First Edition - 2010 Technical Publications Pune’s i Control Systems ISBN 9788184317770 All rights reserved with Technicol Publications. No port ofthis book should be teproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and ‘elrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publicotions, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune® (#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Inca. Printer : ‘Abe DTPrinters Seno. 10/3,Sinhagad Road, Pine = 411 041Chapter-1 Basic Elements of Control System (1-1) to (1-22) Chapter-2 Basics of Laplace Transform (2=4)t0 (2-20) Chapter-3 Transfer Function and impulse Response B-1) to (3-20) Chapter-4 Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems (4-1) t0 (4-44) Chapter-5 Block Diagram Representation (6-1) t0 (6-50) Chapter-8 Signal Flow Graph Representation (6-1) to (6 - 34) Chapter-7 Time Response Analysis (7-1) t0 (7-84) Chapter-8 Stability Analysis in Time Domain (8-1) t0 (8-34) Chapter-9 Root Locus (9-1) to (9-68) Chapter=10 __Basies of Frequency Domain Analysis (10-4) to (10-18) Chapter-11 Bode Plots (11-1) to (14 -68) Chapter-12 Polar and Nyquist Piots (12-1) to (12-56) Chapter=13 _Nicho’'s Chart (13-1) to(13 -20) Chapter-14 Compensation of Control Systems (14-1) to (14 - 56) Chapter-15 State Variable Analysis (15-1) to (15-78) Chapter-16 Digital Control Systems (16-4) to (16-28) Chapter-17 Control System Analysis using MATLAB. (17-1) to (17-24) ‘Appendix. A Matrix Algebra (A=1) to (A- 16) ‘ke of clear, plain and lucid language making the understanding very easy. | Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and ' | illustrations. ' {# Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ‘ {# Important concepts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. | ‘# Large number of solved examples. ' \# Approach of the book resembles class room teaching. 1 !® Book provides detailed insight into the subject. ' ' {® Stepwise explanation to mathematical derivations for1, Control System Modeling (Chapters - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Basic elements of control system - Open loop and closed loop systems - Differential equation - Transfer function, Modeling of electric systems, Translational and rotational mechanical systems - Block diagram ‘reduction techniques - Signal flow graph. 2. Time Response Analysis (Chapter - 7) Time response analysis First oder systems - Impulse and step response analysis of second order systems - ‘Steady state errors - P, Pl, PD and PID compensation, Analysis using MATLAB. 3. Frequency Response Anal: (Chapters - 10, 11, 13, 14) Frequency response - Bode plot, Polar plot, Nyquist plot - Frequency domain specifications from the plots - Constant M and N circles - Nichol's chart - Use of Nichol's chart in contol system analysis. Series, Parallel, ‘Series-parallel compensators - Lead, Lag, and lead lag compensators, Analysis using MATLAB, 4. Stability Analysis (Chapters - 8, 9, 12) ‘Stability, Routh-Hunwitz criterion, Root locus technique, Construction of root locus, Stability, Dominant poles, Application of root locus diagram - Nyquist stability criterion - Relative stability, Analysis using MATLAB. 