Accepted Manuscript

Research Paper

Advanced Power Generation Using Biomass Wastes from Palm Oil Mills

Muhammad Aziz, Tedi Kurniawan, Takuya Oda, Takao Kashiwagi

PII: S1359-4311(16)33064-2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.11.031
Reference: ATE 9441

To appear in: Applied Thermal Engineering

Received Date: 23 February 2016

Revised Date: 24 October 2016
Accepted Date: 5 November 2016

Please cite this article as: M. Aziz, T. Kurniawan, T. Oda, T. Kashiwagi, Advanced Power Generation Using Biomass
Wastes from Palm Oil Mills, Applied Thermal Engineering (2016), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.
2016.11.031

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Original research paper submitted to Applied Thermal Engineering (re-revised).

Advanced Power Generation Using Biomass Wastes from Palm Oil Mills

Muhammad Aziz*a, Tedi Kurniawanb, Takuya Odaa, Takao Kashiwagia

a
Advanced Energy Systems for Sustainability, Tokyo Institute of Technology,

2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan

b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang

26600 Pekan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia

*
Corresponding author. Tel: +81-3-5734-3809; Fax: +81-3-5734-3559

E-mail: aziz.m.aa@m.titech.ac.jp

A part of this paper was presented at the 4th International Conference on

Microgeneration and Related Technologies (Microgen IV), October 28-30, 2015, Tokyo,

Japan (Original paper title: "Advanced Utilization of Biomass Wastes from Palm Oil

Mill for Power Generation” and Paper ID.: 0085)

1
Abstract

This study focuses on the energy-efficient utilization of both solid and liquid wastes

from palm oil mills, particularly their use for power generation. It includes the

integration of a power generation system using empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm oil

mill effluent (POME). The proposed system mainly consists of three modules: EFB

gasification, POME digestion, and additional organic Rankine cycle (ORC). EFBs are

dried and converted into a syngas fuel with high calorific value through integrated

drying and gasification processes. In addition, POME is converted into a biogas fuel for

power generation. Biogas engine-based cogenerators are used for generating both

electricity and heat. The remaining unused heat is recovered by ORC module to

generate electricity. The influences of three EFB gasification temperatures (800, 900

and 1000 ºC) in EFB gasification module; and working fluids and pressure in ORC

module are evaluated. Higher EFB gasification leads to higher generated electricity and

remaining heat for ORC module. Power generation efficiency increases from 11.2 to

24.6 % in case of gasification temperature is increased from 800 to 1000 ºC. In addition,

cyclohexane shows highest energy efficiency compared to toluene and n-heptane in ORC

module. Higher pressure in ORC module also leads to higher energy efficiency. Finally, the

highest total generated power and power generation efficiency obtained by the system are 8.3

2
MW and 30.4 %, respectively.

Keywords: power generation, empty fruit bunch, palm oil mill effluent, gasification,

digestion, organic Rankine cycle.

3
1. Introduction

The production of palm oil and its products has increased rapidly in the last decade

due to high demand following the economic growth, especially in developing countries

including China, India, and Southeast Asian countries [1]. This has led to a massive

expansion of palm plantations leading to some associated environmental problems,

especially wastes [2]. In palm oil production, only about 10% of the whole palm tree is

currently utilized in any significant way [3]. The wastes include both liquid and solid.

Generally, palm oil mills require a huge amount of water, and in turn, dispose of

large quantities of wastewater called palm oil mill effluent (POME). POME is the

largest byproduct of the process, with no specific commercial application. It contains

about 95% water and 5% solids. POME is acidic and has both high biological oxygen

demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD). Therefore, the discharge of

POME without sufficient treatment represents an environmental hazard. As a result,

POME treatment has become the primary source of environmental pollution, which

includes high emissions of methane (32.9 kg-CH4 t-POME-1) and its solid nutrients to

water and soil [4].

Solid wastes are also generated during the milling process, which consist primarily

of empty fruit bunch (EFB, 23%), fiber (12%), and palm kernel shell (5%) [5]. Among

4
them, EFB generally has the lowest economic value for reuse. It has a relatively high

moisture content of 60‒70 wt% on a wet basis (wb) [6], low bulk density, and

non-uniform shape [7]. It requires additional treatment, such as cutting and grinding,

before being used. EFB is a byproduct of the fresh fruit threshing process to detach the

palm fruits.

