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Tunnelling and
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Technology
incorporating Trenchless
Technology Research
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90
www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

Mix proportioning of underground cemented tailings backfill

a,*
M. Fall , M. Benzaazoua b, E.G. Saa c

a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ottawa, 161 Louis Pasteur, Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1N 6K7
b
University of Quebec in Abitibi-Temiscamingue (UQAT), Rouyn-Noranda, Que., Canada, J9X 5E4
c
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausane, Switzerland

Received 27 August 2005; received in revised form 6 August 2006; accepted 12 August 2006
Available online 20 February 2007

Abstract

The usage of cemented tailings backfill (cemented paste backfill) in the underground by mining industry is becoming increasingly
important. However, until now, the mix proportioning of CTB has been mainly based on the realization of extensive laboratory tests
on a large number of CTB mixes. Therefore, this paper presents a design method for mix proportioning of CTB to minimize the number
of trial mixes and provide an appropriate mix proportion. This method is based on the pairing of the response surface method (RSM)
and the desirability approach. First, the RSM was used to develop predictive models for the performance properties of CTB. The pre-
dicted properties in question are the uniaxial compression strength (UCS), the slump, the solid concentration (solid percent, %Solid) and
the cost (based on cement cost) of the CTB. The predictive models that were developed were able to accurately represent the relationships
between the physical and chemical characteristics of the CTB components (tailings, binder, water) and the above properties. The results
of the modeling phase were then used as input data in the optimization phase (based on desirability approach) to develop optimal recipes
for the studied CTBs. This study has demonstrated that the combination of the RSM and desirability approach represents an effective
tool for CTB mix proportioning. It has also shown that the mix parameters (cement content, water-to-cement ratio, tailings fineness and
density) affect the performance properties of CTB. The results of this research provide a more comprehensive engineering approach to
CTB mix proportioning. The developed design method can be useful in reducing the laboratory test protocol needed for the determina-
tion of the optimal mix composition.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tailings; Cemented backfill; Optimization; Mine; Response surface method; Desirability; Strength

1. Introduction benefits (Lerche and Renetzeder, 1984; Landriault et al.,

Cemented tailings backfill (cemented paste backfill stud-
ied in this paper) is a heterogeneous material in which tail-
ings are held in place by a hardened cement paste binder.
Its components (tailings, water, cement) are combined
and mixed in a plant usually located on the surface and
transported (by gravity and/or pumping) to the under-
ground mine (Fig. 1). Cemented tailings backfill (CTB) is
extensively used in Canadian underground mines and in
many parts of the world and is following an increasing
trend as it offers a number of technical and economical
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 562 5800x6558.
E-mail address: mfall@eng.uottawa.ca (M. Fall).
1997; Hassani and Archibald, 1998; Fall and Benzaazoua,
2003a). Indeed, the CTB technology is considered superior
to conventional mine backfill methods in terms of cost-
effectiveness (Hassani and Archibald, 1998; Fall and Ben-
zaazoua, 2003b). It is especially important in ensuring the
stability of underground mine openings and in maximizing
the safe recovery of ore. In addition, the maximum under-
ground disposal of mill tailings is a significant environmen-
tal advantage (Huynh et al., 2006).
In order for the CTB to assume the aforementioned
roles in a safe and cost-effective manner in underground
mining, proper proportioning of the CTB mixtures is nec-
essary. In other words, the mix proportioning of CTB is
a vital step in obtaining a CTB that meets desired technical

