
curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost opportunities for
learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for vocational and career
education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, vocational interests of
students have to be assessed.
In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices,
customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare these to
the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and
curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of concepts at
different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on
to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to learning and
avoid wastage in the learning programmes.

CASE STUDY : The Vision of South Africa’s Curriculum Framework 2005

10
 The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides
both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development
initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or school-based.
The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and
internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens, leading
productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and
prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education,
training and development to empower people to participate effectively in all the
processes of a democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural
resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology.
The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just
and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is
accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or
language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is,
therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system,
fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development.
The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to
facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training system
in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful
modern economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general
education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new
knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take
responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to
work cooperatively.
[Source: CURRICULUM 2005 Lifelong Learning for the 21 st Century: A User's Guide.
National
NationalPolicies
Policies&& Researchand
andBest
Best
http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles]
Research
Priorities Practices
Priorities Practices

ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 5.2 5.2
Educational
Educational
Philosophy
Read Philosophy
Read the
the Case
Case Study
Study and
and answer
answer the
the following
following questions:
questions:

Why
Why do
do you
you think
think that
that in the
the vision
vision itit is
inEducational is emphasised
emphasised that
that South
South Africa
Africa
should
should be
be free
free of violence,Educational
of violence, discrimination
discrimination
Goals
and
and prejudice?
prejudice?
Goals
What
What are
are the
the goals
goals of
of the
the curriculum
curriculum framework
framework of of South
South Africa?
Africa?
Curriculum
How
How are
are these Curriculum
these educational
educational goals
goals similar
similar or
or different
different from
from those
those of
of your
your
Goals
country?
country? Goals

Curriculum
Curriculum
Objectives
Objectives

Instructional
Instructional
Goals
Goals

11
Instructional
Instructional
Objectives
 Curriculum Phase

Instructional Phase

Figure 5.4 Levels of Curriculum Planning

5.4.2 Education Goals

12
 Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a
particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run

ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 5.3
5.3

In
In 1990,
1990, the
the President
President of of the
the United
United States
States and
and state
state governors
governors issued
issued
aa list
list of six goals for the nation’s schools which stated that
of six goals for the nation’s schools which stated that by
by the
the year
year
2000:
2000:
all
all children
children in in America
America will
will start
start school
school ready
ready toto learn
learn
the
the high
high school
school graduation
graduation raterate will
will increase
increase toto at
at least
least 90%
90%
American
American students
students will
will leave
leave grades
grades 4, 4, 88 and
and 1212 having
having demonstrated
demonstrated
competency in challenging subject mater
competency in challenging subject mater (English, mathematics, (English, mathematics,
science
science ,, history
history andand geography)
geography)
U.S
U.S students will be
students will be first
first inin the
the world
world in in science
science and and mathematics
mathematics
achievement
achievement
Every
Every adult
adult American
American will will bebe literate
literate and
and will
will possess
possess thethe knowledge
knowledge
and
and skills
skills necessary
necessary to to compete
compete in in aa global
global economy
economy and and exercise
exercise the
the
right and responsibilities of citizenship
right and responsibilities of citizenship
Every
Every school
school in in America
America willwill bebe free
free of
of drugs
drugs and
and violence
violence and
and
will
will offer a disciplined environment conducive to
offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning
learning

[Source:
[Source: National
National Goals
Goals for
for Education,
Education, 1990.
1990. Washington
Washington D.C].
D.C].

What
What seems
seems to
to be
be the
the emphasis
emphasis inin these
these goals?
goals? What
What is
is lacking?
lacking?
Compare
Compare these
these goals
goals with
with the
the goals
goals ofof your
your education
education system.
system.

throughout the period some are specific to particular levels and times. This means that
a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic
elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well articulated without
ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. In a country recovering from a civil
war, its key educational goals might be peace, developing self-confidence,
cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts.
Actually, there could be a plethora of goals such as developing creativity, mental
health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth, ending
on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to
education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of education on society.
.

5.4.3 Curriculum Goals

A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time
period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is mention of the criteria
for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it as

13
a result of exposure to segments or all of a programme in a particular educational
institution. Goals provide direction for the curriculum.
For example:
 “Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as
good citizens in their own school and community”.
 “Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of
students”

5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculum
objective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a refinement of
the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students for
whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; “Students shall acquire
knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in
their own school and community setting”; the following curriculum objectives can be
derived:
 “The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school”
 “More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary activity”
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum
objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.

