Effects of Plyometric
Training on Sports
Performance
Mark A. Booth, MA1 and Rhonda Orr, PhD2
1
Department of Exercise and Sports Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; and 2Department of Exercise
and Sports Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT
PLYOMETRIC TRAINING IS A
SERIES OF EXPLOSIVE BODY
WEIGHT RESISTANCE EXERCISES
USING THE STRETCH-
SHORTENING CYCLE OF THE
MUSCLE FIBER TO ENHANCE
PHYSICAL CAPACITIES SUCH AS
SPEED, STRENGTH, AND POWER.
THESE PHYSIOLOGIC MEASURES
TRANSLATE TO IMPROVED PER-
FORMANCE IN MANY SPORTS,
INCLUDING COURT-BASED
SPORTS, FIELD SPORTS, AND
WATER SPORTS. PERFORMANCE
ENHANCEMENTS RESULTING
FROM PLYOMETRIC TRAINING,
INCLUDE IMPROVED SPRINT TIMES
OVER DISTANCES RANGING FROM
5 TO 40 M, MAXIMAL MUSCLE
STRENGTH AND POWER, AND
INJURY PREVENTION MEASURES
SUCH AS IMPROVED LANDING
MECHANICS, DECREASED
GROUND REACTION FORCES,
AND IMPROVED HAMSTRING TO
QUADRICEPS RATIOS. THE OPTI-
MAL DOSE FOR ATHLETIC EN-
HANCEMENTS HAS NOT BEEN
CONSISTENTLY IDENTIFIED.
INTRODUCTION
lyometric training (PT) is a cate-
P gory of explosive body weight
resistance exercises which focuses
on exploiting the additional force
30 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
output of the stretch reflex of a muscle
to increase speed and power. A period
of rapid concentric contraction in the
muscle after a rapid eccentric length-
ening of the muscle fiber under load
enhances the force generated by the
muscle. The stretch-shortening cycle
(SSC) captures the energy of the
stretched muscle in its elastic compo-
nents and augments the next concen-
tric contraction provided it is rapidly
executed (73). This recoil effect can
enhance physiological qualities indica-
tive of improved sports performance
(speed, strength, and power) when har-
nessed and trained correctly.
An array of field (3), court (30), and
individual (2) sports use plyometric ex-
ercises. Correspondingly, the mode of
exercises are wide and diverse ranging
from double-leg, single-leg, in place,
etc. (21,58,79). These exercises are
not however limited to the lower
extremities as upper body exercises
(e.g., plyometric push-ups, chops, and
medicine ball exercises) are commonly
used for throwing sports (49).
PT is explosive in nature, therefore accu-
rate measurement of performance is vital
to detect significant worthwhile changes.
It is measured in a number of ways. Most
commonly, force plate measures (con-
tact time, ground reaction forces, take-
off velocity) (12,15,22,77) and electromy-
ography (16,22) to evaluate muscle
activation patterns, are used to assess per-
formance with plyometric exercise. Rel-
ative measures such as reactive strength
indices (14) are also used when other
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
methods are not possible, too expensive
or impractical.
The purpose of this article is to review
the existing literature on plyometric
training and its training effects as they
relate to a wide range of sports and
their performance indicators. In doing
so, it aims to provide practical guide-
lines for safe and effective program-
ming within a variety of sports for
performance enhancement and injury
prevention programs.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
PT elicits a variety of physiological
adaptations, both structural and neural.
Changes in muscle size and/or archi-
tecture are common (52), whereas re-
ductions in fat mass are not usually
seen (24). Traditional resistance train-
ing (RT) elicits similar training adapta-
tions. Typically RT uses higher training
volumes and allows for more concen-
trated eccentric loading. It therefore
makes sense to combine RT and PT
when programming for performance
enhancement to maximize these train-
ing adaptations. Vissing et al. com-
pared RT and PT programs over
a 12-week period. They observed
increased quadriceps, hamstring, and
adductor whole-muscle cross-sectional
area (CSA) by 7 and 10%, respectively,
whereas total muscle size increased
KEY WORDS:
jump performance; strength; power; speed;
explosive exercise
 both with PT and RT (66). A study by
Chelly et al. (7) found increases in thigh
muscle volume were not accompanied
by change in leg muscle volume and
mean thigh CSA with PT.
More common structural changes
relate to changes in the mechanical
characteristics of the muscle-tendon
complex and single-fiber mechanics
(52). Increases in single muscle fiber di-
ameters of 10% in type IIa, 11% in type I,
and 15% in hybrid type IIa/x fibers have
been reported (37). The most com-
monly examined area of structural
change from PT involves analysis of
the plantar flexor tendon responses
such as stiffness (25,39,49,78), transmis-
sion of force (39), and CSA (39,45).
Comparisons of these factors between
traditional RT and PT have shown that
changes in jump performance relate to
changes in the MTC (71). However,
Foure et al. observed no change in joint
stiffness (18), whereas King et al.
observed increased joint stiffness (31).
This presents conflicting outcomes as
a result of PT. Interestingly, Kubo et al.
(33) attributed increased tendon stiff-
ness to traditional RT but did not inves-
tigate the effects of PT. To date, no
studies have compared the two types
of training.
A study by Carter et al. found PT and
isometric contraction interventions
showed increased tendon stiffness in
both groups where the difference in
the extent of tendon stiffness changes
accounted for 21% of the variance in
performance improvement in jump
height (4). These results are supported
by a series of studies by Foure et al.
investigating the effect of PT on the
Achilles tendon complex (18–20). After
14 weeks PT, increases in tendon stiff-
ness of 24.1% with no concurrent
increase in tendon CSA indicated that
these mechanical changes in the tendon
were a qualitative rather than quantita-
tive change. Any performance enhance-
ment resulting from PT training may be
due to improved force transmission (45)
by a reduction in energy dissipation
(18). The studies also suggested that
the changes were limited to the Achilles
tendon complex with no resultant
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
changes in stiffness observed in the gas-
trocnemius tendon complex or ankle
joint itself (19).
The gastrocnemius muscle did how-
ever exhibit changes in stiffness of
133% after 14 weeks PT training com-
pared with the control group. The PT
group demonstrated an improvement
in squat jump (SJ) and reactive jumps
of 117 and 119%, respectively (20).
The physiological adaptations of neu-
romuscular function to PT include
increased neural drive to agonist
muscles and changes in muscle activa-
tion strategies related to the SSC (39).
Female, high school volleyball players
recorded increases in peak hamstring
torques (44% dominant side/21% non-
dominant) and decreases in peak land-
ing forces in conjunction with
a corresponding 10% increase in verti-
cal jump (VJ) height (25). In addition,
Hewett et al. observed an increase in
hamstring to quadriceps ratios peak
muscle torque ratios of 26% dominant
side, 13% non-dominant side. It is likely
that these improvements in peak tor-
que outputs relate to changes in land-
ing kinematics. Specifically, changes
have been observed in hip abduc-
tion/adduction and knee flexion angles
(78). Both PT and balance training
improved measures of lower extremity
valgus during drop-jump landing