The treatment of wastes at palm oil mills is very important from both environmental

and economic standpoints. Some developing countries demand strict environmental

controls. Therefore, palm oil production must be environmentally sustainable if exports

are to be feasible. Accordingly, new environmental friendly technologies are vital and

urgently required. Alternatives for use of solid and liquid wastes include energy

harvesting, industrial material, and fertilizers. However, high transportation and labor

costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have become barriers to their utilization [8].

Currently, both POME and EFB are treated in a very inefficient way. POME is

treated conventionally through anaerobic and aerobic processes to be converted to

biogas or to compost before its residual liquid is discharged into rivers. Although a

small part of produced biogas is used for power generation, in majority it is flared with

the aim of reducing the GHG impacts. In addition, at present, EFB is commonly

disposed in plantations for nutrient recycling without any significant utilization.

5
Unfortunately, this practice may result in eutrophication and an increase in toxicity in

the soil [9].

Because EFB and POME represent the largest portion of wastes from palm oil mills,

effective utilization of these byproducts is essential for increasing economic benefits as

well as reducing environmental impacts. To the best of our knowledge, there is lack of

research on efforts to integrate and effectively utilize both EFB and POME for

small-scale in situ power generation with high energy efficiency. Aziz et al. proposed an

integrated system consisting of drying, gasification, and a combined cycle with

relatively high energy efficiency [10]. However, their system was not suitable for

small-scale in situ power generation because EFB must be collected from multiple mills

to address its high demand as fossil fuel. Luk et al. evaluated an integrated drying and

boiler-based power generation using EFB [11]. However, their proposed system showed

large amounts of exergy destruction, leading to lower energy efficiency. In addition, the

co-digestion of EFB and POME has been evaluated previously to simplify the treatment

steps and reduce production costs [12]. However, because EFB has very low

biodegradability due to its rich lignocellulosic composition, such utilization was not

promising.

This paper proposes an integrated small-scale in-situ energy harvesting process

6
(power generation) utilizing EFB and POME with high energy efficiency, especially

utilization of EFB. The objective of this study is to model an integrated system for

power generation utilizing both EFB and POME through process modeling and to

evaluate its feasibility in terms of energy efficiency. Therefore, by applying the

proposed system, it is expected that palm mill can increase its energy productivity in

efficient way as well as higher economic performance and lower environmental impact.

Because palm mills are generally located in rural and remote areas with poor electricity

supply, power generation from palm oil mill wastes is expected to have the potential to

improve the electricity supply to surrounding areas increasing the access to electricity. .

2. Proposed power generation system

The concept of the proposed integrated power generation system using both EFB

and POME is shown in Fig. 1. This kind of in-situ power generation can be categorized

as small scale due to the limited flow rate of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) which is generally

ranging from 30 to 100 t-FFB h-1. Furthermore, it is predicted that these capacities are

able to produce the electricity up to 20 MW. The system consists of two main modules:

1) EFB gasification and POME digestion modules, and 2) an additional organic Rankine

cycle (ORC) module. The solid, dashed, and dotted lines represent material, heat, and

7
electricity flows, respectively.

Figure 1 Conceptual diagram of the integrated small-scale power generation for EFB

and POME.

The EFB gasification module involves three continuous processes: 1) drying, 2)

gasification, and 3) power generation using a gas engine. Initially, wet EFBs exhausted

from the mill are collected and dried to reduce their moisture content, therefore

increases the calorific value. The heat source required for drying is the hot flue gas

exhausted from gas engines in both EFB gasification and POME digestion modules.

The hot and dried EFBs then flow to the gasification module, where EFBs are converted

8
to syngas consisting of H2, CO, CO2, and CH4. Gasification is used because of its higher

carbon conversion efficiency than other conversion technologies such as pyrolysis [8].

The produced syngas is then cleaned and used as fuel for an internal combustion engine

generating both electricity and heat (cogeneration). The exhausted heat from the gas

engine typically ranges from 300 to 600 °C, which creates the potential for use as an

energy source. In this study, the generated heat is used primarily for EFB drying.

The POME digestion module involves two primary processes: 1) anaerobic

digestion and 2) power generation using the gas engine. During anaerobic digestion,

POME is converted to biogas, which generally consists of about 35‒60% methane.

POME can be easily converted to methane with about 98% biodegradability [12].