14
 ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 5.4
5.4
Malaysian
Malaysian Primary School Science
Primary School Science Curriculum
Curriculum
Curriculum
Curriculum Goal Goal ororAim
Aim
Primary
Primary Science education aims
Science education aims toto develop
develop knowledgeable,
knowledgeable, skilful,
skilful, thinking,
thinking,
caring,
caring, dynamic
dynamic andand progressive
progressive individuals
individuals able
able to
to contribute
contribute towards
towards the
the creation
creation
of
of aa society
society that
that practices
practices science
science and
and technology
technology culture,
culture, responsible
responsible towards
towards the
the
environment
environment and and appreciative
appreciative of
of nature
nature and
and God’s
God’s creations.
creations.

Sample
Sample Curriculum
Curriculum Objectives
Objectives
The
The Primary School
Primary School Science
Science Curriculum
Curriculum willwill enable
enable students
students to:
to:
Acquire
Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles
an understanding of science concepts and principles in in an
an integrated
integrated
manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday
manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences, experiences,
Apply
Apply science
science knowledge
knowledge and and skills
skills creatively
creatively andand intelligently
intelligently in
in problem
problem solving
solving
and
and decision
decision making
making
Develop
Develop further
further thethe intrinsic
intrinsic values
values ofof science
science such
such asas inquisitiveness,
inquisitiveness, open-
open-
mindedness,
mindedness, intellectual
intellectual honesty
honesty and
and perseverance,
perseverance,
Develop
Develop scientific
scientific and
and manipulative
manipulative skills
skills through
through the
the discovery-inquiry
discovery-inquiry approach
approach
Develop
Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research
skills in conducting scientific investigations and research

Sample
Sample Instructional
Instructional Goals
Goals for
forYear
Year 44
A)
A) Understand
Understand that
that breathing
breathing isis aa general
general characteristic
characteristic of
of living
living things
things
B)
B) Know
Know that
that light
light can
can be
be dispersed
dispersed

Sample
Sample Instructional
Instructional Objectives
Objectives
A1)
A1) Explain
Explain how
how breathing
breathing takes
takes place
place in
in humans
humans
A2)
A2) State the three methods of breathing in
State the three methods of breathing in animals
animals
B1)
B1) State
State that
that sunlight
sunlight consists
consists ofof seven
seven colours
colours
B2)
B2) Explain
Explain the
the formation
formation of
of aa rainbow
rainbow

How
How is is the
the goal
goal of
of the
the Malaysian
Malaysian primary
primary school
school curriculum
curriculum different
different from
from
the
the stated
stated curriculum
curriculum objectives?
objectives?
Which
Which curriculum
curriculum objectives
objectives focus
focus on
on the
the knowledge,
knowledge, skills
skills and
and
attitudes/values
attitudes/values to to be
be acquired
acquired by
by students?
students?
How
How is is ‘Instructional
‘Instructional Goal
Goal A’
A’implemented
implemented in in the
the classroom?
classroom?

[Source:
[Source: Curriculum
Curriculum Specifications
Specifications for
for Smart
Smart Schools,
Schools, Curriculum
Curriculum
Development
Development Centre,
Centre, Ministry
Ministry of
of Education
Education Malaysia,
Malaysia, July,
July, 1997]
1997]

5.4.5 Instructional Goals

At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into
instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of
each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions of a course
of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, ‘Students will show an
understanding about the tropical rainforest’. It indicates the performance expected; i.e.
“understand”, but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So it is not easily
measured. Instructional goals points the way to instructional objectives.

5.4.6 Instructional Objectives

An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by
each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other

15
names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional objectives, specific
learning outcomes, behavioural objectives performance objectives, and competencies.
An example of an instructional objective is: ‘At the end of the lesson students should
be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest’. It is important that
you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a
period of instruction. It determines the selection of content (textbook, the internet,
reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures, practical sessions, group
discussions, self study, field visits) to be adopted, learning resources (audio-visual
aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how you intend to evaluate whether the
desired learning outcomes have been achieved. Let us examine in detail about
instructional objectives.