where PT showed greater benefits for
2-foot landing tasks (45).
In the acute phase, PT demonstrates
similar training-induced muscle dam-
age responses as traditional RT (69).
Excessive training volumes can induce
neuromuscular impairments that can
result in suboptimal training (13). Evi-
dence suggests that PT causes damage
to predominantly type II muscle fibers.
Clearly distinguishable moderate and
severe sarcomere damage in type II
muscle fibers of both glycolytic and
oxidative subtypes (86% and 84%,
respectively, have been identified)
compared with 27% in slow-twitch fi-
bers (34). Elevated creatine kinase and
lactate dehydrogenase levels (other
measures of acute muscle damage)
were reported 72 hours after PT with
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
a concurrent increase in delayed onset
muscle soreness over the first 48 hours
after training (69). Immunological
measures of muscle damage in the
acute phase response have been mir-
rored along a similar timeline, by
reduction in jumping performance
(3,6) and rate of force development;
thus providing evidence that acute re-
sponses are primarily a consequence of
peripheral fatigue. Hence, adequate
recovery between bouts of PT is imper-
ative (13). By contrast, no differences in
acute hormonal, metabolic, or neuro-
muscular responses to PT, regardless
of repetition number, have been
reported (2).
PLYOMETRIC TRAINING EFFECTS
PT can elicit varied training effects de-
pending on the nature of the training
program. This is usually determined by
the desired sport-specific performance
enhancement. For example, a tennis
player would desire an improvement
in agility. Greater enhancements in
agility are seen using PT with a hori-
zontal component (59). A sprinter may
desire greater speed of foot strike
which would also typically require
some form of horizontal displacement
in programming (72). Basketball or vol-
leyball players, however, may require
not only improved agility but greater
vertical leap, which will require exer-
cises with both horizontal and vertical
components (31).
RUNNING ECONOMY
Maximal aerobic capacity is consid-
ered a key to running performance in
distance events. However, other varia-
bles have been identified as better
predictors of performance such as
maximal aerobic velocity and running
economy (46). Several studies have
focussed on the benefits of PT to
running economy for a wide variety
of land-based sports. These include
improved performance in middle and
long distance runners. One study by
Spurrs et al. noted a significant
improvement (2.7%) in 3-km time trial
for 17 male runners without concurrent
improvement in maximal aerobic
capacity (V̇ O2max). This indicates the
31
 Plyometric Training
enhancements were due to muscular
efficiency, not metabolic changes (64).
Similarly, Vaczi et al. noted improve-
ments in 18 male recreational runners
in three separate running velocities after
6 weeks of PT. Averaged values
(m$mL21$kg21) for the 3 running speeds
were: (a) experimental subjects-5.14 6
0.39 pretraining, 5.26 6 0.39 posttrain-
ing; and (b) control subjects 5.10 6 0.36
pretraining, 5.06 6 0.36 posttraining.
There was no concurrent improvement
in V̇ O2max (71). Saunders et al. (61)
investigated fifteen highly trained dis-
tance runners using three different run-
ning velocities (14, 16, 18 km$h21) in
4-minute treadmill tests. They observed
improvements in 18-km$h21 test results
after 9 weeks PT, without concurrent
improvement in aerobic fitness.
MAXIMAL STRENGTH
Maximal strength is seen as a key per-
formance indicator in most sports. Evi-
dence suggests that this particular
neuromuscular quality is an underlying
factor in most areas of functional
capacity (26,29,79). Research has
demonstrated that PT has a positive
impact on maximal strength and power
(21). A meta-analysis by Saez-Saez de
Villarreal et al. (58) of 15 studies on PT
found a positive effect on lower-body
maximal muscle strength. These
strength gains have also been shown
to be explosive in nature and enhanced
by the addition of traditional RT
(17,32). Greater improvements in max-
imal strength were observed in a com-
bined RT/PT group (20%) when
compared with a control group using
PT only (6%) in 60 male physical edu-
cation students (57). In addition to this,
Ramirez-Campillo et al. (52) noted
improved 5 repetition maximum squat
strength in 29 middle-distance runners
after 7 weeks of PT.
Marked improvement in maximal
squat strength in college-aged males
(35,41,57) and leg-press performance
have also been reported (37,76).
PT improved ballistic leg press by
greater than 4-fold when compared
with conventional RT (17–4% respec-
tively) (76).
32 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
Another measure of strength, the ham-
string to quadriceps (H:Q) ratio has
been identified as a key indicator in
anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
injury prevention. Young female recre-
ational athletes showed an improve-
ment in hamstring peak torques while
maintaining quadriceps output after six
weeks PT, therefore improving H:Q
ratio and ACL injury risk prevention
(70). Also, Malisoux et al. (37) showed
individual fiber peak power outputs
increased by 35% in type I, 25% in type
IIa, and 57% in type IIa/IIx fibers.
SPRINT VELOCITY/AGILITY
A meta-analysis of 26 studies investi-
gating the effects of PT on sprint
performance found that sprint perfor-
mance was optimized under the fol-
lowing parameters: (a) a training
period of ,10 weeks, (b) a minimum
of 15 sessions in total, (c) high-intensity
exercises, and (d) greater than 80 com-
bined jumps per session (56). Further-
more, sprint-specific PT exercises such
as those inclusive of an element of hor-
izontal displacement were more bene-
ficial than those without. Additional
load in PT exercises was found to be
ineffective as a method of overload. PT
was shown to improve sprint perfor-
mance over distances from 5 to 30 m
in adolescents (5) and 40 m in junior
soccer players (7,11). Improvements of
0.5–0.7 s have also been seen in agility
trials, including 6 3 5 m shuttle run
test, t Test, and Illinois agility test from
pre- to post-test. There were no reduc-
tions in times for the control group in
either measure (44). Despite the afore-
mentioned improvements, PT has not
been shown to be a better method of
improvement in sprint performance
than sprint training itself (52). This is
in accordance with the theory of spec-
ificity in sports training. Thus, PT
would be best used as an adjunct to
specific sprint training to maximize
speed and agility performance.
VERTICAL JUMP
The most studied performance mea-
sure in relation to PT is the VJ. The
most commonly used plyometric exer-
cises revolve around the VJ and
variations of explosive jumping. There-
fore, it is a common tool for both train-
ing and measurement of performance
enhancement. A meta-analysis by
Markovic of 26 studies of PT found
improvements in depth jump (DJ)
and SJ performance by 4.7% and coun-
termovement jump (CMJ) perfor-
mance by 8.7% (57). These findings
are shown consistently in many studies
of varying PT protocols. SJ has been
observed to improve in adolescent
boys over a 10-week program, consist-
ing of 2 sessions per week, with training
volume increasing from 60 to 100
jumps per session over the trial (32).
Similar results have been seen in