Through anaerobic digestion, lipids included in POME are degraded to glycerol and

further converted to methane. The sequence of anaerobic digestion includes hydrolysis,

acidogenesis, and methanogenesis [13]. The produced biogas is further cleaned and

used as fuel in power generation using the gas engine. Because the composition and

calorific value of the produced syngas and biogas from each module are different

(H2-rich and CH4-rich), in this study, different gas engines are installed at each

corresponding module. However, use of a single gas engine having the capability to use

produced gases with different compositions is preferred in consideration of lower costs,

9
integrated operation, and higher total efficiency (lower heat loss).

In case there is still any remaining heat from the flue gas, especially from the EFB

gasification module, an additional ORC system can be employed to increase the total

generation efficiency. The ORC module consists of a pump, preheater, superheater

(evaporator), and condenser.

2.1.EFB gasification module

Fig. 2 shows the schematic process flow diagram of the EFB gasification module.

Initially, raw and wet EFBs from palm mills are cut and shredded to enlarge their

surface areas and achieve uniform size, thereby enhancing moisture and heat transfer

and uniformity during drying. The shredded EFBs then enter a rotary dryer for moisture

removal after being preheated using the flue gas exhausted from dryer. A rotary dryer is

used because of its large heat transfer area, potential for continuous operation, easier

handling, and excellent drying control [14, 15]. The dryer is rotated by a motor,

resulting in excellent particle mixing. Peripheral fins are installed inside to lift and

shower the solid particles, promoting close contact between the solids and hot gas. In

addition, the dryer has a sloped rotating cylinder to facilitate particle movement from

the feeding inlet to the discharge outlet.

10
 Figure 2 Schematic process flow diagram of the EFB gasification module.

All of the hot flue gas from POME digestion module is used as a heat source for

drying. In addition, the hot flue gas from EFB gasification is primarily used to cover the

heat for drying, while in case that there is any remaining heat, it is used as the heat

source in ORC module. The heat exchange inside the dryer can be set to co-current or

counter current depending on the flow direction of both EFBs and hot flue gas. Because

the hot flue gas has direct contact with EFBs, a convective heat transfer occurs, leading

to rapid heat and moisture transfer. The evaporated moisture and flue gas are discharged

together, flowing into cyclones for further separation.

After being ground to smaller size, the hot-dried EFBs then flow into the gasifier for

11
conversion after being preheated initially using the raw syngas from gasification. For

gasification, a fluidized bed gasifier is used because of its high level of heat transfer,

conversion rate, and running variable load [16]. In addition, air is used as a gasification

medium. Auto-thermal gasification is adopted in this study in which the heat is supplied

mainly by the preheated air and EFB, and combustion of carbon including char. The

produced syngas is exhausted from the gasifier and its heat is recovered to preheat the

air for gasification and dried EFB. Next, the raw syngas is cleaned and cooled to

remove particles, sulfur, and tar condensate before being used as fuel for the gas engine.

2.2. POME digestion module

Fig. 3 shows the schematic process flow diagram of the POME digestion module.

POME is usually discharged from the mill at temperatures of 70‒90 °C. The exhausted

POME flows to cooling and acidification ponds, where its temperature is reduced to

approximately 35 °C and its pH is adjusted. The retention time in these ponds is

approximately 1‒2 days. Following pond retention, POME flows to an anaerobic

digestion pond, where biogas is produced in a period of approximately 60 days. The

produced biogas is exhausted from the digester and split into two streams. The primary

stream moves to the gas cleaning system and another stream moves to the flaring

12
system. Flaring is important because the amount of produced biogas fluctuates. In the

absence of flaring, facilities for gas storage are required. As a result, the rate of biogas

flowing to the gas engine is controlled and the unused biogas is flared, converting CH4

to CO2.

Figure 3 Schematic process flow diagram of the POME digestion module.

The biogas flowing to gas cleaning is further scrubbed for H2S and moisture

removal (drying). The clean and dried biogas finally flows to the gas engine as fuel for

generation of both electricity and heat. The exhausted flue gas is collected together with

a part of exhausted flue gas from EFB gasification module and utilized for drying.

Furthermore, the remaining liquid wastes from digestion flow consecutively to aerobic

and maturation ponds. These ponds are very important to further reduce the organic

13
content of the liquid wastes. The required retention time is approximately 14 days,

during which BOD might be reduced to less than 100 ppm. At that point, it can be used

as a liquid fertilizer in plantations or discharged into rivers.

