HYDRAULIC JUMP IN TRAPEZOIDAL AND CIRCULAR CHANNELS

S.B. Mitchell PhD, CEng, MICE, MCIWEM

Reliable prediction of upstream and downstream depths in a hydraulic design in open channels.
A series of algorithms is proposed for estimating the ratio of conjugate depths in a hydraulic
jump in a horizontal channel over a range of Froude numbers and for a range of different
trapezoidal and circular sections running part-full. By solving the momentum equation using
appropriate values for the depth of centroid below the free surface, an iterative approach is
proposed that uses the Newton-Raphson method and produces satisfactory agreement with
recent published experimental data. The resulting graphs of conjugate depth ratio y2/y1 against
F1 were also used to form the basis of a series of equations of best-fit lines that could be used
as first approximations for use in hydraulic design problems. The results obtained were also used
to predict the energy loss in the hydraulic jump. It is envisaged that the algorithms described
here could be incorporated into standard design spreadsheets for use by practitioners involved
in civil engineering hydraulic design.

1. INTRODUCTION
The transition from fast- moving, shallow supercritical flow to slower, deeper subcritical
flow in an open channel is marked by a hydraulic jump. An understanding of the key
properties of hydraulic jumps is essential for their effective use as energy dissipators, as
mixers and aerators and a means of addressing problems associated with scour. In
design of reservoir spillways and other civil engineering hydraulic structures, it is
necessary to obtain estimates for the relationship between water depths. Upstream and
downstream of hydraulic jump (also known as conjugate depths) for a given Froude
number. A designer may well need to investigate a range of different options in terms
of flow rates, water depths, channel widths and channel geometries: effective use of
flexible and adaptable design tools in this context is therefore essential. A common
problem occurs in hydraulic jump to dissipate the energy from a known supercritical
flow, and the designer needs to determine the necessary downstream depth required
for the formation of a stable jump. Furthermore, it is desirable that a good balance be
achieved between ease of use and accuracy of any such design tools, in order that teams
of engineers can exchange ideas and data in an informed and useful way.

Many textbooks (e.g. French) describe the key physical principles behind hydraulic jump
formation, and from these a range of design manuals have been produced for
calculations associated with various aspects of open-channels hydraulics including for
hydraulic jumps. The designer has a number of options at his/her disposal, including
graphical methods, computer models and design formulae. The simple and widely used
rectangular channel has received considerable attention, especially in reservoir spillway
design. For the case of trapezoidal and circular channels running part-full, however, less
attention has been given to the prediction of sequent depths and energy losses, and
only a limited selection of design tools is available. White it is not intended to give ab
exhaustive review of all the literature relating to hydraulic jumps in trapezoidal,
triangular and circular channels, it is nevertheless useful to give a brief summary of some
of the previous attempts to measure and model hydraulic jumps in the laboratory.
Previous attempts to provide analytical solutions to conjugate depth ratio y 2/y1 were
generally characterized by detailed analytical representations and attendant design
charts, although reproduction of these results in laboratory flumes has met with varying
 degrees of success. Incorporation of momentum coefficient α in the one-dimensional
momentum equation has added a further degree of complexity to the conjugate depth
relationship. For the case of trapezoidal sections, detailed observations of the flow
structure were made by Ali and Ridgeway, including subsequent discussion on the form
of oblique hydraulic jump that characterize shallow-sloping side walls. Recent
experimental data for rectangular, trapezoidal and circular channels are used and
compared with results obtained by the methods described here.

The aim of this paper is to propose and investigate the applicability of a series of
algorithms relating conjugate depths upstream and downstream of a hydraulic jump in
a horizontal channel for trapezoidal and circular sections running part- full, their
dependence on upstream Froude number and the associated energy loss in the jump.
These algorithms should be sufficient to obtain workable solutions, while at the same
time having potential for incorporation into a spreadsheet or simple program for design
purposes. In the current paper, analysis will be restricted to the case of channel having
a horizontal bed and constant channel geometry. Cases of sloping beds and widening or
narrowing channels will not be considered.