healthy untrained adult men training
4 days per week over 12 weeks (33).
CMJ performance has been more
widely documented. Improvements in
the order of 7.5% and 10% have been
reported in healthy adult male recrea-
tional athletes (17). Vissing et al.
observed an increase of 10% in CMJ
performance in untrained adult male
subjects over a 12-week protocol train-
ing 3 days per week. Training volume
increased from 60 impacts at the begin-
ning to 180 impacts at the end of the
study (76). Such improvements are not
limited to bilateral CMJ. Untrained
adult women improved single-leg
CMJ performance and alternate-leg
bounding after 12 weeks (33 per week)
of PT (36). Not all studies, however,
were unanimous in reporting improve-
ments in VJ performance with PT.
College-aged women (75) and highly-
trained male runners (71) showed no
improvement in VJ height which may
indicate that 6 weeks of PT is insuffi-
cient to elicit performance gains in rela-
tion to jump height.
RELATIONSHIP TO SPORTS
PERFORMANCE
COURT SPORTS
Athletes involved in court sports expe-
rience high levels of transfer of PT ef-
fects to sports performance. Basketball,
volleyball, netball, handball, and tennis
tend to require high levels of speed,
agility, and jumping ability to perform
tasks such as shooting in basketball
 and blocking in volleyball. Therefore,
many studies have examined the effects
of PT on performance. In a comparison
of traditional PT and loaded plyometric
exercise using weight vests in 27 elite
male basketball players, both PT and
loaded PT groups improved CMJ, SJ,
and 5 repetition jumps performance
with a significantly higher effect in the
loaded group (30). Drop height was
shown to play an integral role in the
magnitude of gains with PT in 33 elite
junior basketball players. The training
protocol of DJ at a height of either 50
or 100 cm, three times per week for 6
weeks increased VJ height 4.8 cm and
5.6 cm, respectively (42). In a more
comprehensive study of upper- and
lower-body PT by Santos and Janeira
(60) in 24 junior recreational basketball
players, the intervention group signifi-
cantly improved SJ, CMJ, DJ, and med-
icine ball throw performances after 10
weeks. A detraining effect, 6 weeks after
training, was found when the PT stim-
ulus was removed despite the continu-
ation of regular basketball training.
VJ performance improved by +11.1%
when compared with control +4% in
19 adolescent volleyball players with 6
weeks of aquatic PT (40) and in 22
male handball players +2.78% CMJ,
2.68% DJ, with a combined PT and
sprint training protocol over 12 weeks
(8). Tennis has also shown to benefit
from PT. Tennis-related plyometric
drills may be either upper- or lower-
body in nature and benefit speed and
agility components of the sport (59)
and serve mechanics (23). In 26 elite
junior tennis players, ball speed
increased by 1–3% during a tennis
serve when high volume upper-body
PT was added to the traditional tennis
warm-up before competition (23).
FIELD SPORTS
The transfer of PT effect to improve-
ment in field sports performance re-
lates more to improvement in sprint
velocity and agility rather than jump-
ing ability. This is probably due to the
fact that these sports rarely involve
jumping tasks during competition. Im-
provements in 10-m sprint time
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
(22.1%) and various agility tests
(29.6 %) have been observed in young
athletes (43). Similar effects have been
observed in elite men 20.29(s) (t test)
and 20.26(s) (Illinois agility test) (74).
The impact of PT on jump height and
lower-extremity power and their rela-
tionship to kicking in soccer have also
been explored. Of particular interest is
the practical application to improved
ball speed (48,63) or total kicking dis-
tance (55). In a study conducted by
Rubley et al. (55) on 16 adolescent
female soccer players, improvements
were noted in VJ performance and
kicking distance after 14 weeks PT,
but not at seven weeks. This suggests
young women may require longer
adaptation periods than male soccer
players.
PT in rugby players has primarily
focussed on lower-body power outputs,
speed, and agility. A study of under-19
university-level rugby players (n 5 35)
showed significant improvements in 20-
m sprint time, Wingate anaerobic cycle
test performance, and t test agility after
4 weeks of PT (50). A comparison of
traditional postpotentiation activation
strategies (i.e., heavy lifting stimulus
before explosive activity) and PT
showed that a set of 40 SJ produced
an equivalent increase in CMJ perfor-
mance to that seen in a heavy squat
followed by CMJ test. Similar results
were observed for tests timed at 1-, 3-,
and 5-minute rest periods before CMJ
(68). This research suggests a complex
training protocol may not be required to
elicit post-potentiation activation per-
formance benefits.
THROWING SPORTS
The evidence suggests that upper-body
plyometric exercises are a valuable tool
in throwing sports for increasing upper-
body power (62), and thus improving
performance in track and field throwing
athletes (47) and baseball pitchers (4).
Significant improvement in concentric
internal rotation and eccentric external
rotation of the shoulder joint of
division-1 baseball players (n 5 24) after
the ballistic-6 protocol (a set of 6
upper-body plyometric exercises) has
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
implications for throwing velocity (4).
The PT group improved throwing
velocity from 83.15 to 85.15 mph after
eight weeks of PT. Similar changes were
not observed in the control group, mak-
ing this an important performance
enhancement for baseball.
WATER SPORTS
Several studies have examined the ef-
fects of PT in swimming, which may
have sports-specific benefits for kicking
propulsion and horizontal forces
(9,53,54). Significant improvements in
peak torques around both hip and knee
joints were noted after 9 weeks of plyo-
metric long jump training. The
increased horizontal force (7%) and
horizontal take-off velocity (16%) have
significant performance implications for
start times and tumble turns (51), swim
performance time to 5.5 m (20.59 sec-
onds versus 20.21 for control group),
and velocity of take-off to contact
(0.19 milliseconds versus 20.07 milli-
seconds for control group) (2).
INJURY PREVENTION
Plyometric exercises are not only used
for performance gain but as an injury
prevention tool. PT has been shown to
be more effective than RT in improv-
ing functional performance of athletes
after lateral ankle sprain (28). When
using PT in an injury prevention con-
text, consideration must also be given
to the type of exercise prescribed.
Other considerations include the land-
ing mechanics involved in lower-body
exercises or rotational torques involved
in upper-body exercises. Fundamental
to landing mechanics are muscle
recruitment strategies, joint angles,
and loading patterns. Differences in
hamstring and gluteal activities have
been identified across plyometric exer-
cises during the preparatory and land-
ing phases. Single-leg sagittal plane
hurdle hops produced the greatest glu-
teal and hamstring activity across both
phases. This exercise may be important
to include in ACL injury prevention
programs (66). Investigation of seven
plyometric exercises (2-foot ankle
hop, repeated SJ, double-leg hop, DJ
from 30 and 60 cm, and single- and
33
 Plyometric Training