5. State Variable Analysis and Digital Control Systems (Chapters - 15, 16) ‘State space representation of continuous time systems - State equations - Transfer function from state variable representation - Solutions of the state equations - Concepts of controllability and observability - State space tepresentation for discrete time systems. Sampled data control systems - Sampling theorem - Sample and hold open loop and closed loop sampled data systems.Table of Contents (Detail) 1.1 Background... 1.2 Definitions .... 1.3 Classification of Control Systems. ... 1.4 Open Loop System .... 1.4.1 Advantages. .. 1.4.2 Disadvantages 1.4.3 Real Time Applications of an Open Loop System .... 1.4.3.1 Sprinkler used to Water a Lawn 1.4.3.2 Stepper Motor Positioning System ‘Automatic Toaster Sysiem_. 1.4.34 Trafic Light Controller . ‘ 1.4.3.5 Automatic Door Opening and Ciosing System . 1.5 Closed Loop System .... 1.5.1 Advantages. . 1.5.2 Disadvantages . . 1.5.3 Real Time Applications of Closed Loop System. 1.5.31 Human Being... 1.5.3.2 Home Heating System. 115.36 Temperature Contol system 1.5.3.7 Missile Launching System 4.5.3.8 Voltage Stabiizer. 1.6 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Sister: 1.7 Servomechanisms .. 1.8 Regulating Systems (Regulators)Review Questions University Question: 2.1 Background...... 2.2 Definition of Laplace Transform. 2.3 Properties of Laplace Transform 2.3.4 Linearity 2.3.2 Scaling Theorem 2.3.3 Real Differentiation (Differentiation in Tine Domain). 2.34 Real Integration . 2.3.5 Differentiation bys .... 2.3.6 Complex Translation. 2.3.7 Real Translation (Shifting Theorem). 2.38 Initial Value Theorem 2.3.9 Final Value Theorem 2.4 Inverse Laplace Transform .. 2.4.1 Simple and Real Roots... . 2.4.2 Multiple Roots... 2.4.3 Complex Conjugate Roots . 2.5 Use of Laplace Transform in Control Syston. 2.6 Special Case of Inverse Laplace Transform Examples with Solution: 3.1 Background. 3.2 Concept of Transfer Function . 3.3.1 Definit 3.3.2 Advantages and Features of Transfer Function. 3.3.3 Disadvantages . 3.3.4 Procedure to Determine the Transfer Function of a Control vf Sele 3.4 Impulse Response and Transfer Function...3.5 Some Important Terminologies Related to the T-F. 3.5.2 Characteristic Equation of a Transfer Function . 3.5.3 Zeros of a Transfer Function . 3.5.4 Pole-Zero Plot. . 3.5. 5 Order ala Transfer Function 3.6 Laplace Transform of Electrical Network .. Examples with Solutions... Review Questions University Questions 4.1 What is Mathematical Model ? 4.2 Analysis of Mechanical Systems. 4.2.1 Translational Motion 4.2.2 Mass (NM). .. 4.2.3 Linear Spring . 4.3 Rotational Motion . 4.4 Equivalent Mechanical System (Node Basis) 4.5 Remarks on Nodal Method 4.6 Gear Trains 4.6.1 Gear Train with Inertia and Friction . 4.6.2 Belt or Chain Drives . 48.3 Levers. 4.7 Electrical Systems. 4.8 Analogous Systems . 4.8.1 Mechanical System 4.8.2 Force Voltage Analogy (Loop Analysis) 4.8.3 Force Current Analogy (Node Analysis), 4.9 Steps to Solve Problems on Analogous Systems. Examples with Solutions .... Review Questions...University Questions ... Chapter: 5 "Block DiagramRepresentation | 6 +1) fo (6-50): 5.1 Background... 5.1.1 Illustrating Concept of Block Diagram Representation . 5.1.2 Advantages of Block Diagram . 5.1.3 Disadvantages 5.2 Simple or Canonical Form of Closed Loop System 5.2.1 Derivation of T.F. of Simple Closed Loop System 5.3 Rules for Block Diagram Reduction S20 Crile RileR oe sc es BANE 5.3.2 Converting Nonunity Feedback to Unity Feedback . 5.3.3 Procedure to Solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems. . 