2. Theoretical background
In a horizontal channel upstream and downstream water depths can be related by
equation of conservation of momentum.
𝑄2 𝑄2
𝑍1̅ 𝐴1 + = 𝑍̅2 𝐴2 +
𝑔𝐴1 𝑔𝐴2
Where 𝑍̅ is the vertical distance between the centroid of the flow area and the water
surface, A is the cross-sectional area, Q is the flow rate and g is the acceleration due to
gravity; the subscripts 1,2 refer to positions immediately upstream and downstream of
the hydraulic jump (fig. 1).

For a rectangular channel 𝑍̅ = 𝑦/2 and 𝑄 = 𝑞𝐵 where y is the depth of flow, q is the
flow per unit width and B is the channel width yielding the well-known expression.
𝑦1 1
= (√1 + 8𝐹 2 − 1)
𝑦2 2
Where F is the Froude number given by 𝐹 = 𝑉/√𝑔𝑦 where V is the section mean
velocity (=Q/A). Thus it is possible to obtain an estimate for the upstream depth, 𝑦1 ,
given the downstream depth, 𝑦2 , the flow rate Q and the sections width B. furthermore,
for a horizontal channel bed it is then possible, once 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are known, to obtain a
value fir the energy loss in the hydraulic jump
𝑉12 𝑉22
∆𝐸 = (𝑦1 + ) − (𝑦2 + )
2𝑔 2𝑔
For the case of trapezoidal and circular sections running part-full, however, there is no
equivalent expression for 𝑦2 /𝑦1 , since the determination of 𝑍̅ is not as straightforward.
By finding an appropriate expression for 𝑍̅ in the case of trapezoidal and circular sections
and using this result to solve the momentum equation using an iterative approach,
however, a solution can nevertheless be found relatively easily. For this, the geometrical
properties of the two different sections must now be examined.
2.1. Trapezoidal
The area of trapezoid having depth y, bottom width Band side slope 1: s is given by the
expression𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦)𝑦. By reference to fig. 2, for a trapezoidal section, and by
equating the two areas above and below the horizontal centroid line it can be shown
that 𝑍̅, the distance downwards from the water surface to centroid of the section, may
be given by
1
̅̅̅
𝑍1 = (4𝑠𝑦1 + 2𝐵 − √4𝐵2 + 8𝑠(𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 )𝑦1 )
4𝑠
1
̅̅̅
𝑍2 = (4𝑠𝑦2 + 2𝐵 − √4𝐵2 + 8𝑠(𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦2 )𝑦2
4𝑠
With subscripts 1,2 referring to upstream and downstream depths respectively.

Fig. 1. Definition sketch for hydraulic jump-elevation

The expression for 𝑍1̅ (equation (4a)) can then be combined with the rearranged
momentum equation (1)
𝑄2 𝑄2
𝑍1̅ (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 )2 𝑦12 + − (𝑍̅2 𝐴2 + )(𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 )𝑦1 = 0
𝑔 𝑔𝐴2
To give
1 𝑄2
(4𝑠𝑦1 + 2𝐵 − √(4𝑠𝑦1 + 2𝐵)2 − 8𝑠𝑦1 (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 )) ∗ (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 )2 𝑦12 +
4𝑠 𝑔
𝑄2
− (𝑍2̅ 𝐴2 + ) (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 )𝑦1 = 0
𝑔𝐴2

Assuming that the downstream depth 𝑦2 is known, a value for 𝑦1 can now be obtained
by differentiation of the left-hand side with respect to 𝑦1 , that is
1 2 1
{𝐴 [4𝑠 − (8𝑠(4𝑠𝑦1) + 2𝐵) − (8𝑠(𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 ) + 8𝑠 2 𝑦1 ))]
4𝑠 1 2√∅
+ (4𝑠𝑦1 + 2𝐵 − √∅) ∗ (2𝑠𝑦12 (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 ) + 2𝑦1 (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦12 ))}
𝑄2
− [𝑍̅2 𝐴2 + ] (2𝑦1 𝑠 + 𝐵)
𝑔𝐴2
With ∅ = (4𝑠𝑦1 + 2𝐵)2 − 8𝑠𝑦1 (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦1 ) and subsequent iterative use of the newton-
Raphson equation
𝑓(𝑦)
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦𝑛−1 − 1
𝑓 (𝑦)
With equations (6) and (7) as the numerator and denominator of the last term, and the
subscript n as the sequential numbering of the solutions obtained, to yield 𝑦1 . For the
alternative case where 𝑦1 is known and 𝑦2 is to be found, the same logic can be applied
but with the subscripts interchanged.