0886-7798/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tust.2006.08.005
 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90
Fig. 1. Schematic presentation of the different phases of the technology of
cemented paste backfill (CTB): preparation, transport and underground
placing of the CTB, where it builds CTB structure.
and economical design requirements. The technical design
requirements in question are sufficient compression
strength (generally between 0.7 and 2 MPa according to
Brakebusch, 1994), acceptable technical consistency (fre-
quently measured by slump test) and high solid concentra-
tion (70–85%). While the economical design requirement is
that the cost of the CTB must be low. This cost depends on
the binder consumption. The binder can represent up to
75% of the cost of the CTB (Grice, 1998).
However, there are no guideline or specifications on CTB
mix proportions. In fact, CTB mix proportioning today is
still based primarily on traditional experimental methods.
The latter require a large number of trial mixes to determine
the desired concentrations of the CTB components, whereas
a good mix proportioning method serves to minimize the
number of trial mixes and provides a satisfactory, economi-
cal mixture possessing the desired properties (Bharatkumar
et al., 2000). This lack of engineering approach for mix pro-
portioning of CTB is due to several factors. On the one hand,
CTB is a relatively new, complex cemented material which is
different from concrete (Fall et al., 2005a); studies on CTB
have only been ongoing for about 15 years. At the same time,
the majority of the studies performed on the optimising of
CTB properties (Archibald et al., 1995; Amaratunga and
Yaschyshyn, 1997; Hassani and Archibald, 1998; Kesimal
et al., 2003; Fall et al., 2004) were only experimental and
Tailings Binders
Experimental
study
Inputs
X1
Main parameters
influencing CPB
X2
sterngth
Xm-1
Xm
Fig. 2. Developed methodological approach for mix proportioning of cemented tailings backfill (cemented paste backfill).
81
did not simultaneously take into account all of the perfor-
mance properties of the CTB. These works were based pri-
marily on the experience of the experts and for the most
part, have only allowed a qualitative evaluation of the qual-
ity of CTB mixes. Unfortunately, these studies are often lar-
gely affected by subjectivity. Additionally, the mathematical
approach for the analysis and modeling of performance
properties of CTB has not been considered until now in this
type of study.
Considering the aforementioned problems and the fact
that today’s increasingly competitive environment in the
mining industry, combined with strict environmental
(Benardos et al., 2001) and safety legislations, demand a
higher quality CTB production in a shorter time, the goal
of the research was:
 to develop a methodological approach and mathemati-
cal models for CTB mix proportioning in order to min-
imize the number of trial mixes and provide appropriate
mix proportion;
 to predict the technical (compression strength, slump,
%Solid) and economical (binder cost) performance
properties of the CTBs studied;
 to analyze the interactions between the main compo-
nents of CTB and their effect on its properties;
 to develop optimal mixes for the CTBs studied.
2. Methodology
Fig. 2 shows the methodological approach that was
developed and the different steps for predicting the perfor-
mance properties of CTB and for optimizing its mixture.
The methodology comprises three main stages: experimen-
tal, modeling, and optimization stage.
The purpose of the first experimental study was to iden-
tify and assess the effects of the physical and chemical prop-
erties of the main components of CTB (tailings, water,
binder) on its mechanical (compression strength) and phys-
ical (slump, %Solid) properties. The main results of this
experimental investigation are given in Benzaazoua et al.,
2004; Fall et al., 2004, 2005a, submitted. An analysis of
the results made it possible to define the main mix param-
Waters Expert Tool
Analysis
Output 1 Output 2
yi (UCS)
Response Surface
yj(slump; %S)
Methods based Optimization
Optimal
Modeling yk(costs) Mixes
82 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90
eters influencing the performance properties of CTB (com-
pression strength, slump, %Solid, cost) and also to deter-
mine the limits of the experimental domains of the
models to be developed. It has been experimentally demon-
strated that, for a given curing time and conditions (e.g.
temperature, humidity), the performance properties of
CTB are most influenced by the following characteristics
of its components (tailings, water, cement):
 the physical (grain size, density), chemical (sulphur con-
tent, etc.), and mineralogical properties of the tailing
materials;
 the type and quantity of the binders used;
 the quantity and chemistry (sulphate content) of the
total mixing water (added water and remaining tailing
pore water) of the CTB.
In the second stage, these identified parameters were used
as basis data for the modeling. The latter made it possible to
predict the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), slump,
solid concentration (%Solid), and cost (based on binder cost)
of the studied CTBs. The modeling is based on the techniques
of the response surface method. All fundamental aspects of
the RSM are given in Box and Wilson (1951), Khuri and Cor-
nell (1987), and Myers and Montomery (1995).
Since the CTB produced by the backfill plant must sat-
isfy the following criteria: safety (sufficient mechanical
compression strength), transportability (adequate slump
or solid concentration), physical–environmental properties
(satisfactory solid concentration), and economics (low bin-
der cost, profitability), optimization of the CTB production
constitutes a necessary third stage. In this stage, the mod-
eling results were used as input data. The optimization con-
sisted of maximizing a function of desirability (Harrington,
1965; Derringer and Suich, 1980) which takes into account,
simultaneously, all the criteria important to the mining
company (work safety, feasibility, and profitability of the
CTB technique). The analysis and programming of
the equations developed during the modeling stage led to
the development of a computer tool for the mix propor-
tioning of the studied CTBs.
In this paper, methods and models for mix proportion-
ing of CTB not confronted with a sulphate attack will be
presented (i.e. CTB with low sulphate content
<500 ppm). The methods and models for binder mixtures
optimization of CTB affected by sulphate attack are pub-
lished in Fall and Benzaazoua (2005). This paper will also
focus on the results of the modeling and optimization
study. The results of the experimental study are described
elsewhere (e.g. Benzaazoua et al., 2004; Fall et al., 2004).
3. Material and testing methods
3.1. Materials
The materials used include binders, tailings and water.
Binders. Portland cement type I (PC I) and blast furnace
slag (Slag) were used as binders. PC I was blended with
blast furnace slag (Slag) in a ratio of 20/80.
Tailings. Tailings (tailing A and tailing B) sampled from
two polymetalic mines (Mine A and Mine B) in eastern
Canada were used. The tailings materials of Mine A and
B are characterized by a relative high amount of sulphide
minerals (pyrite; 20–30% in weight). However, the tailings
contain only small amount of contaminants such as Pb
(<0.1%), As (<0.02%), Cu (<0.02%). The sampled tailings
were reprocessed to create tailings with different particle
size distribution and densities. The relative mass propor-
tions of fines F (particle size <20 lm) present in the tailing
were used to identify differences among the tailings used.
Rinsing of the tailing materials (A and B) with tap water
allowed for the elimination or drastic reduction of the sul-
phate present in the prepared tailing materials.
Water. Tap water was used to mix the binders and the
tailings.
3.2. Preparation of test specimens
To produce CTB mixtures, the tailing materials, cement
and water were mixed and homogenized in a double spiral
mixer. Next, slump tests were performed to evaluate the
CTB transportability. The CTB mixtures produced were
then poured into curing moulds, 10 cm in diameter and
20 cm high. The poured specimens were sealed and cured
in a humidity chamber maintained at approximately 80%
humidity (similar to humidity conditions in Canadian
underground mines) and at a temperature of approxi-
mately 23 °C for a period of 28 days.
3.3. Testing of specimens
To evaluate the technical and economical properties of
the CTB specimens produced, the following properties
and their relative importance were determined for each
specimen:
 compressive strength up to 28 days after curing at
23 ± 2 °C according to the ASTM C 39 standard using
a computer-controlled mechanical press (MTS 10/GL);
 slump of the fresh CTB mixtures. The latter was mea-
sured by a slump test according to ASTM C 143-90;
 solid concentration or solid percent. The latter is the
ratio of the mix solids weight (tailings and binder) to
the weight of the total mix (water and solids);
 cost of each specimen. Based on evaluation of the cost of
the quantity of binder used. The latter was calculated
from the mix proportions using the cost for each binder
reagent (eastern Canadian market price in 2002).
In addition, SEM observations and Mercury Intrusion
Porosimetry (MIP) measurements were performed on some
CTB samples to characterize their microstructure.
 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90 83