5.4 Analysis of Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems: 5.5 Block Diagram from System Equations Examples with Solution... Review Questions University Question: 6.1 Background... 6.2 Properties of Signal Flow Graph... 6.3 Terminology used in Signal Flow Graph 6.4 Methods to Obtain Signal Flow Graph 6.4.1 From the System Equations ‘ 6.4.2 From the Given Block Diagram ....... 1.2... esssssseeeseeseeeee sees seers 6. 6.5 Mason's Gain Formula... 6.6 Comparison of Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Methods. 6.7 Application of Mason's Gain Formula to Electrical Networl 6.8 Obtaining Block Diagram from Signal Flow Graph . Examples with Solutions... Review Questions... University Question:7.1 Background... 7.2 Definition and Classification of Time Response.. 7.3 Standard Test Inputs. 7.4 Steady State Analysis... 7.5 Derivation of Steady State Error... 7.6 Effect of Input (Type and Magnitude) on Steady State Error (Static Error Coefficient Method)...... 7.7 Effect of Change in G(s)H(s) on Steady State Error (TYPE of a System)... 7.8 Analysis of TYPE 0, 1 and 2 Systems . 7.9 Disadvantages of Static Error Coefficient Method ..... 7.10 Generalised Error Coefficient Method (or Dynamic Error Coefficients) . 7.14 Transient Response Analysis. 7.14.4 Method fo Determine Total Output cit) 7.12 Analysis of First Order System ... 7.12.1 Unit Step Response of First Order System . 1.12.2 Closed Loop Poles of First Order System 7.13 Analysis of Second Order System .. 7.14 Effect of on Second Order System Pe:formance ..... 7.15 Derivation of Unit Step Response of a Second Order System (Underdamped Case)... 7.16 Transient Response Specifications. 7.17 Derivations of Time Domain Specifications 7.17.1 Derivation of Peak Time T,, 7.47.2 Derivation of M, 7.47.3 Derivation of T, 7.174 Derivation of T, . 7.18 Introduction to P-I-D Conttolers 7.18.1 PD Type of Controller. 7.18.2 PI Type of Controller. 7.18.3 PID Type of Controller . Ra "comatose7.484 Rate Feedback Controller (Output Derivative Controler)..............cec00.ee 7-47 Examples with Solutions Review Questions... University Questions... 8.1 Background 8.2 Concept of Stability 8.3 Stability of Control Systems 8.4 Zero Input and Asymptotic Stability 8.4.1 Remarks about Asymptotic Stability. . . 8.5 Relative Stability .. 8.6 Routh-Hurwitz's Criterion 8.6.1 Necessary Conditions. . .. 8.6.2 Hurwitz's Criterion... 8.6.3 Disadvantages of Hurwitz’'s Method 8.7 Routh’s Stability Criterion 8.7.1 Routh’s Criterion ..... 8.8 Special Cases of Routh's Criterion 8.8.1 Special Case 1_. 8.8.2 Special Case 2. ¥ 8.8.2.1 Procedure to Eliminate This Difficulty . . 8.8.2.2 Importance of an Auxiliary Equation. a 8.8.2.3 Change in Criterion of Stability in Special Case2.. oo. ww oes 8-16 8.9 Applications of Routh’s Criterior 8.9.1 Relative Stability Analysis ..... 8.9.2 Determining Range of Values of K 8.10 Advantages of Routh’s Criterion 8.11 Limitations of Routh's Criterion 8.12 Marginal K and Frequercy of Sustained Oscillations .. Examples with Solutions... Review Questions University Questions SO A YE9.1 Background... 9.2 Basic Concept of Root Locus 9.3 Angle and Magnitude Condition ... 9.3.1 Angle Condition . . 9.3.2 Use of Angle Condition. 9.3.3 Magnitude Condition . . 9.3.4 Use of Magnitude Condition. 