Fig. 2. Definition sketch for trapezoidal section

2.2. Circular

For circular section with diameter D running part-full (depth above invert = y), an
analytical solution is not possible. By using numerical optimization, however, a good
polynomial approximation is obtained for D=1 using

𝑍̅ = −0.000075𝜃 5 + 0.000743𝜃 4 − 0.004636𝜃 3 + 0.03232𝜃 2 − 0.00798𝜃

+ 0.00232
Where 𝜃 is the angle at the centre of the circle between the lines connecting it to the
water surface at the boundary(fig. 3).

It is clearly possible to obtain ever closer approximations for 𝑧̅⁄𝐷 by using ever higher
degree polynomial approximations. For 𝑦⁄𝐷 in the range 0.02-0.98, however, the mean
error produced by equation (9) expressed as 𝑧̅⁄𝐷 is 7.9*10-5,with the maximum error in
this range being 𝑧̅⁄𝐷=0.00019. the advantage of the expression in equation (9) is that it
has a derivative with respect to 𝜃, that is
𝑑𝑧̅
= −0.000376𝜃 4 + 0.00297𝜃 3 − 0.0139𝜃 2 + 0.0646𝜃 − 0.00798
𝑑𝜃
And is therefore of use when undertaking the Newton-Raphson approximation for 𝜃1 .
Expressions for y and A in terms of 𝜃 are
𝐷 𝜃
𝑦= (1 − cos ( ))
2 2
𝐷2
𝐴= (𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
8
Using the momentum equation as before it is possible to use the value obtained for 𝑧̅
from equation (9) in the expression

𝐷4 𝑄2 𝑄2 𝐷2
𝑓(𝜃1 ) = 𝑧̅1 (𝜃1 − sin 𝜃1 )2 + − (𝑧̅2 𝐴2 + ) (𝜃 − sin 𝜃1 )
64 𝑔 𝑔𝐴2 8 1

Again by taking the derivative of the left-hand side with respect to 𝜃1

 𝐷4 𝑑𝑧̅1
𝑓 1 (𝜃1 ) = (𝜃1 − sin 𝜃1 )2 + 2𝑧̅1 (𝜃1 − sin 𝜃1 )(1 − cos 𝜃1 )
64 𝑑𝜃1
𝑄2 𝐷2
− (𝑧̅2 𝐴2 + ) (1 − cos 𝜃1 )
𝑔𝐴2 8

By using the expressions for 𝑧̅ and 𝑑𝑧̅⁄𝑑𝜃 from equations (9) and (10), and applying the
Newton-Raphson approach as for trapezoidal section, values for 𝜃1 and thus 𝑦1 may be
obtained.

Fig. 3. Definition sketch for circular section running part-full

The approach described above lends itself well to incorporation within a spreadsheet or
other similar computational package, one advantage of this being that input values of
water depth and section shape may be changed and the effects of the changes may be
seen quickly and easily. A spreadsheet calculation can also be used for an iterative,
Newton-Raphson approach for finding 𝑦1 given 𝑦2 , with the output from the first
iteration being referenced as the input of the second iteration, the output from this
being the input for the third and so on. Table 1 shows an example of a Newton-Raphson
calculation as carried out in this way.

It is estimated that good agreement (<0.1%) may generally be obtained after about 10
iterations of the Newton-Raphson equation. In these analyses checks were carried out
to ensure that the difference between both sides of the momentum equation was zero
(for trapezoidal sections where an exact solution was possible) or very nearly zero (for
circular sections where an approximation was used for locating the depth of the
centroid).

