CÁC NGUYÊN TỐ HÓA HỌC VÀ SỰ ẢNH HƯỞNG CỦA NÓ TỚI TÍNH HÀN

Alloying is the process of adding a metal or a nonmetal to pure metals such as copper, aluminum or iron. From the time it
was discovered that the properties of pure metals could be improved by adding other elements, alloy steel has increased by
popularity. In fact, metals that are welded are rarely in their pure state. The major properties that can be improved by
adding small amounts of alloying elements are hardness, tensile strength, ductility and corrosion resistance. Common
alloying elements and their effect on the properties of metals are as follows:

Hợp kim là quá trình thêm các kim loại khác vào kim loại nguyên chất như đồng, nhôm… Từ khi khám phá được cơ tính kim
loại có thể được cải thiện bằng cách thêm các nguyên tố kim loại khác, hợp kim đã trở lên phổ biến. Trong thực tế kim loại
được hàn hiếm khi là một thành phần.

1.7.1 Carbon - Carbon is the most effective, most widely used and lowest in cost alloying element available for increasing
the hardness and strength of metal. An alloy containing up to 1.7% carbon in combination with iron is known as steel,
whereas the combination above 1.7% carbon is known as cast iron. Although carbon is a desirable alloying element, high
levels of it can cause problems; therefore, special care is required when welding high carbon steels and cast iron.

Các bon là nguyên tố ảnh hưởng rất lớn, được sử dụng rộng rãi, giá thành thấp. Các bon làm tăng độ cứng và tăng độ bền
cơ tính. Lượng các bon lên tới 1.7% kết hợp với sắt tạo thành kim loại, khi luợng các bon lớn hơn 1.7% thì nó trở thành
gang. Các bon là nguyên tố phổ biến rộng rãi, một lượng lớn các bon có thể là vấn đề. Vì vậy đặc biệt quan tâm đến khi hàn
thép hoặc gang có lượng các bon cao.

1.7.2 Sulphur - Sulphur is normally an undesirable element in steel because it causes brittleness. It may be deliberately
added to improve the machinability of the steel. The sulphur causes the machine chips to break rather than form long curls
and clog the machine. Normally, every effort is made to reduce the sulphur content to the lowest possible level because it
can create welding difficulties.

Lưu huỳnh là một nguyên tố không được yêu thích trong kim loại, bởi vì nó gây lên tính giòn. Nó thường thêm vào để cải
thiện tính gia công của thép. Lưu huỳnh làm cho các phoi bào gẫy ra, nó không tạo ra các phoi bào xoăn dài, cản trở khi gia
công. Thông thường người ta cố gắng giảm lượng lưu huỳnh xuống mức thấp nhất cỏ thể, bởi vì nó là nguyên tố cản trở
khả năng hàn.

1.7.3 Manganese - Manganese in contents up to 1% is usually present in all low alloy steels as a deoxidizer and
desulphurizer. That is to say, it readily combines with oxygen and sulphur to help negate the undesirable effect these
elements have when in their natu- ral state. Manganese also increases the tensile strength and hardenability of steel.

Lượng măng gan trong hợp kim có thể lên tới 1%, nó thường dùng để

1.7.4 Chromium - Chromium, in combination with carbon, is a powerful hardening alloying element. In addition to its
hardening properties, chromium increases corrosion resistance and the strength of steel at high temperatures. Chromium is
the primary alloying element in stainless steel.

1.7.5 Nickel - The greatest single property of steel that is improved by the presence of nickel is its ductility or notch
toughness. In this respect, it is the most effective of all alloy- ing elements in improving a steel's resistance to impact at low
temperatures. Electrodes with high nickel content are used to weld cast iron materials. Nickel is also used in combi- nation
with chromium to form a group known as austenitic stainless steel.

1.7.6 Molybdenum - Molybdenum strongly increases the depth of the hardening characteristic of steel. It is quite often used
in combination with chromium to improve the strength of the steel at high temperatures. This group of steels is usually
referred to as chrome-moly steels.

1.7.7 Silicon - Silicon is usually contained in steel as a deoxidizer. Silicon will add strength to steel but excessive amounts
can reduce the ductility. Additional amounts of silicon are sometimes added to welding electrodes to increase the fluid flow
of weld metal.

1.7.8 Phosphorus - Phosphorus is considered a harmful residual element in steel because it greatly reduces ductility and
toughness. Efforts are made to reduce it to its very lowest levels; however, phosphorus is added in very small amounts to
some steels to increase strength.
1.7.9 Aluminum - Aluminum is primarily used as a deoxidizer in steel. It may also be used in very small amounts to control
the size of the grains.

1.7.10 Copper - Copper contributes greatly to the corrosion resistance of carbon steel by retarding the rate of rusting at
room temperature, but high levels of copper can cause welding difficulties.

1.7.11 Columbium - Columbium is used in austenitic stainless steel to act as a stabi- lizer. Since the carbon in the stainless
steel decreases the corrosion resistance, a means of making carbon ineffective must be found. Columbium has a greater
affinity for carbon than chromium, leaving the chromium free for corrosion protection.