2.3 Use of the ORC module

ORC is considered to be an appropriate technology to recover low-quality heat and

convert it to electricity [17]. Use of ORC can further minimize the loss of exergy,

particularly when the remaining waste heat has no specific use. ORC has a working

principle similar to that of an ordinary steam Rankine cycle. However, it uses organic

fluids, including hydrocarbons and refrigerants, which have a lower specific heat of

vaporization than water. Therefore, it is feasible to convert low-temperature heat into

electricity. In this study, ORC is used in case there is any remaining heat from the flue

gas, particularly from the EFB gasification module.

Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram of the ORC module that can be integrated with

the above two modules. Although the dual-loop ORC system is considered to have a

higher generation efficiency, the basic single-loop ORC system is used because of its

simpler structure and lower initial cost [18]. The remaining hot flue gas from the EFB

gasification module is used as the primary heat source in the ORC module, superheating

14
the working fluid. As a result, the compressed working fluid will evaporate, producing

high-pressure vapor from the working fluid. Next, it flows to the turbine for expanding

and generating torque to rotate the generator, producing electricity. Furthermore,

because the working fluid exhausted from the turbine still has a relatively high

temperature, a preheater is installed to recover heat. This heat, in turn, is used to preheat

the working fluid.

Figure 4 Conceptual flow diagram of the ORC module.

In ORC, selection of the working fluid is very important because its thermodynamic

properties will influence efficiency [19]. In this study, some organic working fluids such

as toluene, octane, cyclohexane, and heptane are considered suitable [18‒20]. In

15
addition, the stability of the working fluid must be maintained to avoid any degradation

under specific temperature and pressure [19].

3. Process modeling and simulation

Table 1 shows the composition of EFB, including the proximate and elemental

analyses used in this study based on previous studies [21, 22]. Generally, EFB has a

high content of volatile chemicals (about 80% wt% db), resulting in a high potential for

conversion to syngas [23]. Furthermore, Table 2 shows the drying and gasification

conditions for EFB and the specifications for digestion of POME. The specifications for

use of the gas engine are based on the standard model for a biogas engine manufactured

by Yanmar Co., Ltd., Japan [24].

Table 1 Composition of EFB

Component Value
Proximate analysis
Volatiles (wt% db) 87.08
Fixed carbon (wt% db) 9.27
Ash (wt% db) 3.65
Elemental analysis
C (wt% db) 44.92
H (wt% db) 6.21
N (wt% db) 1.17
S (wt% db) 0.03
O (wt% db) 43.99

16
 Moisture content (wt% wb) 60

Table 2 Power generation conditions for drying, gasification, biogas digestion, and other

components

Component Value
EFB drying
Particle diameter (mm) 5
Min. temperature approach (°C) 10
Number of flights (-) 12
Rotation speed (rpm) 10
EFB gasification
Temperature (°C) 800, 900, 1000
Mean particle diameter (mm) 0.3
Fluidizing particles (-) Silica sand
Fluidizing particles diameter (mm) 0.3
POME digestion
POME density (×103 kg m-3) 0.98
3 -1
Produced biogas (Nm t-POME ) 25
CH4 percentage (%) 55
CH4 calorific value (MJ Nm-3) 50
CH4 density (kg Nm-3) 0.66
Ratio of used biogas to rated capacity (%) 80
Power generation (gas engine)
Power generation efficiency (%) 32
Total efficiency (%) 84
Flue gas temperature (°C) 450

The average flow rate of FFB fed to palm oil mills ranges from 45 to 60 t-FFB h-1.

Considering that the ratio of produced EFB from FFB is 20%, the flow rate of FFB and

wet EFB used in this study are fixed at 50 and 10 t h-1, respectively. In addition, the inlet

17
temperature of the hot gas entering the rotary dryer is assumed at 450 °C, which is

based on detailed specifications of engines and other literatures [25-27].

Process modeling is performed using a commercial process simulator SimSci Pro/II

(Schneider Electric Software, LLC.). Some additional assumptions are made: (1) the

maximum target moisture content in drying is 5 wt% wb, (2) the gasifier consists of a

mixer and a conversion reactor, (3) the minimum temperature in the heat exchanger is

10 °C, (4) POME is obtained from crude palm oil (CPO) production at a rate of 532 kg

t-FFB-1 [1], (5) the air contains 79 mol% nitrogen and 21 mol% oxygen, (6) the ambient

temperature and pressure are 25 °C and 101.33 kPa, respectively, and (7) heat is

exchanged in a counter-current mode, in both the dryer and heat exchanger. Moreover,

considering that the work required for shredding of EFB with the capacity of 10 t-EFB

h-1 is about 75 kW [28] and the work consumed by a ball mill to grind the dried EFB

with capacity of 4.2 t-EFB h-1 is 30 kW [29], the total consumed electricity inside the

plant, excluding the electric motor for the rotary dryer and air compressor for

fluidization, is 10% of which is totally generated. In addition, in case the heat from the

flue gases of gas engine is insufficient to provide the heat required for drying, an

additional heater to produce syngas can be installed to superheat the flue gas before

entering the rotary dryer.