4. Modeling the properties of cemented paste backfill
4.1. Modeling approach
Based on the results obtained in the preliminary experi-
mental phase (Benzaazoua et al., 2004; Fall et al., 2004,
submitted), the following four factors were chosen to
describe the ‘‘cemented paste backfill’’ system:
 X1 = %Cement; represents the type and quantity of
cement used;
 X2 = W/C; weight ratio of the quantities of water and
cement used;
 X3 = %Fine; mass proportion of fine particles (<20 lm)
in the tailings;
 X4 = qt (g/cm3); density of the tailings used.
tal stage (Benzaazoua et al., 2004; Fall et al., submitted)
and the cost of binders, the ranges of these four factors
were determined as shown in Table 1. It should be noted
thar a binder proportion higher than 7% is not economi-
cally feasible in the Canadian mining industry. To simplify
the calculation and avoid numerical error in the computer
calculation, the variables X1, X2, X3,X4 are transformed to
dimensionless variables x1, x2, x3, x4 (coded values) accord-
ing to Eq. (1).
Eq. (1) is shown below:
X i  X 0i
xi ¼ ð1Þ
DX i
where xi is the coded value, Xi is the corresponding actual
value, X 0i is the actual value at the center point, and DXi is
the step change value.

The sulphate concentration of the combined mixing
waters (tailing pore water and added water) was main-
tained constant (<500 ppm). The measured responses were
28-days UCS (uniaxial compressive strength of the CTB
after 28 days curing time), slump, %Solid and the cost of
the CTB. Fig. 3 shows a schematic representation of the
developed models.
The effects of these factors on CTB performance proper-
ties were studied by experimental design. An orthogonal
central composite design (CCD) (Khuri and Cornell,
1987; Myers and Montomery, 1995) was used for develop-
ing the material models for the CTB. The experiments were
run randomly and five levels of variables were used in the
experimental design. Based on the results of the experimen-
Inputs
Outputs
x1
x2
RSM based
Cost
modeling
Slump; %S
x3 UCS
x4
Fig. 3. Schematic presentation of the developed models: cost in $/t (Can
$/ton solid); slump in cm; %S, solid percent; UCS in kPa.
4.2. Results and discussions
4.2.1. Model development and analysis
The second-order polynomial, given by Eq. (2), was
used to fit the data of the experimental design.
Eq. (2) is shown below
k
X k
X k
XX
y ¼ b0 þ bi x i þ bii x2i þ bii xi xj þ e ð2Þ
i¼1 i¼1 i<j
where y is the predicted responses (i.e. compression
strength, slump, %Solid, cost of the studied CTBs), b0 is
the intercept term, bi, bii, bij are the constant regression
coefficients for the linear terms, the pure quadratic terms,
and the cross-product terms respectively. The xi variables
represent the normalized values of each of the input param-
eters that influence the response y, the cross-term xixj rep-
resents the first-order interactions between xi and xj, and
the square terms x2i represent second-order non-linearity.
Finally, e is the associated random error reflecting the com-
bined effects of variables not included in the models. It is
assumed that the additive error e is normally distributed
with a mean of zero and standard deviation r.
Standard analysis of variance (ANOVA) and linear
regression techniques were used to estimate the model’s
parameters. The available commercial software JPM was
used. The performed statistical analysis made it possible
to develop four response surface models for predicting
the UCS, slump, %Solid, and cost of the studied CTBs.
Because the UCS, slump and cost of the CTB vary over