Care must be taken to ensure that the initial value used for 𝑦1 (or 𝜃1 ) is sufficiently close
to the solution that the iteration procedure converges sufficiently quickly, and that 𝑦1
does not start to converge to a negative number. In practice initial values of 𝑦1 =0
(trapezoidal) and 𝜃1 = 𝜋 (circular) appear to work sufficiently well to give sensible
results after 10 iterations of the Newton-Raphson algorithm. Furthermore, an extra row
could be added to the spreadsheet calculation of table 1 to recalculate 𝑦1 in the event
of a negative value being output.
The analysis was carried out for a range of values of bottom width and side slope (in the
case of trapezoidal sections) and diameter

Table 1. iterative calculation example for trapezoidal section having B-

1.2m, s 1.0m, 𝑦2 =0.944m and Q=1.0m3/s row 1 contains the quantity (B -
s𝑦1 ) for each value of 𝑦1 from the preceding column (now 6). Rows 2 and
3 are the numerator and denominator (equations (6) and (7)). Row 4 is
the solution to the Newton-Raphson calculation (equation (B)). Note the
decreasing value in row 2 as the calculation proceeds and the solution
converges.

Table 2. sections used for the analysis.

(for circular sections) and for the resulting value of 𝑦1 , 𝐹1 was calculated in each case
using
𝑉
𝐹=
√𝑔𝑦𝑚

Where 𝑦𝑚 is the section mean depth of flow given by

 (𝐵 + 𝑠𝑦)𝑦
𝑦𝑚 =
𝐵 + 2𝑠𝑦
For trapezoidal section and

𝐷 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
𝑦𝑚 = ( )
8 sin 𝜃⁄
2
For circular section.

A list of the different sections and the range of properties used for the analysis is given
in table 2. The value s=0.577 is used as this corresponds to a side slope of 30 0 above
horizontal.

3. Results

Results for 𝐹1 in the range 2-12 for trapezoidal section and circular section are show in
figs 4 and 5 respectively. Points were obtained by varying Q while maintaining a constant
downstream specific energy. As far as possible a range of values of Q was chosen so as
to obtain a reasonable distribution of 𝐹1 in each case. For trapezoidal sections (fig. 4), it
can be seen that values of 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 for given 𝐹1 decrease with decreasing bottom width
and increasing side slope parameter s, thus steep-sided channels with narrow bottom
width have a lower conjugate depth ratio than shallow-sided channels having huge
bottom width for circular section 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 is fairly constant for a given 𝐹1 , irrespective of
diameter (fig. 5). Also show in figs 4 and 5 are some data points obtained from
laboratory experiments. In presenting these experimental data it is recognized that they
are small sample of all the available data for sequent depths as a function of Froude
number; however, it is useful to present a comparison of the results obtained here width
recent published data from laboratory flumes. It should be noted that experimental data
in Wanoschek and Hager are presented in terms of a parameter M (s𝑦1 /B=0.2), which
means that direct comparison with the results obtained in this study is not possible. By
taking all calculated data points having M=0.2, however, a better direct comparison is
possible (fig. 6). For easier reference, in all cases, coefficients were calculated for
binomial best-fit lines; these are presented in table 3, together with standard errors
obtained by comparing the best-fit lines with the calculated results.
 Fig. 4. Conjugate depth ratio (𝑦2 , 𝑦1 ) against upstream Froude number (𝐹1 )for
rectangular, trapezoidal and triangular sections. Lines represent calculated
data; symbols represent observed data (with references). B 1.2m unless
otherwise stated.

The calculated energy loses (equation (3)) as a function of 𝐹1 are presented in figs 7 and
8, using an energy loss ratio ∆𝐸⁄𝐸1 , equivalent to (1 − 𝐸2 ⁄𝐸1 ).

Fig. 5. Conjugate depth ratio (𝑦2 , 𝑦1 ) against upstream Froude number (𝐹1 )for
rectangular and circular (c) sections. Lines represent calculated data; symbols
represent observed data (with reference).

4. Discussion
Although the results presented here demonstrate a reasonably straightforward
approach for determining the ratios 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 and ∆𝐸⁄𝐸1 as a function of upstream Froude
number (𝐹1 ), it is nevertheless important to state some of the assumptions made in an
analysis of this type, namely

(a) A hydrostatic pressure profile either side of the hydraulic jump

(b) A frictionless bed
(c) Uniform flow velocity throughout the cross-section.