5.5. Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes

Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary
importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate content to
be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of assessing
performance in the subject. In the past the traditional description of a course simply
referred to content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover. There has, however,
been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with learning and the learner now
seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then becomes the means of facilitating
learning in the learner.
In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the
transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the subject
area were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would transmit. In the
learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the learner does, and the
intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of how the learner will be
changed as a result of learning that content. The statements describing the change in
student behaviour which should result from taking the course are known as "intended
learning objectives" or "intended learning outcomes"; "objectives" or "outcomes" for
short. Teaching then becomes a series of strategies which are devised in order to help
students achieve these objectives / outcomes. [You will notice that at the beginning of
each chapter in this course there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives].
In stating a instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used
to indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is not
enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you understand unless
you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some example of learning outcomes:
On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you should
be able to:
 Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, canopy
 Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map
 Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest

16
 5.6. Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes
ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 5.5
5.5

Proponents
Proponents of of Behavioural
Behavioural Objectives
Objectives argue
argue that
that it:
it:
forces
forces the
the teachers
teachers toto be
be precise
precise about
about what
what is
is to
to be
be accomplished
accomplished
enables
enables the
the teacher
teacher toto tell
tell students
students what
what they
they must
must achieve
achieve
makes evaluation easier because it is measurable
makes evaluation easier because it is measurable
makes
makes itit easier
easier for
for the
the selection
selection of
of instructional
instructional objectives
objectives
makes
makes accountability
accountability easier
easier

Opponents
Opponents of of Behavioural
Behavioural Objectives
Objectives argue
argue that
that it:
it:
restricts
restricts creativity
creativity
lead
lead to
to trivial
trivial or
or unimportant
unimportant competencies
competencies
is dehumanising
is dehumanising
downplays
downplays affective
affective outcomes
outcomes

How
How dodo behavioural
behavioural objectives
objectives restrict
restrict creativity
creativity among
among students?
students?
Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?
Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?
State
State ONE
ONE other
other reason
reason each
each supporting
supporting thethe proponents
proponents and
and
opponents
opponents of
of behavioural
behavioural objectives.
objectives.
[Source:
[Source: adapted
adapted from
from Peter
Peter Oliva
Oliva (1982).
(1982). Developing
Developing the
the curriculum.
curriculum.
Boston: Little Brown
Boston: Little Brown
&
& Co.
Co. p.
p. 352]
352]

The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team

led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and for each
taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A taxonomy is a system
for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning objectives or
learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used
to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that
different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three
taxonomies are:

 The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills

and abilities
 The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes
 The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills

The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what
a body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students should
be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it
draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks which
a subject might require to perform.

Cognitive Description Examples of Verbs for Stating

17
 Levels Objectives or Outcomes

Knowledge Remembering previously learned material. Define, describe, identify, label,

The skill may involve recall of a wide list, match, name, select, state,
range of material, from specific facts to outline, recite
complete theories, but all that is required
is the bringing to mind of the appropriate
information.

Comprehension The ability to grasp meaning of material. Change, decode, defend,

This skill may be shown by translating
material from one form to another, by
interpreting material (explaining or
summarising), and by estimating future
trends (predicting consequences or
effects).
distinguish, estimate, explain,
generalise, infer, give example,
illustrate, paraphrase, predict,
rewrite, restate, summarise, solve

Application The ability to use learned material in new
and concrete situations. This may include
the application of such things as rules,
methods, concepts, principles, laws and
theories.
Apply, compute, demonstrate,
develop, employ, manipulate,
modify, organise, produce, relate,
transfer, discover

Synthesis The ability to put parts together to form a Categorise, combine, compile,
new whole. This may involve the compose, construct, create, design,
production of a unique communication devise, formulate, invent, generate,
(theme or speech), a plan of operations propose, rearrange, reconstruct,
(research proposal), or a set of abstract revise, rewrite, set up.
relations (scheme for classifying
information)

Evaluation The ability to judge the value of material Appraise, choose, compare,
(statement, novel, poem, research report) conclude, contrast, criticise,
for a given purpose. The judgements are decide, defend, discriminate,
to be based on definite criteria. These may justify, resolve, support, validate,
be internal criteria (organisation) or write a review.
external criteria (relevance to the purpose)
and the student may determine the criteria
or be given them.

[Source: Benjamin Bloom (1956) Handbook of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives]

Table 5.1 The Cognitive Taxonomy

5.6.1 Cognitive Domain

Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and
most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a person’s observable and
unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information, organising
ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive
learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his
associated classified cognitive learnings in 6 major categories: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Table 5.1).

18
 Cognitive Levels Description Examples of Verbs for Stating
Objectives or Outcomes

Receiving Willingness to receive or to attend to Attend, be aware, listen, reply,

particular information or activity show, alert, use, watch, select,
(textbook, classroom activity). Receiving tolerate, follow, ask.
involves the willingness to receive or
accept and focussing attention

Responding Refers to active participation by the Agree, answer, communicate,

student. The student is actively attending comply, consent, contribute,
by responding in the class and is cooperate, help, inquire, obey,
involved in the teaching-learning setting. participate, question, request,
He or she gains satisfaction from report, respond, seek, volunteer
engaging in activities.