1.7.12 Tungsten - Tungsten is used in steel to given strength at high temperatures. Tungsten also joins with carbon to form
carbides that are exceptionally hard, and therefore have exceptional resistance to wear.

1.7.13 Vanadium - Vanadium helps keep steel in the desirable fine grain condition after heat treatment. It also helps
increase the depth of hardening and resists softening of the steel during tempering treatments.

1.7.14 Nitrogen - Usually, efforts are made to eliminate hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen from steel because their presence
can cause brittleness. Nitrogen has the ability to form austenitic structures; therefore, it is sometimes added to austenitic
stainless steel to reduce the amount of nickel needed, and therefore, the production costs of that steel.

1.7.15 Alloying Elements Summary - It should be understood that the addition of elements to a pure metal may influence
the crystalline form of the resultant alloy. If a pure metal has allotropic characteristics (the ability of a metal to change its
crystal structure) at a specific temperature, then that characteristic will occur over a range of temperatures with the alloyed
metal. The range in which the change takes place may be wide or narrow, depending on the alloys and the quantities in
which they are added. The alloying element may also effect the crystalline changes by either suppressing the appearance of
certain crystalline forms or even by creating entirely new forms. All these transformations induced by alloying elements are
dependent on heat input and cooling rates. These factors are closely controlled at the steel mill, but since the welding
operation involves a nonuniform heating and cooling of metal, special care is often needed in the welding of low and high
alloy steel.

(1) Carbon (C) is the most common element for increasing the strength of steel, but high levels of
carbon reduce weldability. Carbon increases the hardenability of the steel, increasing the formation of
undesirable martensite with rapid HAZ cooling. Higher preheats and higher heat input welding
procedures may be needed when welding a steel with relatively high carbon contents. Typical steel
specifications limit carbon below 0.27%, but some steel specifications have much lower limits.
(2) Manganese (Mn) is an alloying element that increases strength and hardenability, but to a
lesser extent than carbon. One of the principal benefits of manganese is that it combines with
undesirable sulphur to form manganese sulfide (MnS), reducing the detrimental effects of sulfur. With
high levels of sulfur, however, numerous large MnS inclusions may be present, flattened by the rolling
operation, increasing the risk of lamellar tearing when high through-thickness weld shrinkage strains are
created. Manganese limits are typically in the order of 1.40% or lower. A steel such as A36 does not
place limits on Mn content for shapes up to 634 kg/m (426 lb./ft.), or for plates and bars up to 20 mm (3/4
in.), inclusive.
(3) Phosphorous (P) is an alloying element that increases the strength and brittleness of steel.
Larger quantities of phosphorous reduce ductility and toughness. Phosphorous tends to segregate in
steel, therefore creating weaker areas. Phosphorous is typically limited to 0.04% to minimize the risk of
weld and HAZ cracking.
(4) Sulfur (S) reduces ductility, particularly in the transverse direction, thereby increasing the risk of
lamellar tearing, and also reduces toughness and weldability. Higher sulfur levels will form iron sulfide
(FeS) along the grain boundaries, increasing the risk of hot cracking. Manganese is used to form MnS to
reduce this tendency. A minimum Mn:S ratio of 5:1 to 10:1 is recommended. Typical steel specifications
limit sulfur to 0.05%.
(5) Silicon (Si) is a deoxidizer used to improve the soundness of the steel, and is commonly used
to “kill” steel. It increases both strength and hardness. Silicon of up to 0.40% is considered acceptable for
most steels.
(6) Copper (Cu) is added to improve the corrosion resistance of the steel, such as in weathering
steels. Most steels contain some copper, whether specified or not. When specified to achieve
atmospheric corrosion resistance, a minimum copper content of 0.20% is required. Generally, copper up
to 1.50% does not reduce weldability, but copper over 0.50% may affect mechanical properties in
heattreated
steels.
(7) Nickel (Ni) is an alloying element used to improve toughness and ductility, while still increasing
strength and hardenability. It has relatively little detrimental effect upon weldability. Where nickel is
reported as a part of steel composition, it is generally limited to a maximum value between 0.25% and
0.50%.
(8) Vanadium (V) is an alloying element used for increasing strength and hardenability. Weldability
may be reduced by vanadium. When vanadium is reported as a part of steel composition, vanadium is
generally limited to a maximum value between 0.06% and 0.15%.
(9) Molybdenum (Mo) is an alloying element which greatly increases hardenability and helps
maintain strength and minimize creep at higher temperature. When molybdenum is reported as a part of
steel composition, it is generally limited to a maximum value between 0.07% and 0.10%.
(10) So-called “tramp” elements such as tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn), may be present in steel
from the scrap material melted for steel-making. They have a low melting point, and may adversely
affect weldability and cause “hot” cracking. Other low-melting point elements that create a risk of hot
cracking include sulfur, phosphorous, and copper. When welding with high levels of these elements, it
may be necessary to use low heat input welding procedures to minimize dilution effects.