double-leg tuck jumps) showed

3–4 min or Electrostimulation

marked differences in mechanical out-

1–2 min or Conventional RT

Olympic liftinga

Olympic liftinga

Olympic liftinga
Combination
put at the ankle and hip joints. Most
variables at the ankle joint were great-
est for two-foot ankle hop and tuck
jumps, whereas most hip joint variables
were greatest for repeated SJ or
double-leg hop (67).

4 min or

1 min or

2 min or
Rest
Practical recommendations for implementation of plyometric exercises into sports specific training programs

1:10

1:10

1:10

1:10

1:10
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the length of PT pro-
grams, training dose (intensity, dura-
tion, and frequency of individual

Low to moderate
sessions), types of exercise, and place-
Intensity

High intensity

High intensity

High intensity

High intensity

ment in a periodized program will vary

unloaded
according to the sport, the training level
loaded

loaded

loaded

loaded

of the athlete, the particular physiolog-

ical attribute being trained (i.e., sprint
performance, muscular strength, jump
.300 contacts per

height), and the incorporation of other

30–60 throws per
.50 contacts per

.80 contacts per

.80 contacts per

modes of RT. Precise volumes, frequen-

Volume

cies, and intensities of PT have not yet

been specifically elucidated for optimal
session

session

session

session

session

improvements in sporting performance

and further investigations are war-
ranted. However, the findings of this
review indicate that plyometric training
Frequency

3 times per
Table 1

weekly

weekly

weekly

can be a valuable tool to include into

week
2–3/wk

structured strength and conditioning

Twice

Twice

8–10 wk Twice

programs to enhance sporting perfor-

mance across a wide variety of land-
Duration

.10 wk

,10 wk

,10 wk

and water-based sports.