18
 The specific heat capacity of the solid EFB at constant pressure, CEFB, is

approximated as the compound of fixed carbon and volatile matters. It can be written as

follows [30]:

, (1)

, (2)

, (3)

, (4)

where, F, V1, and V2 are mass fractions (wt%) of fixed carbon, primary volatile matter

and secondary volatile matter, respectively. As the total mass fraction of volatile matter

is greater than 10%, the mass fraction of secondary volatile matter, V2, is assumed to be

10%. In addition, Cf, Cv1, and Cv2 are the heat capacities (kJ kg-1 K-1) of each fixed

carbon, primary volatile matter and secondary volatile matter, respectively. In addition,

the heat capacity of ash, Cash, is approximated as following equation.

, (5)

where, Ko, K1, K2, and K3 are the coefficients for the constituent of ash. In this study, as

the amount of ash is relatively small and also for simplification during calculation, ash

is mainly constituted by CaO. Therefore, the values of Ko, K1, K2, and K3 are 58.79,

19
-1.34×10-2, -11.47×10-5, and 10.34×10-7, respectively [31]. In addition, higher heating

value (HHV, MJ kg-1) of EFB is calculated based on the following correlation which

was developed based on Dulong’s formula [32].

, (6)

where, C, H, S, O, N, and A are mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen,

nitrogen, and ash, respectively. In addition, the above HHV can be converted to lower

heating value (LHV) by using the following equation [33].

, (7)

The kinetics of EFB drying are complex. The heat of hot flue gas from gas engine is

used as the energy to overcome some forces including capillary, sorption, and chemical

bonding forces. The amount of evaporated water from the wet EFB that is exhausted

together with flue gas can be expressed as follows:

, (8)

20
where mw,evp, ms, MCi, and MCf are flow rate of the evaporated water (kg h-1), flow rate

of dry solid EFB (kg h-1), initial moisture content (wt%), and final moisture content

(wt%), respectively.

Considering that there is no heat loss from the system, the energy balance inside the

rotary dryer during drying can be approximated as follows:

(9)

where mg, hg, hs, hw, and hv are gas flow rate (kg h-1), gas specific enthalpy (J kg-1),

specific enthalpy of solid EFB (J kg-1), water-specific enthalpy (J kg-1), and

vapour-specific enthalpy (J kg -1), respectively. In addition, subscripts in and out

represent inlet and outlet, respectively.

The heat supplied by the hot gas can be expressed as follows:

(10)

where Cw, Tf, Ti, and Hevp are heat capacity of water (J kg-1 K-1), final temperature,

inlet temperature, and latent heat of water evaporation (J kg-1), respectively.

21
 In addition, the heat that is exchanged inside the rotary dryer can be expressed as

follows [34]:

, (11)

where Q, Uv, V, and (t)m are rate of heat transfer (J s -1), volumetric heat transfer

coefficient (J s-1 m-3 K-1), dryer volume (m3), and true mean temperature difference (K),

respectively. Furthermore, considering that the number of flights, nf, inside the dryer is

12, the rate of heat transfer inside the dryer can be expressed as follows [35]:

, (12)

where L, D, G, and tlm are dryer length (m), inside diameter (m), gas flow rate per unit

area of dryer cross section (kg h-1 m-2), and logarithmic temperature difference inside

the dryer (K), respectively.

In addition, the electricity consumed by the motor to rotate the rotary drum, Wmot,

can be calculated as follows [36]:

, (13)

22
where N, w, and wr are rotation speed (rpm), material load (kg), and total rotating load

(kg), respectively.

In EFB gasification, in which a fluidized bed-type gasifier is used, the total pressure

drop inside the bed during fluidization, Pf, can be approximated as follows [37]:

, (14)

, (15)

, (16)

where Pb, Pd, mf, p, g, H, g, and c are pressure drop across the bed (kPa), pressure

drop across the distributor (kPa), void fraction at minimum fluidization velocity (-),

particle density (kg m-3), gas density (kg m-3), bed height (m), acceleration due to

gravity (m s-2), and conversion factor (1 kg m N -1 s-2), respectively.