Table 1
Experimental range definition
Variables (Xi) Codes xi 2 1 0 1 2
%Cement X1 0.8 2.8 4.8 6.8 8.8
W/C X2 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.5 9.3
%Fine (F) X3 10 30 50 70 90
qt tailings density (g/cm3)a X4 – 3.3 3.4 3.5 –
a
(–): The two axial coded values of variables tailings density were different from 2 to 2 due to the technical difficulty to obtain tailings having the
corresponding densities and grain size distribution.
84 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90

several orders of magnitude for the conditions considered
in this study, the log of UCS, slump and cost were used.
The main results of the regression analysis are summa-
rized in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2 shows the main results
of the analysis of variance and lack-of-fit, while the coeffi-
cients of the determination of the models are given in Table
3. The results of the regression analysis clearly highlight
that quadratic function material models can give reliable
predictions for the compression strength, slump, solid per-
cent and cost of CTB. The models show high F-value
(Table 2). The coefficients of determination (Table 3) for
all models are very high (>0.97). It means that more than
97% of the variations of the lnUCS, lnSlump, lnCost,
and %Solid are caused by the variations in the input vari-
ables x1, x2, x3, x4 (%Cement, W/C, %Fine, and qt).
The results of the variance analysis have also demon-
strated that:
 the factors that significantly influence the compression
strength (28-days UCS) of the CTB are: %Cement, the
W/C ratio, the tailings grain size (%Fine) and the tail-
ings density. The interactions between cement and W/
C and between W/C and density also play a significant
role in the CTB hardening process (P < 0.01). The qua-
dratic terms x21 , x23 and x24 are also statistically significant
(P < 0.01). The non-negligible effect of the interactions
between the model parameters demonstrates the non-
additive character of the relation describing the 28-day
compression strength development of CTB;
 the %Cement, %Fine and density factors significantly
affect the slump of the CTB (P < 0.0001). The interac-
tions between the cement or density and the tailings
grain size are statistically significant (P < 0.02). The per-
cent fine (%Fine) and qt interact very synergistically for
higher slump. The square terms x21 and x23 also play a non
negligible role (P < 0.03);
Table 2
Main results of the analyses of variance and lack-of-fit
Models Analyse of variance Analyse of lack-of-fit
F Prob > P F Prob > P
lnUCS28-days 65.0 <0.0001 1.7
lnSlump 85.5 <0.0001 2.9
%Solid 96.2 <0.0001 1.6
lnCost 32188.7 <0.0001 0.2
 the cost of the CTB, as expected, essentially depends on
the quantity of cement used and the tailings grain size
and density (P < 0.001). The interaction between cement
(x1) and tailings density (x4) is highly significant at
P < 0.05. There is an antagonistic effect between the
cement and density. This means that increasing the tail-
ings density has a negative effect on the cost of CTB and
leads to higher binder consumption;
 the solid percent is essentially controlled by the
%Cement, W/C, %Fine and qt variables. The square
term x21 is also statistically significant.
The results of the lack-of-fit analysis, summarized in
Table 2, show that there is an insignificant lack-of-fit. Thus,
the developed models (lnUCS28-days, lnSlump, %Solid,
lnCost) are adequate in representing the true relationships
in the current experimental region. The predictive models
developed were then applied to simulate the effects of the
model parameters (%Cement, W/C, tailings grain size
and density) on the performance properties of the studied
CTBs.
4.2.2. Effect of model parameters on CTB compression
strength
Fig. 4 illustrates the effects of binder proportion, W/C,
and tailings grain size and density on 28-days UCS. As
expected, increasing the amount of cement leads to higher
CTB compression strength. The reason for this increase is
that higher cement content leads to the formation of more
cement hydration products, which in turn leads to a higher
compression strength of the cement matrix (Mehta, 1986).
It may also be noted that the lower the W/C ratio for any
given binder proportion or tailing grain size, the higher the
CTB compression strength becomes (Fig. 5). The increase
of CTB compression strength with decreasing W/C ratio
is mainly caused by the subsequent decrease in overall
porosity due to the once water-filled voids (Amaratunga
and Yaschyshyn, 1997).
From Fig. 4, it can be also observed, that fine tailings
grain size (20 lm particles >60 wt%) is not conducive to
compression strength development. Medium (35–60 wt%
of 20 lm particles) and coarse (15–35 wt% of 20 lm parti-
cles) tailings grain size are more conducive to CTB com-
pression strength development. The highest compression
0.2 strength is reached when the tailings contain 40–45% fine
0.1 particles (<20 lm). Fig. 4 suggests that a proportion of
0.2
0.9
40–45% fines by mass seems to be the optimal tailings grain
UCS28-days