20 wk

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
When considering the practical appli-
Horizontal displacement

cation of PT, coaches should consider

Unilateral and bilateral

Unilateral and bilateral

Unilateral and bilateral

Unilateral and bilateral

Exercise modality

many aspects of the training program.

Elements of programming such as pro-
gram length, frequency of sessions,
upper body

component

intensity of exercises, and volume are

also crucial to the effects of PT and
may differ depending on outcome mea-
sure. Bi-weekly sessions are recommen-
ded for most sporting categories,
although water and court sports may
Training phase

precompetition

precompetition

require greater frequency. Performance

Competition or

Competition or

Competition or

enhancements are noted for programs

transitiona

transitiona

transitiona
Transition or

Field sports Transition or

less than 10 weeks in duration for most

RT 5 resistance training.

sporting categories. However, court

and water sports seem to require
longer training interventions. Recom-
mendations from 2 meta-analyses into
Track and

Throwing

program length and frequency are con-

sports

sports

sports
field

tained in Table 1 (10,56). The intensity

Water
Court

of exercises has been studied in relation

to depth of drop jumps (1,38,42),

34 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016

Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 unilateral versus bilateral exercises (36),
and the addition of external loads (30).
When considering box height for DJ, no
consistent recommendations have been
determined. Matavulj et al. (42) found
that no differences in performance were
gained from 50 cm or 100 cm heights.
However, Marina et al. (38) conclude
the optimal height for DJ to be between
40 and 60 cm. In terms of landing
mechanics, bilateral differences in land-
ing force and contact time
are minimized from a height of 60 cm
(1). When compared with bilateral
plyometric exercises, unilateral PT pro-
duced power and jumping performance
gains faster than bilateral PT, but per-
formance gains are longer lasting after
bilateral PT when the training stimulus
is removed (38). The literature suggests
high-intensity exercises and the addi-
tion of external load are beneficial for
most categories except water sports.
Low-intensity exercises have demon-
strated the greatest benefit for this class
of sports. Training volumes of higher
than 50 foot contacts per session are
suggested for court sports and 80 foot
contacts are recommended for track
and field sports. Throwing sports seem
to require lower volumes of 30–60
throws per session. This may be due
to the upper body nature of these exer-
cises. Water sports require the highest
training volume with greater than 300
contacts per session required to elicit
a performance enhancement. Recom-
mendations for exercise intensity and
volume are contained in Table 1.
Plyometric exercise selection is
another crucial element to consider.
Programs aimed at enhancing perfor-
mance must be designed differently
from those that target reducing land-
ing forces and minimizing injury risk
(75). The exercises should be as specific
to the tasks or skill set performed in the
sport. For example, long jump training
should be used instead of VJ to improve
swim start performances (53). PT is
considered to improve fitness charac-
teristics that rely more on reactive
strength and powerful leg push-off
such as, lateral reaction time, 4 m lat-
eral and forward sprints, drop jump
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
and maximal force (59). Although sag-
ittal plane, but not frontal plane, PT
significantly improved VJ height in bas-
ketball players. Coaches should imple-
ment both types of PT as both
contribute to improved power and
speed (31).
One final consideration when pro-
gramming PT is the nature of the sur-
face on which the exercises are
performed. Although traditionally per-
formed on land-based surfaces (run-
ning tracks and grass fields), some
studies have shown both aquatic and
land-based PT produce improvements
in VJ height (65). In addition, plyomet-
ric training on sand has shown im-
provements in both jumping and
sprinting ability and induced less mus-
cle soreness. A grass surface seems to
be superior in enhancing CMJ perfor-
mance, whereas the sand surfaces seem
to elicit a greater improvement in SJ.
Therefore, plyometric training on dif-
ferent surfaces may elicit different
training-induced effects (27).
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
Mark A. Booth
is a PhD Candi-
date at the Uni-
versity of Sydney.
Rhonda Orr is
a Senior Lecturer
in the Depart-
ment of Exercise
and Sports Sci-
ence at the Uni-
versity of Sydney.
REFERENCES
1. Ball NB, Stock CG, and Scurr JC. Bilateral
contact ground reaction forces and contact
times during plyometric drop jumping.
J Strength Cond Res 24: 2762–2769, 2010.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
2. Bishop DC, Smith RJ, Smith MF, and
Rigby HE. Effect of plyometric training on
swimming block start performance in
adolescents. J Strength Cond Res 23:
2137–2143, 2009.
3. Cadore EL, Pinheiro E, Izquierdo M,
Correa CS, Radaelli R, Martins JB,
Lhullier FL, Laitano O, Cardoso M, and
Pinto RS. Neuromuscular, hormonal, and