To enhance uniform particle mixing and heat transfer inside the bed, silica sand is

used as fluidizing particles, which also act as a heat carrier. Therefore, the minimum

fluidization velocity of all particles is approximated as the minimum fluidization

velocity of silica sand. The cooled and cleaned syngas is considered to be at ambient

temperature before it is compressed for input to the gas engine.

23
 To measure the effect of gasification temperature on total energy efficiency, three

gasification temperatures are observed: 800, 900, and 1000 °C. The composition of

produced syngas, excluding the remaining N2 and O2, from different gasification

temperatures is based on the experimental results of Mohammed et al., as shown in

Table 3 [38]. Cold gas efficiency is calculated based on the work of Kihedu et al. [39].

Generally, gasification yields increase following the increase in gasification temperature.

Therefore, a higher LHV of produced syngas is achieved. Note that, because air is used

as a gasification medium, unreacted gas (especially N2) is exhausted together with the

syngas from the gasifier. As the work of Mohammed et al. is a non auto-thermal system,

in system approximation, a part of produced syngas is assumed to be combusted

(reacted with air) to provide additional heat required to achieve the gasification

temperature, in addition to the heat brought by preheated air and EFB. As the result, the

real cold gas efficiency is lower than one in Table 3. The achieved cold gasification

efficiencies from the system are 30.6%, 54.2%, and 83.3% for gasification temperatures

of 800, 900 and 1000 °C, respectively. According to Kihedu et al. [39], cold gas

efficiency of biomass in auto-thermal system can achieve up to about 91% using air or

air-steam as reactant. They explained that while CO2 is produced at the lower part of the

24
gasifier because of partial oxidation, CO and H2 are generated in the middle and bottom

parts of the gasifier.

Table 3 Gasification yield at three gasification temperatures [38]

Temperature (°C)
Component
800 900 1000
Total yield (%) 68.24 80.05 91.7
LHV (MJ m-3) 11.86 13.84 15.55
Cold gas efficiency (%) 34.7 58.8 88.5
Gas composition
H2 (vol%) 17.23 27.42 38.02
CO (vol%) 33.35 33.08 36.36
CH4 (vol%) 11.74 14.29 14.72
CO2 (vol%) 37.68 25.21 10.90

Regarding the ORC cycle, three working fluids are observed: toluene (C7H8),

cyclohexane (C6H12), and n-heptane (C7H16). They are selected for this study based on

thermal stability, minimal degradation rate over time, availability, operating conditions,

and cost [40, 41]. Table 4 shows the specifications for the ORC module used in this

study. Therefore, it is expected that high efficiency can be achieved. Turbine inlet

pressure is observed from 1 MPa to pressure below the critical pressure with an interval

of 0.5 MPa. In addition, the flow rate of the working fluid is adjusted, thereby achieving

maximum generated power. Note that the amount of heat and composition of flue gas

25
will be different for each EFB gasification temperature.

Table 4 Specifications of the ORC module and working fluids

Component Value
Working fluid (-) Toluene, cyclohexane, n-heptane,
Turbine efficiency (%) 90
Turbine inlet pressure (MPa) 1‒4
Pump efficiency (%) 87
Minimum vapour quality (%) 90
Toluene properties
Boiling point (°C) 110.60
Critical temperature (°C) 318.64
Critical pressure (MPa) 4.11
Cyclohexane properties
Boiling point (°C) 80.74
Critical temperature (°C) 280.45
Critical pressure (MPa) 4.08
n-Heptane properties
Boiling point (°C) 98.42
Critical temperature (°C) 266.98
Critical pressure (MPa) 2.50

To observe the performance of each working fluid in converting the thermal energy

of exhausted flue gas to electricity, generation efficiency is used. The generation

efficiency of ORC, ORC, can be expressed as follows:

 , (17)

26
where Wt, Wp, and Qexh are work generated by turbine, work required by pump, and heat

amount of flue gas flowing to ORC module, respectively.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Integrated EFB gasification and POME digestion modules

Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the net generated power, power generation

efficiency, and EFB gasification temperature. It is important to note that the net

generated power includes both generated power from POME digestion and EFB

gasification modules. In addition, generated power from the POME digestion module is

not influenced by the gasification temperature and is constant under the same FFB flow

rate during palm oil milling. Approximately 1.18 MW of electricity is generated from

biogas produced by the POME digestion module. As the gasification temperature

increases, the net generated power increases, particularly the generated power from the

EFB gasification module. Numerically, the net generated power increases from 3.05

MW (gasification temperature of 800 °C) to 7.46 MW (gasification temperature of

1000 °C). The power generation efficiencies are 11.2%, 16.3%, and 24.6% for each

corresponding gasification temperatures of 800, 900, and 1000 °C.