2000

1096
Table 3
Coefficient of determination of the different models 445

Models lnUCS28-days lnSlump %Solid lnCost 2.8

4.8
6.8 7.0
8.7
9.3 30
55
70 3.38
3.45
3.50
2
R 0.97 0.97 0.99 0.99
%Cement W/C %Fine ρt (g/cm³)
R 0.95 0.96 0.99 0.99
R2, coefficient of determination; R, adjusted coefficient of determination. Fig. 4. Prediction profile of UCS 28 days (UCS in kPa).
 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90 85

1700

1600 W/C = 6

1500 W/C = 7
W/C = 8
1400
UCS (kPa)

W/C = 9
1300

1200
1100

1000
900

800
700
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Cement content (%)

Fig. 5. Effect of W/C ratio on UCS 28 days of the CTB for different
binder contents (%Fine = 40%; tailings density, qt = 3.459 g/cm3).

size to obtain the highest compression strength for the Fig. 6. SEM image shows that microcracks propagate around the tailings
CTBs studied (when the binder used is Portland cement particle at the ITZ (interfacial microcracks), which represents a weakness
type I and slag blended in the 20/80 ratio). However, it region in CTB: T, tailings grain; CM, cement matrix; TZ, interfacial
can be seen that at certain levels of tailings coarseness transition zone (ITZ).
(25–35% of fine particles), the CTB compression strength
decreases slightly. The observed increase of CTB compres-
sion strength with tailings coarseness can be explained by
the fact that an increase in the tailings coarseness reduces 30 Pore size range
the overall porosity of the CTB and also leads to the refine-
Hg intrusion porosity (%)

> 0.05 µm
25
ment of the hardened cement matrix pores. This is due to 0.05 - 1 µm

the reduction of both the W/C ratio of the CTB and the 20 1 - 10 µm

packing density of tailing materials associated with increas- 15

> 10 µm

ing tailings coarseness (Fall et al., 2004). This decrease in

10
porosity leads to compression strength gain. Another rea-
son for the increase in CTB compression strength with tail- 5

ings coarseness is the influence of the tailings particle size 0

on the specific surface of the tailing material as reported
in Fall et al. (2004). However, it can be also seen in
Fig. 4 that a certain levels of tailings coarseness (25–35%
fine particles), CTB strength decreases slightly. This
decrease can be attributed mainly to the negative effect of
the increase of the capillary porosity of the interfacial tran-
sition zone (ITZ) between the large tailings particles and
the cement matrix associated with increasing tailings
coarseness. It is well known (e.g. Monteiro et al., 1985;
Garboczi and Bentz, 1991) that the higher the porosity of
the ITZ, the weaker the bond between aggregates particles.
The ITZ as a weakness zone inside CTB is qualitatively
demonstrated by the Fig. 6. This figure shows a SEM
image of CTB subjected to a uniaxial compression test. It
can be clearly observed that the microcracks (induced by
the compression stress) propagate in the ITZ around the
coarser tailings particles. Additionally, Fig. 7 demonstrates
that for a given CTB mix, increasing of tailings coarseness
is associated with increasing proportions of macroporosity
(0.1–1 lm). From Fig. 7, it can be seen that at 25% fines
content, the proportion of macropores (1–10 lm) within
the CTB increases drastically. This higher proportion of
macropores (1–10 lm) due to the ITZ may be the cause
of the small decrease in the compression strength of cemen-
ted paste backfill made from coarse tailings (25% fines) as
75 55 40 25
% Fine
Fig. 7. Effect of tailings fineness on pore size distribution of paste backfill
specimens cemented with PCI/Slag after 28 days of curing (4.5% Cement
used).
compared to CTB specimens made from tailings containing
40–50% fine particles.
Fig. 4 demonstrates also that the tailings density affects
the CTB compression strength development. After a den-
sity value of 3.40 g/cm3, the UCS increases with the tailings
density. This increase is due to higher binder consumption
in volume (Fall et al., 2005a). However, the higher the tail-
ings density, the higher the CTB production cost (Fig. 12).
These modelling results of the effects of the model
parameters on the compression strength of CTB corre-
spond well with the results of the experimental tests carried
out on CTB by several authors (e.g. Hassani and Archi-
bald, 1988; Archibald et al., 1995; Benzaazoua et al.,
2003; Kesimal et al., 2004; Fall et al., 2004, submitted).
4.2.3. Effect of model parameters on CTB slump
The effects of the binder proportion and tailings grain
size and density on the CTB slump is presented in Fig. 8.
As expected, higher binder proportions confer higher
86 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90