9.4 Graphical Method of Determining 'K' 9.7 Graphical Determination of *K' for Specified Damping Ratio "€ 9.8 General Steps to Solve the Problem on Root Locus 9.9 Effect of Addition of Open Loop Poles and Zeros ....... 9.9.1 Addition of Pole. 9.9.2 Addition of Zeros . 9.10 Advantages of Root Locus Method ... 9.11 Obtaining G(s)H(s) from Characteristic Equation . 9.12 Cancellation of Poles of G(s) with Zeros of H(s)..... 9.12.1 Gain Margin 9.13 Root Sensitivity 9.14 Root Contour ... Examples with Solutions Review Questions... University Questions. 10.1 Background 10.2 Advantages of Frequency Domain Approach... 10.3 Limitations of Frequency Response Methods... 10.4 Conceptual Approach to Frequency Response .. 10.4.1 Steady State Response to Sinusoidal Input ; (Frequency Response)........ 10-310.5 Frequency Domain Methods. 10.6 Co-relation between Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Second Order System.. 10.6.1 Derivations of M, and oy, 10.6.2 Comments on Co-relation between Time Domain and a requongy Domain 10.7 B. W. (Bandwidth, Examples with Solutions. Review Questions... University Questions ....... 11.1 Introduction to Bode Plot. 11.1.1 Magnitude Plot. 11.1.2 The Phase Angle Plot 14.2 Logarithmic Scales (Semilog Papers) 11.3 Standard Form of Open Loop T.F. G(ja)H(ja). 11.4 Bode Plots of Standard Factors of G(j@H(ja) 11.4.1 Factor 1 : System Gain‘K’.. . a 11.4.2Factor 2: Poles or Zeros atthe Origin (J) eP 11.4.3 Factor 3 : Simple Poles or Zeros (First Order Factos) 11.4.4 Factor 4 : Quadratic Factors . .. 11.5 Steps to Sketch the Bode Plot 11.6 Frequency Response Specifications... 11.7 Calculation of G.M. and P.M. from Bode Plot... 11.8 What should be Values of G.M. and P.M. of a Good System ? 11.9 How to Improve the G.M. and P.M. ?. 11.10 Determination of @,, and P.M. for Standard Second Order System... 11.11 Calculation of Transfer Function from Magnitude Plot..... 11.12 Advantages of Bode Plots. Examples with Solutions... Review Questions. University Questions.12.1 Background. 12.2 Polar Plot 12.3 0, and @,, in Polar Plot. 12.4 Determination of G.M. and P.M. from Polar Plot. 12-1 12-8 12.4.1 Determining w,, Mathematically. 12-10 12.5 Stability Determination From Polar Plot. .12-11 12.6 Nyquist Plot Analysis ... . 12-13 12.7 Pole-Zero Configuration. 12-14 12.8 Encirclement...... 12-15 12-16 12-17 12-17 ra) exalt . 12-23 12-25 12.8.1 Counting Number of Encirclements . 12.9 Analytic Function and Singularities 12.10 Mapping Theorem or Principle of Argument 12.11 Nyquist Stability Criterior 12.12 Generalized Nyquist Path and its Mapping. 12.13 Steps to Solve Problems by Nyquist Criterion 12.14 Behaviour of Right Half Pole...... 12-35 12.15 Advantages of Nyquist Plot. 12-40 Examples with Solutions... 12-40 Review Questions ... 12-54 .12-54 University Questions . 13.1 Magnitude - Phase Plots... 13.1.1 Stability Analysis using Magnitude-Phase Plot. 13.2 Closed Loop Frequency Response. 13.3 M Circles [Constant Magnitude Loci] .. 13.4 N Circles [Constant Phase Loci] .. 13.5 Use of M Circles... 13.6 Use of N Circles 13.7 Nichol's Chart. 13.8 Frequency Specifications from the Nichol's Chart....Review Questions... University Questions .. 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Types of Compensatior 14.2.1 Series Compensation 14.2.2 Parallel Compensation 14.2.3 Series-Parallel Compensation 14.3 Compensating Networks. 14.4 Lead Compensator ... 14.4.1 Maximum Lead Angle @ ,, and c. . 14.4.2 Polar Plot of Lead Compensator . 