metabolic responses to different plyometric
training volumes in rugby players. J Strength
Cond Res 27: 3001–3010, 2013.
4. Carter AB, Kaminski TW, Douex AT Jr,
Knight CA, and Richards JG. Effects of high
volume upper extremity plyometric training
on throwing velocity and functional strength
ratios of the shoulder rotators in collegiate
baseball players. J Strength Cond Res 21:
208–215, 2007.
5. Chaouachi A, Hammami R, Kaabi S,
Chamari K, Drinkwater EJ, and Behm DG.
Olympic weightlifting and plyometric
training with children provides similar or
greater performance improvements than
traditional resistance training. J Strength
Cond Res 28: 1483–1496, 2014.
6. Chatzinikolaou A, Fatouros IG,
Gourgoulis V, Avloniti A, Jamurtas AZ,
Nikolaidis MG, Douroudos I, Michailidis Y,
Beneka A, Malliou P, Tofas T, Georgiadis I,
Mandalidis D, and Taxildaris K. Time course
of changes in performance and
inflammatory responses after acute
plyometric exercise. J Strength Cond Res
24: 1389–1398, 2010.
7. Chelly MS, Ghenem MA, Abid K,
Hermassi S, Tabka Z, and Shephard RJ.
Effects of in-season short-term plyometric
training program on leg power, jump- and
sprint performance of soccer players.
J Strength Cond Res 24: 2670–2676,
2010.
8. Cherif M, Said M, Chaatani S, Nejlaoui O,
Gomri D, and Abdallah A. The effect of
a combined high-intensity plyometric and
speed training program on the running and
jumping ability of male handball players.
Asian J Sports Med 3: 21–28, 2012.
9. Cossor JM, Blanksby BA, and Elliott BC.
The influence of plyometric training on the
freestyle tumble turn. J Sci Med Sport 2:
106–116, 1999.
10. de Villarreal ES, Kellis E, Kraemer WJ, and
Izquierdo M. Determining variables of
plyometric training for improving vertical
jump height performance: A meta-analysis.
J Strength Cond Res 23: 495–506, 2009.
11. Diallo O, Dore E, Duche P, and Van
Praagh E. Effects of plyometric training
followed by a reduced training programme
on physical performance in prepubescent
35
 Plyometric Training
soccer players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness
41: 342–348, 2001.
12. Donoghue OA, Shimojo H, and Takagi H.
Impact forces of plyometric exercises
performed on land and in water. Sports
Health 3: 303–309, 2011.
13. Drinkwater EJ, Lane T, and Cannon J. Effect
of an acute bout of plyometric exercise on
neuromuscular fatigue and recovery in
recreational athletes. J Strength Cond Res
23: 1181–1186, 2009.
14. Ebben WP and Petushek EJ. Using the
reactive strength index modified to evaluate
plyometric performance. J Strength Cond
Res 24: 1983–1987, 2010.
15. Ebben WP, Fauth ML, Garceau LR, and
Petushek EJ. Kinetic quantification of
plyometric exercise intensity. J Strength
Cond Res 25: 3288–3298, 2011.
16. Ebben WP, Simenz C, and Jensen RL.
Evaluation of plyometric intensity using
electromyography. J Strength Cond Res
22: 861–868, 2008.
17. Ford HT Jr, Puckett JR, Drummond JP,
Sawyer K, Gantt K, and Fussell C. Effects
of three combinations of plyometric and
weight training programs on selected
physical fitness test items. Percept Mot
Skills 56: 919–922, 1983.
18. Foure A, Nordez A, and Cornu C. Plyometric
training effects on Achilles tendon stiffness
and dissipative properties. J Appl Physiol
(1985) 109: 849–854, 2010.
19. Foure A, Nordez A, and Cornu C. Effects of
plyometric training on passive stiffness of
gastrocnemii muscles and Achilles tendon.
Eur J Appl Physiol 112: 2849–2857, 2012.
20. Foure A, Nordez A, Guette M, and
Cornu C. Effects of plyometric training on
passive stiffness of gastrocnemii and the
musculo-articular complex of the ankle
joint. Scand J Med Sci Sports 19: 811–
818, 2009.
21. Fowler NE, Trzaskoma Z, Wit A, Iskra L, and
Lees A. The effectiveness of a pendulum
swing for the development of leg strength
and counter-movement jump performance.
J Sports Sci 13: 101–108, 1995.
22. Garcia-Masso X, Colado JC, Gonzalez LM,
Salva P, Alves J, Tella V, and Triplett NT.
Myoelectric activation and kinetics of
different plyometric push-up exercises.
J Strength Cond Res 25: 2040–2047,
2011.
23. Gelen E, Dede M, Bingul BM, Bulgan C,
and Aydin M. Acute effects of static
stretching, dynamic exercises, and high
volume upper extremity plyometric activity
on tennis serve performance. J Sports Sci
Med 11: 600–605, 2012.
36 VOLUME 38 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2016
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
24. Guadalupe-Grau A, Perez-Gomez J,
Olmedillas H, Chavarren J, Dorado C,
Santana A, Serrano-Sanchez JA, and
Calbet JA. Strength training combined with
plyometric jumps in adults: Sex differences
in fat-bone axis adaptations. J Appl Physiol
(1985) 106: 1100–1111, 2009.
25. Hewett TE, Stroupe AL, Nance TA, and
Noyes FR. Plyometric training in female
athletes. Decreased impact forces and
increased hamstring torques. Am J Sports
Med 24: 765–773, 1996.
26. Hoff J, Gran A, and Helgerud J. Maximal
strength training improves aerobic
endurance performance. Scand J Med Sci
Sports 12: 288–295, 2002.
27. Impellizzeri FM, Rampinini E, Castagna C,
Martino F, Fiorini S, and Wisloff U. Effect of
plyometric training on sand versus grass on
muscle soreness and jumping and
sprinting ability in soccer players. Br J
Sports Med 42: 42–46, 2008.
28. Ismail MM, Ibrahim MM, Youssef EF, and