30 88

%Solid
Slump

22
73

9 58

4.8 55 3.45 4.8 8.7 55 3.45

2.8 6.8 30 70 3.38 3.50 2.8 6.8 7.0 9.3 30 70 3.38 3.5

% Cement %Fine ρt (g/cm³) % Cement W/C %Fine ρt (g/cm³)

Fig. 8. Prediction profile of slump (slump in cm). Fig. 10. Prediction profile of the solid percent of the CTB.

CTB slump, since they increase the average distance 9.3 55

between the tailings particles, thus reducing the inter-tail-
ings particle friction, collision and subsequent blocking.
8.5 60
However, the slump decreases as the tailings density
increases. Tailings fineness also has an effect on the CTB
slump (Fig. 9). Indeed, CTB made from finer tailings exhib-

W/C
7.8
its lower slump. The most common reason for this decrease
of CTB slump with tailings fineness for a given W/C ratio is 65
that the fine tailings particles increase the water demand of 7.0
the CTB due to the increase in surface area and available
void spaces between tailings particles (Ferraris and De
85 80
Larrard, 1998). 6.2 75 70
2.8 3.8 4.8 5.8 6.8
4.2.4. Effect of model parameters on CTB solid percent % Cement
In Fig. 10, the variation of the solid percent related to Fig. 11. Contour plot for solid percent versus % Cement and W/C.
the cement content, W/C, %Fine and tailings density is
plotted. As anticipated, it can be observed that the solid
concentration is very sensitive to cement content and 10.0

W/C ratio variations as illustrated in Fig. 11.

Cost

6.0

1.8
4.2.5. Effect of model parameters on CTB cost
4.8 8.7 55 3.45
The effects of cement content, W/C and tailings grain 2.8 6.8 7.0 9.3 30 70 3.38 3.50

size and density on the cement cost of the CTB are clearly % Cement E/C %Fine ρt (g/cm³)
shown in Fig. 12. As expected, the cost of the CTB is
mainly controlled by the cement content. However, the tail- Fig. 12. Prediction profile of Cost (Cost in Can $/t solid).
ings grain size and density have a non-negligible influence
on the cost (Fig. 13). This can be attributed to the fact that 80
higher proportions of fine tailings particles reduce the
70
7.4
40 60
3% Cement 4.5
%Fine

35
4% Cement 50
30 5% Cement 2.7
40
25
Slump (cm)

1.7

20 30

15 20
2.8 3.8 4.8 5.8 6.8
10 % Cement
5 Fig. 13. Contour plot for CTB cost (in Can $/t) versus %Cement and
tailings fineness.
0
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
%Fine grain size (<20 µm) packing density (more void spaces available) of the tailings
Fig. 9. Effect of tailings grain size on the slump of CTB for different particles and thus increase the voids that must be filled by the
binder contents (W/C = 7; tailings density, qt = 3.459 g/cm3). cement paste. This results in higher cement consumption.
 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90 87

Finer tailings also have a higher specific surface; conse- 11.90

quently, more cement paste is needed to cover them than 10.90
coarse tailings. As the tailings density increases, the cost

Cost in $/t (predicted)

9.90
of CTB likewise due to a higher binder consumption (in 8.90
volume) associated with increased tailings density. These 7.90
observations are in perfect agreement with the results of 6.90
the experimental investigations carried out by Fall et al.
5.90
(2004, 2005a).
4.90
3.90
4.2.6. Model validation
To verify the validity of the developed models, the 2.90

results of the model predictions were compared with exper- 1.90

1.90 3.90 5.90 7.90 9.90 11.90
imental data from other studies (e.g. Benzaazoua et al., Cost in $/t (calculated)
2003, 2004; Fall et al., 2004, 2005a) and those obtained
from conducting additional experimental tests. The results Fig. 16. Comparison of predicted CTB costs with those calculated (based
on laboratory price evaluation).
of the experimental verification of the accuracy of the mod-
els, presented in Figs. 14–16 and Table 4, show that there is
a good agreement between model predictions and experi-
Table 4
mental observations. Selected results from verification trials for slump
%Cement W/C %Fine qt (g/cm3) Experimental Predicted
values values
4.5 9.1 68 3.4080 17.5 18.0
4.5 8.4 61 3.4271 17.5 20.7
2300
4.5 6.4 33 3.4981 17.5 18.5
6.8 8.5 35 3.4981 29.5 27.3
2000 2.8 10 35 3.4981 15.0 14.3
UCS in kPa (predicted)