Fig. 6. Comparison of calculated and experimental data for trapezoidal section using
M=0.2

Despite these simplifications, comparison of the resulting algorithms with observed

experimental data shows fairly good agreement, although increasingly less so at higher
Froude number (𝐹1 > 6.0). agreement is generally better for circular sections than for
rectangular or trapezoidal sections, although this may be owing to nothing more than
the nature and scale of the experiments conducted. It seems likely that with increased
turbulence at the start of the jump at higher Froude numbers, a hydrostatic profile is
less valid and vertical momentum forces are important, as is the increased effect of
friction at the bed and sides of the channel. Graphs of the form of those found in figs 4-
6 were produced by Sylvester and good agreement seems apparent between these and
his fig. 2.

The graphs of energy loss against upstream Froude number (fig 7 and 8) are in
themselves informative, as these provide an estimate of the relative effectiveness of de
hydraulic jump as energy dissipator for these channel sections. Moderate increases in
energy loss are predicted for shallow-sided trapezoidal sections compared with
rectangular ones for a given 𝐹1 , while the family of energy- loss curves for circular
sections is reasonably constant.

It has been shown that for trapezoidal sections, the slope of the graph of 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 against
𝐹1 decreases with decreasing values of B and increasing values of s; a channel with a
narrow bottom width and steep side slope therefore has a much lower 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 for a given
𝐹1 than one with a wide bottom and shallow side slope. This agrees with the analysis of
Wanoschek and Hager, who present the family of curves in terms of the parameter
M=(s𝑦1 ⁄𝐵), with shallower lines corresponding to increased values of M, although since
this parameter depends on 𝑦1 , direct comparison between the two approaches is
problematic. In order to quantify 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 better, it is intended that table 3 be used as an
initial point of reference for estimates of this relationship. It should be emphasized that
for all section shapes a quadratic relationship is quoted, although for non-circular
sections the coefficient of 𝐹12 (i.e. 𝐴1 ) is low and could be neglected for most design
purposes.

Table 3. coefficients for equations of best-fir lines for graphs of 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 against 𝐹1 . Best-
fit lines have from 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 , 𝐴1 𝐹 2, 𝐴2 𝐹1 , 𝐴2 .

The graphs of conjugate depth ratio against upstream Froude number are useful in that
they can be used for obtaining a first approximation for channel design. The algorithms
described in equations (6)-(8), (13)and (14) may then be used for more precise design,
and by incorporation into a spreadsheet, may then be used either to predict 𝑦1 for
known 𝑦2 , or vice versa. The effect of varying Q, s, B or D on conjugate depth ratios can
then be readily assessed by the designer.
Fig 7. Energy loss ratio against upstream Froude number (𝐹1 ) rectangular and
trapezoidal sections B 1.2m unless otherwise stated.

Fig 8. Energy loss ratio against upstream Froude number (𝐹1 ) rectangular and circular
sections having diameter 1.5; 2.5; 3.5m.
 5. Conclusions

Series of algorithms has been presented that predict the value of conjugate depth ratio
𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 for given 𝐹1 in hydraulic jumps for trapezoidal and circular channels running part-
full. The following points have been shown.

(a) By using conservation of momentum and incorporating predictors of centroid depth

for different section shapes, an iterative approach can be adopted for providing
solutions that can be incorporated into a standard spreadsheet model. This yielded
solutions for the conjugate depth ratio for a range of different trapezoidal and
circular section shapes.
(b) By using the results obtained in this way it was possible to produce a series of graphs
for 𝑦2 ⁄𝑦1 against 𝐹1 that showed reasonable agreement with experimental data and
previous approaches used. Better agreement was generally obtained at low values
of 𝐹1 (<6). The results of these graphs may be further distilled into a series of best-
fit lines that summarize the shape of the graphs for various sections shapes.
(c) Further work is needed to expand these algorithms for the case of sloping and
expanding channel in order that a wider range of design problems can be addressed.
Further laboratory testing for a range of different sections would also help further
to validate these results.

Acknowledgements

The author is very grateful to Peter Clark and Steve Murray (Black and Veatch Limited, Redhill,
Surrey, UK) for their constructive comments and guidance throughout the drafting of this paper.
The helpful comments of two anonymous reviewers are also gratefully acknowledged.