14.4.3 Bode Plot of Lead Compensator ... 14.4.4 Steps to Design Lead Compensator. 14.4.5 Effects of Lead Compensation... 14.4.6 Limitations of Lead Compensation . 14.5 Lag Compensator ..... 14.5.4 Maximum Lag Angle and B.... 14.5.2 Polar Plot of Lag Compensator 14.5.3 Bode Plat of Lag Compensator 14.5.4 Steps to Design Lag Compensator. 14.5.5 Effects and Limitations of Lag Compensator . 14.6 Lag-Lead Compensator... 14.6.1 Polar Plot of Lag-lead Compensator 14.6.2 Bode Plot of Laglead Compensator 14.6.3 Effects of Lag-lead Compensator. . 14.7 Compensation using Root Locus.. 14.8 Designing Lead Compensator using Root Locus 16,9 Designing Lag Compensator using Root Locus..... 14.10 Designing Lag-lead Compensator using Root Locus. Examples with Solutions ................-.-..-.--0-0.-e-seeeseseseseeeeeeee Review Questions ...University Questions 14-55 15.1 Background... 15.1.1 Advantages of State Variable Analysis. 15.2 Concept of State .... 15.2.1 Important Definitions. 15.3 State Model of Linear Systems... 15.3.1 State Model of Single Input Single Output System. - 5-2 wee 5-4 15-5 . 5-9 15.4 State Variable Representation using Physical Variables . 15-9 15.4.1 Advantages. 45-11 15.5 State Diagram Representation ... 15-11 15.5.1 State Diagram of Standard State Model 15-12 15.6 Non-uniqueness of State Model 15-13 15.7 State Space Representation using Phase Variables 15-14 15.7.1 State Model from Differential Equation. 15-14 15.7.2 State Model from Transfer Function. 15-18 15-28 15.7.4 Limitations . . +. 1-28 15.8 State Space Representation using Canonical Variables .. 15-29 15.8.1 Jordan's Canonical Form 15-32 15.8.2 Advantages of Canonical Variables . . 15-36 15.8.3 Disadvantages of Canonical Variables. 15-36 15.9 State Model by Cascade Programming ....... 15-38 15.10 Derivation of Transfer Function from State Model 15-40 15.10.1 Characteristic Equation . 15-41 15.10.2 MIMO System. . 15-42 15.11 Solution of State Equations. 15-43 1511.4 Homogeneous Equation... 2 15-44 15.11.2 Non-homogeneous Equation .. 2 15-44 15.12 Review of Classical Method of Solution. 15-44 15.12.1 Zero Input Response + 15-46 15.13 Solution of Non-homogeneous Equation .... 15-4615.14 Properties of State Transition Matrix... 15-47 15.15 Solution of State Equation by Laplace Transform Method........... 15 - 48 15.16 Computation of State Transition Matrix. 15-49 15.17 Laplace Transform Method 15-50 15.18 Controllability and Observability.... . 15 - 51 15.19 Controllability .... 15-51 15.19.1 Kalman's Test for Controllabi «15-52 15.19.2 Condition for State Controllability in s-Plane . 15-55 15.19.3 Gilberts Test for Controllability. 15-55 15.19.4 Output Controllability -. 15-57 15.20 Observabilit 15-58 15.20.1 Kalman's Test for Observability + 15-58 15.20.2 Condition for Complete Observability in s-Plane . 15-61 15.20.3 Gilbert's Test for Observability 15-61 Examples with Solutions .. 15 - 63 Review Questions. 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Advantages of Digital Control Systems.. 16.3 Disadvantages of Digital Control Systems. 16.4 Sampled Data Control Systems... 16.5 Sampler... 16.6 Sampling Process 16.6.1 Methods of Sampling Operations 16.7 Hold Circuit... 16.7.1 Zero Order Hold (ZOH). 16.8 Sampling Theorem. 16.8.1 Nyquist Rate. . 16.9 Laplace Transform of Sampled Signal 16.10 z-Transform..... 16.10.1 Important Geometric Series 16.11 Difference Equations