2.8 8.5 65 3.4271 10.0 10.5

1700 4.8 10.6 50 3.4481 29.0 28.3
4.8 9.2 50 3.4481 29.0 27.0

1400

1100
5. Optimization
800
5.1. Approach
500
500 800 1100 1400 1700 2000 2300
The aim of the optimization is to find optimal CTB
UCS in kPa (experimental) mixes that allow the production of cost-effective (high qual-
ity) cemented paste backfill. This means that the CTB pro-
Fig. 14. Comparison of predicted UCS with those based on experimental duced in the plant must simultaneously satisfy several
tests.
criteria. These are:

 sufficient compression strength; i.e. the strength of the

CTB produced must be higher than the critical design
90
strength. This will ensure the stability of the under-
Solid percent (predicted)

85 ground CTB structures;

 acceptable slump; this will allow the transportability of
80
the fresh CTB;
75
 highest (possible) solid concentration; the solid concen-
tration of the CTB should be maximized in order to
70 return the maximum quantity of mine wastes to the
underground;
65
 lowest cost; the cost of the CTB must be as low as pos-
60 sible; i.e. the binder consumption must be minimized.
60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Solid percent (calculated) Multi-criteria decision-making according to Derringer
Fig. 15. Comparison of predicted solid percent with those evaluated and Suich (1980) was applied to develop optimal CTB mix-
(based on laboratory solid percent evaluation). tures. Fig. 17 illustrates schematically the optimization
88 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90

Inputs Outputs Table 5

(desired properties) (solutions) Optimized responses and their desired ranges
UCSD Responses Desired range
UCS 28 days (kPa) 700 < Y1 < 1000
Slump (cm) 15 < Y2 < 25; Y2 = 18; ideal slump
SlumpD Cost ($/ta) 2 < Y3 < 6
Multicriteria- %Solid 70 < Y4 < 85
a
optimization Optimal mixes Can $/ton solid.
%SolidD

CostD

Desirabitlity, D
1
Fig. 17. Schematic presentation of used approach to develop optimal 0.7
recipes for CTB: D, desired; CostD, desired cost (RSM based models
used).
0
2.8 3.8 6.8 7.0 10 30 47 70

approach. The developed predictive models (lnUCS, % Cement W/C %Fine

lnSlump, %Solid, lnCost) are used as input data. First,
the desired CTB properties (desired compression strength, Fig. 18. The overall desirability of the studied CTBs (tailings density
maintained constant at 3.46 g/cm3).
slump, %Solid, cost), i.e. quality characteristics that the
CTB must fulfil, were defined. Each desired CTB property
has a target value and/or specification limits (upper, lower 0.9
limit). After determining the desired CTB properties, a %Fine = 45%
0.8
multi-criteria optimization (Derringer and Suich, 1980) %Fine = 55%
was performed to find solutions to this problem, i.e. to find 0.7 %Fine = 65%
the CTB mixes that meet the desired quality characteristics.
0.6
Desirability

This multi-criteria optimization is based on the construc-

tion of a desirability function (Harrington, 1965; Derringer 0.5
and Suich, 1980) for each individual model response Yi 0.4
(lnUCS, lnSlump, %Solid, lnCost). Hence, a desirability
function (di) was first determined for each response Yi. 0.3
Based on these individual desirability functions, the overall 0.2
desirability function was estimated as the weighted geomet-
ric mean of the individual desirability functions, which 0.1
gives the overall desirability D. The overall desirability 0
function is defined by 2 3 4 5 6 7
!P1 %Cement
Yq ri
ri Fig. 19. Influence of the tailings fineness (%Fine) and cement proportion
D¼ di ð3Þ
i¼1 on the overall desirability of the studied CTBs (W/C = 7; tailings density,
qt = 3.46 cm3/g).
where di is individual desirability and ri is a value between 1
and 5. The choice of the value of ri is made based on the
subjective importance of this objective in the CTB design. 0.8