El Shorbagy KM. Plyometric training
versus resistive exercises after acute
lateral ankle sprain. Foot Ankle Int 31:
523–530, 2010.
29. Karsten B, Stevens L, Colpus M, Larumbe-
Zabala E, and Naclerio F. The effects of
a sports specific maximal strength and
conditioning training on critical velocity,
anaerobic running distance and 5-km race
performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform
2015 May 6. [Epub Ahead of Print.]
30. Khlifa R, Aouadi R, Hermassi S, Chelly MS,
Jlid MC, Hbacha H, and Castagna C.
Effects of a plyometric training program
with and without added load on jumping
ability in basketball players. J Strength
Cond Res 24: 2955–2961, 2010.
31. King JA and Cipriani DJ. Comparing
preseason frontal and sagittal plane
plyometric programs on vertical jump
height in high-school basketball players.
J Strength Cond Res 24: 2109–2114,
2010.
32. Kotzamanidis C. Effect of plyometric
training on running performance and
vertical jumping in prepubertal boys.
J Strength Cond Res 20: 441–445, 2006.
33. Kubo K, Morimoto M, Komuro T, Yata H,
Tsunoda N, Kanehisa H, and Fukunaga T.
Effects of plyometric and weight training on
muscle-tendon complex and jump
performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39:
1801–1810, 2007.
34. Macaluso F, Isaacs AW, and Myburgh KH.
Preferential type II muscle fiber damage
from plyometric exercise. J Ath Train 47:
414–420, 2012.
35. MacDonald CJ, Lamont HS, and
Garner JC. A comparison of the effects of 6
weeks of traditional resistance training,
plyometric training, and complex training on
measures of strength and anthropometrics.
J Strength Cond Res 26: 422–431, 2012.
36. Makaruk H, Winchester JB, Sadowski J,
Czaplicki A, and Sacewicz T. Effects of
unilateral and bilateral plyometric training
on power and jumping ability in women.
J Strength Cond Res 25: 3311–3318,
2011.
37. Malisoux L, Francaux M, Nielens H,
Renard P, Lebacq J, and Theisen D.
Calcium sensitivity of human single muscle
fibers following plyometric training. Med
Sci Sports Exerc 38: 1901–1908, 2006.
38. Marina M, Jemni M, Rodriguez FA, and
Jimenez A. Plyometric jumping
performances of male and female
gymnasts from different heights. J Strength
Cond Res 26: 1879–1886, 2012.
39. Markovic G and Mikulic P. Neuro-
musculoskeletal and performance
adaptations to lower-extremity plyometric
training. Sports Med 40: 859–895, 2010.
40. Martel GF, Harmer ML, Logan JM, and
Parker CB. Aquatic plyometric training
increases vertical jump in female volleyball
players. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37: 1814–
1819, 2005.
41. Masamoto N, Larson R, Gates T, and
Faigenbaum A. Acute effects of plyometric
exercise on maximum squat performance in
male athletes. J Strength Cond Res 17:
68–71, 2003.
42. Matavulj D, Kukolj M, Ugarkovic D,
Tihanyi J, and Jaric S. Effects of plyometric
training on jumping performance in junior
basketball players. J Sports Med Phys
Fitness 41: 159–164, 2001.
43. Meylan C and Malatesta D. Effects of in-
season plyometric training within soccer
practice on explosive actions of young
players. J Strength Cond Res 23: 2605–
2613, 2009.
44. Miller MG, Herniman JJ, Ricard MD,
Cheatham CC, and Michael TJ. The effects
of a 6-week plyometric training program on
agility. J Sports Sci Med 5: 459–465,
2006.
45. Myer GD, Ford KR, McLean SG, and
Hewett TE. The effects of plyometric
versus dynamic stabilization and balance
training on lower extremity biomechanics.
Am J Sports Med 34: 445–455, 2006.
46. Paavolainen L, Hakkinen K, Hamalainen I,
Nummela A, and Rusko H. Explosive-
strength training improves 5-km running
time by improving running economy and
 muscle power. J Appl Physiol (1985) 86:
1527–1533, 1999.
47. Park GD, Lee JC, and Lee J. The effect of
low extremity plyometric training on back
muscle power of high school throwing
event athletes. J Physi Ther Sci 26: 161–
164, 2014.
48. Perez-Gomez J, Olmedillas H, Delgado-
Guerra S, Ara I, Vicente-Rodriguez G,
Ortiz RA, Chavarren J, and Calbet JA.
Effects of weight lifting training combined
with plyometric exercises on physical
fitness, body composition, and knee
extension velocity during kicking in football.
Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33: 501–510,
2008.
49. Pezzullo DJ, Karas S, and Irrgang JJ.
Functional plyometric exercises for the
throwing athlete. J Athl Train 30: 22–26,
1995.
50. Pienaar C and Coetzee B. Changes in
selected physical, motor performance and
anthropometric components of university-
level rugby players after one microcycle of
a combined rugby conditioning and
plyometric training program. J Strength
Cond Res 27: 398–415, 2013.
51. Potdevin FJ, Alberty ME, Chevutschi A,
Pelayo P, and Sidney MC. Effects of a 6-
week plyometric training program on
performances in pubescent swimmers.
J Strength Cond Res 25: 80–86, 2011.
52. Ramirez-Campillo R, Andrade DC, and
Izquierdo M. Effects of plyometric training
volume and training surface on explosive
strength. J Strength Cond Res 27: 2714–
2722, 2013.
53. Rebutini VZ, Pereira G, Bohrer RC,
Ugrinowitsch C, and Rodacki AL.
Plyometric long jump training with
progressive loading improves kinetic and
kinematic swimming start parameters.
J Strength Cond Res 2014 February 12.
[Epub Ahead of Print.]
54. Robinson LE, Devor ST, Merrick MA, and
Buckworth J. The effects of land vs. aquatic