Valuing The students sees worth or value in what
is being learned or the activity being
done. The student does not merely obey
or complies but does so because he or
she is intrinsically motivated.
Accept, adopt, approve, complete,
commit, desire, display, exhibit,
express, initiate, invite, prefer,
share, study, work.

Organisation The student brings together many Adapt, alter, arrange, classify,
different values and attempt to resolve compare, defend, establish,
the conflicts between the value. Through generalise, integrate, modify,
this process he or she builds a value order, rank, synthesise.
system. He or she sees how new values
are related to existing values and tries to
establish a balance.

Characterisation The student internalises the values. In Act, behave, conform, devote,
other words, he or she adopts the values display, endure, exemplify,
as his or her own. The values function, maintain, practice,
internalised determines the behaviour of perform, uphold, use, influence.
the student. The behaviour is consistent
and predictable.

[Source: Benjamin Bloom and D. Krathwohl (1964) Handbook of Taxonomy

of Educational Objectives]

Table 5.2 The Affective Taxonomy

5.6.2 Affective Domain

After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and

others, including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the
affective domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner
in which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our values,
how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do
something and our attitudes towards something.

19
5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two

taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was
developed by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves
physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of
these skills require practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution.

Cognitive Description Examples of Verbs for Stating

Levels Objectives or Outcomes

Imitation The student indicates a readiness to learn Assemble, carryout, copy,

a certain complex skill. Imitation includes construct, repeat, duplicate,
repeating an act that has been practice, reproduce, start, try,
demonstrated or explained. It includes volunteer, sketch, follow.
trial and error until an appropriate
response is achieved.

Manipulation The student continues to practice the skill
until it becomes habitual and can be
performed with some confidence. The
response is more complex but he or she is
still not sure of himself or herself.
[all the verbs for Imitation plus the
following]: acquire, conduct, do,
execute, operate, perform, produce,
progress, use, operate.

Precision The student attains the skill and
proficiency is indicated by a quick,
smooth and accurate performance. The
response is complex and performed
without hesitation.
[all the verbs for Imitation and
Manipulation plus the following]:
achieve, automatise, exceed, excel,
master, reach, refine, surpass,
accomplish.

Articulation The student is involved at an even higher Adapt, change, alter, reorganise,
level of precision. The skill is well rearrange, revise.
developed. The student can adapt the skill
according to different requirements.

Naturalisation The skill is automatic and the student is Arrange, compose, refine, create,
able to experiment and create new ways of design, originate, transcend.
using the skill.

20
 [Source: R. Dave. Psychomotor Domain, 1974]

Table 5.3 The Psychomotor Taxonomy

The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional

objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a
guide to encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher
levels of learning in each domain.

DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
QUESTIONS:
1.
1. IfIf you
you heading
heading aa project
project onon developing
developing aa curriculum
curriculum for
for aa particular
particular course
course or
or
subject,
subject, which
which of
of these
these 33 models
models of
of curriculum
curriculum development
development would
would you
you adopt
adopt
to
to guide
guide you?
you? Why?
Why?

2.
2. Have
Have aa looklook atat any
any course
course oror programme.
programme.
Is
Is there
there aa clear
clear statement
statement of of curriculum
curriculum objectives
objectives and
and instructional
instructional
objectives to be achieved?
objectives to be achieved?
b)
b) Would
Would you you saysay that
that students
students would
would be be clear
clear about
about what
what they
they are
are expected
expected
to
to do
do in
in the
the course,
course, or
or do
do the
the objectives
objectives simply
simply delineate
delineate the the content
content areas
areas
that the course will cover?
that the course will cover?
c)
c) IsIs there
there an
an explicit
explicit relationship
relationship between
between the the objectives
objectives andand the
the teaching-
teaching-
learning methods employed in
learning methods employed in the subject?the subject?
d)
d) IsIs summative
summative assessment
assessment carried
carried out
out by
by anything
anything other
other than
than class
class tests
tests and
and
examinations?
examinations?
e)
e) Is Is there
there any
any mention
mention in in them
them of of the
the affective
affective side
side to
to learning
learning inin the
the
subject?
subject?
f)
f) If If not,
not, what
what do do you
you think
think would
would be be appropriate
appropriate affective
affective objectives
objectives for
for the
the
subject?
subject?

READINGS

 Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean?
McGill Journal of Education. Vol. 34. (3). p. 227. [available at ProQuest].

 Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in

Education. vol. 90(6). pp. 39-43. [available at ProQuest]

 Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

(1998). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives.

21
 Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter.

22