5.2. Results and discussions 0.7

Desirability, D

By applying the optimization approach described in the

0.6
previous section, optimal recipes were developed for the
CTBs studied. The optimized responses and their desired
%Fine = 45%
ranges are given in Table 5. Assuming equal importance 0.5
%Fine = 55%
(r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 = r5) for the four CTB properties
%Fine = 65%
(Y1 = lnUCS, Y2 = lnSlump, Y3 = lnCost, Y4 = %Solid),
0.4
overall desirability has been calculated and desirability 6 7 8 9
plots were constructed as a function of the components W/C
of the studied CTBs (%Cement, W/C, %Fine, qt) using Fig. 20. Influence of the tailings fineness (%Fine) and of W/C on the
Eq. (3). The main results of the optimization are summa- overall desirability of the studied CTBs (%Cement = 3.8%; tailings
rized in Figs. 18–21. density, qt = 3.46 cm3/g).
 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90
9.00
8.50
8.00
W/C
7.50
7.00
6.50
6.00
3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
%Cement
Fig. 21. Contour plot of the overall desirability function in the space of
the factors %Cement and W/C (%Fine = 45%; tailings density,
qt = 3.46 cm3/g).
Fig. 18 shows the overall desirability function (D) plot-
ted against the cement content, the W/C ratio and the tail-
ings grain size. The tailings density is maintained constant
at 3.46 g/cm3. It may be noted that some desirability values
are relatively high and that some approach zero. In Fig. 18,
it is clear, for a given tailings density, that the quality of the
CTB is mostly controlled by the cement content, the tail-
ings grain size and the W/C ratio. This figure shows that
it is possible to reach a desirability of 0.7 with a cement
content of 3.8% and a W/C of 7, using tailings materials
with a proportion of fine of about 47%.
Fig. 19 puts into perspective the influence of cement
content on the overall desirability of CTB for different tail-
ings fineness. It can be observed that the global desirability
is very sensitive to small changes in cement content. A
cement content lower than 3% or higher than 4.5% drasti-
cally decreases the global desirability of CTB. A desirabil-
ity higher than 0.4 can be reached for cement contents
ranging between 3.3 and 4. It can also be seen that the tail-
ings fineness plays an important role in obtaining high
quality CTB. Fine tailings particle sizes confer the CTB
lower desirability values.
Fig. 20 shows the influence of W/C ratio on the global
desirability of CTB related to the tailings grain size. A
desirability value higher than 0.6 can be reached for a wide
range of W/C ratios. W/C ratios ranging between 6 and 8.5
are most conducive to attaining a high CTB desirability.
Fig. 21 shows a graphical presentation of the variability
of the overall desirability function in regards to the
%Cement and W/C factors. The %Fine and density factors
89
are maintained constant at 45% and 3.46 g/cm3 respec-
tively. This plot indicates that the highest values for total
desirability in this case were achieved for a W/C between
7 and 8.5 and cement contents between 3.4 and 4.3. How-
ever, although the %Fines and density factors remain con-
stant in this plot, it can be seen that in the region around
the optimum, the optimum is more sensitive to changes
in %Cement than to changes in W/C.
6. Summary and conclusion
In this study, a comprehensive engineering approach to
designing cost-effective CTB based on performance specifi-
cations is proposed. This work has demonstrated the abil-
ity of using the RSM and desirability approaches,
respectively, as reliable tools for predicting and optimizing
the performance properties (UCS, slump, solid concentra-
tion, and cost) of CTB. The methodological approach
and the predictive models developed in this study provide
an appropriate and adequate consideration of the multiple
5.50 factors affecting the CTB properties and the prediction of
the latter with relatively good accuracy. The modeling
results are in perfect agreement with those of experimental
tests undertaken by several authors (e.g. Hassani and
Archibald, 1988; Archibald et al., 1995; Amaratunga and
Yaschyshyn, 1997; Benzaazoua et al., 2003; Kesimal
et al., 2003, 2004; Fall et al., 2004, 2005a, submitted).
The optimization that was performed, based on multi-crite-
ria optimization techniques, has enabled the development
of cost-effective mixes of the studied CTBs. Valuable
results were also gained regarding factors controlling
CTB properties, the interactions between its main compo-
nents (cement, tailings grain size and density, W/C ratio,
cement ratio, mixing water) and their effect on its behav-
iour, etc. It was demonstrated that the cement content,
the tailings fineness, the W/C ratio, and the tailings density
significantly affect the performance properties of CTB.
However, the expert tool developed in this study for the
design of cost-effective underground cemented backfill
should not exclude the undertaking of the essential labora-
tory experimental tests. The methodological approach
developed in this study can be applied to any CTB to pre-
dict and optimize its properties. It will permit a thorough
assessment and a significant reduction in subjectivity when
evaluating the quality of CTB.
However, in spite of the interesting results obtained in this
work, additional research is necessary in order to consider a
larger experimental range definition, to take into account
changes in the mineralogical or petrographical nature of
the tailings material (since the latter can differ from one min-
ing region to another), and to test other binder types.
Acknowledgement
This work was sponsored by IRSST (‘‘Institut de
Recherche Robert-Sauvé en santé et en Sécurité du
Travail’’).
90 M. Fall et al. / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23 (2008) 80–90
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