27
 Figure 5 Relationship between net generated power, power generation efficiency, and

EFB gasification temperature.

As the gasification temperature increases, both the LHV and gas yield from EFB

gasification increase (Table 3). On the other hand, the amount of produced char, tar and

liquid yields decreases accordingly [38]. At high gasification temperature, the produced

gases from pyrolysis zone can undergo further secondary reaction such as tar cracking

and shift reactions leading to higher gas yield [42]. As a result, higher generation of

both power and heat is achieved. Therefore, a higher gasification temperature is

preferred for EFB gasification in terms of total energy efficiency.

Furthermore, EFB drying can be facilitated by using the flue gas heat exhausted

from gas engines in both the EFB gasification and POME digestion modules. No

28
additional input of heat is required from outside. Conversely, a large amount of

remaining heat from the flue gas is produced, as shown in Fig. 6. Again, the total

remaining heat from cogeneration systems in both modules increases following the

increase in gasification temperature. When the gasification temperature is 800 °C, the

remaining heat from cogeneration in both modules produces only about 1.1 MW. The

produced energy increases significantly to about 8 MW when the gasification

temperature is increased to 1000 °C.

Figure 6 Relationship between remaining heat and EFB gasification temperature.

A large amount of remaining heat can be used as the heat source for other processes

creating a cogeneration. The excess heat can be utilized to produce steam which can be

29
supplied to the mills including palm oil and palm kernel oil mills as both milling

processes generally require a large amount of steam during their processes, particularly

during EFB sterilization and palm kernel drying [1]. On the other hand, this surplus heat

also can be utilized to generate additional power using ORC module. In addition, the

flue gas having lower temperature from the dryer can be supplied to an anaerobic

digestion pond to enhance biogas production as well as increase the rate of COD

removal [43, 44].

4.2 Integration of the ORC module

Fig. 6 shows that the remaining heat exists in a relatively large amount when the

gasification temperatures reach 900 and 1000 °C. Therefore, the ORC module can be

used under these gasification temperatures. Figs. 7 and 8 show the relationships among

the generated power, generation efficiency, and turbine inlet pressure when the

gasification temperatures reach 900 and 1000 °C, respectively. Moreover, Tables 5 and

6 shows the properties of representative streams resulted from process calculation for

EFB gasification temperatures of 900 and 1000 °C, respectively (working fluid and

pressure are cyclohexane and 4 MPa, respectively). In general, as the turbine inlet

pressure increases, generated electricity and generation efficiency increase accordingly.

30
In addition, under the observed heat source temperature (450 °C), cyclohexane shows

the highest generated power and efficiency, followed by toluene and n-heptane.

Figure 7 Relationships among generated power, generation efficiency, and turbine inlet

pressure in the ORC module (gasification temperature 900 °C).

31
Figure 8 Relationships among generated power, generation efficiency, and turbine inlet

pressure in the ORC module (gasification temperature 1000 °C).

Table 5 Stream properties from the calculation results for gasification temperature of

900 °C (working fluid and pressure are cyclohexane and 4 MPa, respectively)

Stream Temp. Pressure Flowrate Stream Temp. Pressure Flowrate

(°C) (kPa) (kg h-1) (°C) (kPa) (kg h-1)
S1 25 101.33 10000 S20 450 108.33 37660
S7 254 101.33 4212 S22 450 108.33 12751
S8 900 110.33 3557 S23 80 101.33 26600
S10 293 107.33 3557 S26 35 120.33 633
S14 450 110.33 86308 S34 281 3994.33 15181
S15 450 108.33 21034 S35 170 107.33 15181
S16 450 106.33 33785 S36 82 104.33 15181
S17 25 101.33 1605 S37 30 101.33 15181
S19 890 137.33 1605 S39 145 3997.33 15181

32
Table 6 Stream properties from the calculation results for gasification temperature of

1000 °C (working fluid and pressure are cyclohexane and 4 MPa, respectively)