plyometrics on power, torque, velocity, and
muscle soreness in women. J Strength
Cond Res 18:84–91. PubMed PMID:
14971978.
55. Rubley MD, Haase AC, Holcomb WR,
Girouard TJ, and Tandy RD. The effect of
plyometric training on power and kicking
distance in female adolescent soccer players.
J Strength Cond Res 25: 129–134, 2011.
56. Saez de Villarreal E, Requena B, and
Cronin JB. The effects of plyometric
training on sprint performance: A meta-
analysis. J Strength Cond Res 26: 575–
584, 2012.
Copyright ª National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
57. Saez de Villarreal E, Requena B,
Izquierdo M, and Gonzalez-Badillo JJ.
Enhancing sprint and strength performance:
Combined versus maximal power, traditional
heavy-resistance and plyometric training.
J Sci Med 16: 146–150, 2013.
58. Saez-Saez de Villarreal E, Requena B, and
Newton RU. Does plyometric training improve
strength performance? A meta-analysis. J Sci
Med Sport 13: 513–522, 2010.
59. Salonikidis K and Zafeiridis A. The effects
of plyometric, tennis-drills, and combined
training on reaction, lateral and linear
speed, power, and strength in novice
tennis players. J Strength Cond Res 22:
182–191, 2008.
60. Santos EJ and Janeira MA. The effects of
plyometric training followed by detraining
and reduced training periods on explosive
strength in adolescent male basketball
players. J Strength Cond Res 25: 441–
452, 2011.
61. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB,
Peltola EM, Cunningham RB, Gore CJ, and
Hawley JA. Short-term plyometric training
improves running economy in highly trained
middle and long distance runners.
J Strength Cond Res 20: 947–954, 2006.
62. Schulte-Edelmann JA, Davies GJ,
Kernozek TW, and Gerberding ED. The
effects of plyometric training of the
posterior shoulder and elbow. J Strength
Cond Res 19: 129–134, 2005.
63. Sedano Campo S, Vaeyens R,
Philippaerts RM, Redondo JC, de
Benito AM, and Cuadrado G. Effects of
lower-limb plyometric training on body
composition, explosive strength, and kicking
speed in female soccer players. J Strength
Cond Res 23: 1714–1722, 2009.
64. Spurrs RW, Murphy AJ, and Watsford ML.
The effect of plyometric training on
distance running performance. Eur J Appl
Physiol 89: 1–7, 2003.
65. Stemm JD and Jacobson BH. Comparison
of land- and aquatic-based plyometric
training on vertical jump performance.
J Strength Cond Res 21: 568–571, 2007.
66. Struminger AH, Lewek MD, Goto S,
Hibberd E, and Blackburn JT. Comparison of
gluteal and hamstring activation during five
commonly used plyometric exercises. Clin
Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 28: 783–789, 2013.
67. Sugisaki N, Okada J, and Kanehisa H.
Intensity-level assessment of lower body
plyometric exercises based on mechanical
output of lower limb joints. J Sports Sci 31:
894–906, 2013.
68. Tobin DP and Delahunt E. The acute effect
of a plyometric stimulus on jump
37
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
performance in professional rugby players.
J Strength Cond Res 28: 367–372, 2014.
69. Tofas T, Jamurtas AZ, Fatouros I,
Nikolaidis MG, Koutedakis Y, Sinouris EA,
Papageorgakopoulou N, and Theocharis DA.
Plyometric exercise increases serum indices
of muscle damage and collagen breakdown.
J Strength Cond Res 22: 490–496, 2008.
70. Tsang KK and DiPasquale AA. Improving
the Q: H strength ratio in women using
plyometric exercises. J Strength Cond Res
25: 2740–2745, 2011.
71. Turner AM, Owings M, and Schwane JA.
Improvement in running economy after 6
weeks of plyometric training. J Strength
Cond Res 17: 60–67, 2003.
72. Turner AP, Bellhouse S, Kilduff LP, and
Russell M. Postactivation potentiation of
sprint acceleration performance using
plyometric exercise. J Strength Cond Res
29: 343–350, 2015.
73. Vaczi M, Racz L, Hortobagyi T, and Tihanyi J.
Dynamic contractility and efficiency
impairments in stretch-shortening cycle are
stretch-load-dependent after training-
induced muscle damage. J Strength Cond
Res 27: 2171–2179, 2013.
74. Vaczi M, Tollar J, Meszler B, Juhasz I, and
Karsai I. Short-term high intensity
plyometric training program improves
strength, power and agility in male soccer
players. J Hum Kinet 36: 17–26, 2013.
75. Vescovi JD, Canavan PK, and Hasson S.
Effects of a plyometric program on vertical
landing force and jumping performance in
college women. Phys Ther Sport 9:
185–192, 2008.
76. Vissing K, Brink M, Lonbro S, Sorensen H,
Overgaard K, Danborg K, Mortensen J,
Elstrøm O, Rosenhøj N, Ringgaard S,
Andersen JL, and Aagaard P. Muscle
adaptations to plyometric vs. resistance
training in untrained young men. J Strength
Cond Res 22: 1799–1810, 2008.
77. Wallace BJ, Kernozek TW, White JM,
Kline DE, Wright GA, Peng HT, and
Huang CF. Quantification of vertical
ground reaction forces of popular bilateral
plyometric exercises. J Strength Cond Res
24: 207–212, 2010.
78. Wilkerson GB, Colston MA, Short NI, Neal KL,
Hoewischer PE, and Pixley JJ. Neuromuscular
changes in female collegiate athletes resulting
from a plyometric jump-training program.
J Athl Train 39: 17–23, 2004.
79. Wisloff U, Castagna C, Helgerud J, Jones R,
and Hoff J. Strong correlation of maximal
squat strength with sprint performance and
vertical jump height in elite soccer players.
Br J Sports Med 38: 285–288, 2004.