Loads \D PREDICTION previously mentioned, the prediction of loads on any single building is a . Such guesses are guided by experience, codes, and evolved accepted fessional methods. They usually require some mathematical computation; ever, they are still just guesses. Early preliminary design decisions ssed in this book are based on a conceptual understanding of loads, load 4s, and the response of different types of structural systems to loading very crude relative load magnitudes are normally needed during this early in the design process. Later in the design development phase much more ting load prediction is required. It is critical to remember that building s, calculations, testing, and the involvement of appropriately trained and fied engincers must be used to proceed beyond early preliminary design. IMMON LOAD ESTIMATION TOOLS ing early preliminary design load estimation at least four tools of crude ation are often consulted. Rules of thumb are the crudest empirical ses based on an engineer's past experience. ‘The Studio Desk Companion Edward Allen has become a widely accepted source used in this role. The smational Building Code (IBC) and Architectural Graphic Standards have les of loads, which are usually based on a more extensive and systematic sbase than empirical rules of thumb, Codes like the IBC also contain maps ‘now, seismic, and wind loads, depending upon the location of the building These cannot be used in unmodified form for final design load determi- fon, but are occasionally used to guide crude preliminary design decisions. recently commercial computer software has become available to assist preliminary load estimation. The Standard Handbook of Architectural jincers by Butler contains an excellent example of such software. 38Figure 4-2 Typical wind load map (Based on drawing by Robert Butter Brown 1998). sae | Suacing Anatomy: An lusirated Guide to How Structures Work CONSERVATIVE LOAD ESTIMATION Designers will find varying estimates when using different sources and meth- ods. Even within a single source a range of estimated load values is often encountered. It is generally a good practice to embrace the worst, or most severe, load that is identified. When maps are used to assist in preliminary load estimates, some designers “interpolate” between available values shown on a ‘map. However, a more conservative designer might just use the higher value of the two. Its also important to remember that these loads are crude empiri- cal guesses that often demand an additional margin of safety, One day an occupant ‘will buy a waterbed, piano, of another heavy object that was never mentioned during design. (Fig. 4-2) LOADS IN PERSPECTIVE ‘When beginning to design structures, a given load is just a number. Later, experience will give perspective to that number. Is it an unusually large and threatening load, ot a laughably insignificant one? How can an inexperienced designer know? At least the relative significance of different load types may normally be directly understood from a simple visual inspection of load esti- ‘mation tables and maps. A novice designer should notice the highest, lowest, ‘and mean or median on charts, tables, or maps. By noticing these, a better per- spective of the significance of the particular load indicated for the specific project of immediate interest, is gained; therefore, a more relevant conceptual response can be made, If the snow load for your site is near the highest value found on a map or table, then the roof on your project should show significant response fo that reality PARTIAL LIST OF SIGNIFICANT BUILDING LOADS Building codes usually provide guidance, and demand consideration of a wide range of loads, Some of the more important are 1. Dead loads: These are usually of all the building materials used in the building (Le., brick or concrete) Occupani loads: These include the weight of people in the building, depending upon the functional use of the building, (Remember that during a fire, occupants may become tightly packed together in a small floor area. With this in mind the values will look more reasonable.) Equipment loads: These include the weight of permanent equipment in the building (such as chillers, lift motors, and pumps etc). Partition loads: These ate used if temporary or moveable office partitions are anticipated.5. Snow loads: These are the weight of snow anticipated at that building site ‘ce may also be an issue in this load. Snow loads on a sloped roof are pro. jected upon a horizontal surface (Fig. 4-3) Roof load: Even if snow loads are insignificant at a given site, & minimum roof load is required for roof maintenance and other movement of people on a roof, 7. Wind loads: Prevailing wind, hurricane, and tomado loads are all considered, 8. Seismic toads: These include all loads, both vertical and horizontal, result- ing from earthquakes, TYPES OF LOADS The loads listed above may be grouped into several different classifications. A given load may simultaneously belong to more than one classification. Here are the most common Toad classifications: Internal and external Snow, wind, and other external loads are applied to the outside of the build- ing. Building occupants, moveable partitions, and mechanical equipment, and ‘other internal loads are applied inside the building, Vertical and lateral (horizontal) Vertical toads may be intemal or external. A building occupant standing on the floor inside the building, and snow outside on the roof, both excrt a down ward gravity ioad on the building's structure, Not all vertical loads are down- Ward, Wind can lift a roof upward, just as water in the soil under a building can force the structure upward out ofthe ground. Wind and earthquakes place hor- ‘zontal forces on the building structure, and are called lateral loads Dead and live loads Any Toad that is permanent is called a dead load. Dead loads include the \weight of the building itself. Live loads are temporary ot transient. Wind may blow fora time, and then stop. A heavy snow on the roof will ultimately melt, Such transient forces are called live loads, Equivalent uniform load ‘Because we cannot fully predict many exact actual loads such as the number of people in a 700m at any given moment, or the foree of gusting wind on the wall, building codes make use ofa substitute value called an equivalent uniform load. This considered to be a safe substitute value based on the experience. Figure 4-3 Snow load is meas- ured on a "horizontal projection”,