Stream Temp. Pressure Flowrate Stream Temp. Pressure Flowrate

-1
(°C) (kPa) (kg h ) (°C) (kPa) (kg h-1)
S1 25 101.33 10000 S20 450 108.33 79824
S7 283 101.33 4212 S22 450 108.33 12751
S8 1000 110.33 4075 S23 80 101.33 26600
S10 485 107.33 3557 S26 35 120.33 633
S14 450 106.33 148308 S34 280 3994.33 36165
S15 450 108.33 21034 S35 167 107.33 36165
S16 450 106.33 33785 S36 82 104.33 36165
S17 25 101.33 1477 S37 30 101.33 36165
S19 990 137.33 1477 S39 142 3997.33 36165

An EFB gasification temperature of 1000 °C results in higher generated power by

the ORC module due to higher flue gas heat exhausted from the EFB gasification

module. Numerically, when cyclohexane is used as a working fluid, the additional

electricity generated from the ORC module increases from 0.42 MW to about 1.23 MW

when the EFB gasification temperature increases from 900 °C to 1000 °C. Further,

generation efficiency is very similar for each working fluid under the same turbine inlet

pressure. The highest generation efficiency is shown by cyclohexane, which is about

15.5% in the case of a turbine inlet pressure of 4 MPa. Furthermore, toluene and

n-heptane show the highest efficiencies of about 13.7% and 12.3%, respectively, based

33
on the input heat (the received heat by ORC module from EFB gasification module).

Finally, the water used to condense the working fluid (which is preheated in the

condenser to relatively high temperatures of about 50‒80 °C, depending on flow rate),

can be used to warm the digestion pond.

According to the category of working fluids for ORC system [45], toluene and

cyclohexane are categorized as an isentropic fluid having a nearly vertical vapour

saturation curve on temperature-entropy diagram. As the result, vapour remains

saturated throughout turbine expansion without condensation. Furthermore,

cyclohexane has higher specific heat capacity compared to other fluids. On the other

hand, n-heptane is grouped as dry fluid having positive slope on temperature-entropy

diagram. Therefore, the saturated vapour becomes superheated after isentropic

expansion. In addition, as both isentropic and dry fluids need no superheating, the

impingement of liquid droplets in turbine during expansion can be avoided.

By using ORC, the highest total generated power and power generation efficiency

are 8.3 MW and 30.4% which can be reached under gasification temperature of 1000 °C

and cyclohexane as working fluid in ORC module (FFB flow rate of 50 t h-1). In

Indonesia, the total production of CPO in 2014 is about 31 Mt [46]. Assuming a ratio of

produced CPO to FFB of 1:5, total additional power generated from palm oil mills

34
throughout the country reaches about 4.5 GW. This potential is expected to increase

national energy security as well as improve access to electrical power throughout the

country.

5. Conclusions

An enhanced utilization of solid and liquid wastes from palm oil milling processes

for power generation is proposed and evaluated. The proposed system consists of EFB

gasification, POME digestion, and additional ORC modules. A cogeneration system,

producing both electricity and heat, produces syngas and biogas from both modules. In

addition, the surplus and unused heat from the system is converted to electricity through

an additional ORC module.

Based on simulations, it is clear that the proposed system is very feasible in terms of

potential power generation. A higher level of EFB gasification at 1000 °C is

recommended because it can yield significantly higher net power generation. Under this

condition, the obtained total generated power and power generation efficiency are 8.3

MW and 30.4 %, respectively. Application of the proposed system is expected to

increase the economic performance of the mills. In addition, because palm oil mills are

distributed throughout remote and rural areas lacking access to the electricity grid, this

35
application can further support the supply of electricity and increase electrification

across the country.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their deep thanks to Energy Technology Center

(B2TE), Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Indonesia,

for the assistance in providing some data required in this study.

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Figure Captions

Figure 1 Conceptual diagram of the integrated small-scale power generation for EFB

and POME.

Figure 2 Schematic process flow diagram of the EFB gasification module.

Figure 3 Schematic process flow diagram of the POME digestion module.

Figure 4 Conceptual flow diagram of the ORC module.

Figure 5 Relationship between net generated power and EFB gasification temperature.

Figure 6 Relationship between remaining heat and EFB gasification temperature.

Figure 7 Relationships among generated power, generation efficiency, and turbine inlet

pressure in the ORC module (gasification temperature 900 °C).

Figure 8 Relationships among generated power, generation efficiency, and turbine inlet

pressure in the ORC module (gasification temperature 1000 °C).

44