Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Water Systems Automation - State of The Art PDF
Water Systems Automation - State of The Art PDF
SYSTEMS
WATER
SYSTEMS
JULY 1973
-BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
Gilbert G. Stamm, Commissioner
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
~ .
or" "./'
f J) f',' ;'
., I
",),
'f
c;
?c7U
i/ ,
Cr'~_..(-c.,,~,
:;
a)
9 ~. l/«~. .:A.,....
.<', . Lf .j:"')
i
PREFACE
ii
CONTENTS
Page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Automation Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Storage Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Outlet works . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Spillways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Diversion Works . . . . . . . . . 5
Canal checks . . . . . . . . . . 6
Pipe systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Turnouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Wasteways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Concepts of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Upstream control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Downstream control ,. 11
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Feedback control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
General. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Two position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Floating control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Proportional control . . . . . . . . . . 16
Proportional plus reset control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Remote Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Manual operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Automatic operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Hi
General Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Mathematical Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Laboratory Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Control Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Laboratory simulations. . . . . . . . . . . 26
Equipment operating environment . . . . . . . . . . 27
Floating control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Proportional control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
EL-FLO controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Smith controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Planned Installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Coalinga Canal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Corning Canal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
South Gila Canal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Garrison Diversion Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Central Arizona Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Cost Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Communications Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Automatic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 38
Other Items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Appendix I. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Appendix II. Partial Inventory of Types of
Automation on Reclamation Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1. Carriage Facilities-Canals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2. Carriage Facilities-Pipelines. . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3. Diversion Dams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4. Major Pumping Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5. Storage Reservoirs-Outlet Works . . . . . . . . . . 54
iv
Appendix III. Parameters of Downstream Control . . . . 55
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
v
SlJ~~~R)J
operation, and to reduce cost of operation.
T heoperators,
purpose of this report is to provide
planners, and designers with Automation of water systems is a product of an
currelLt information on automation of water interdisciplinary effort to develop devices to
systems. In the report the term "automation" is improve operation of these systems. Tools such
used in a broad sense to include all remote as analog electronic circuitry, computers,
control and automatic control equipment which mathematical models, and self-contained
aids or replaces man in the operation of water mechanical controllers are required. The type of
systems. The Bureau of Reclamation has automation installed on a particular project
incorporated varying degrees of automation in depends on the type of operation desired and
the design of water systems for many years. the complexity of that system. Factors such as
cost of labor, value of water, and reliability of
The scope of this report is limited to the equipment, require consideration. With
application of automation to Reclamation water increasing water system complexity, automation
systems. Emphasis is placed on open-channel is more often justified now that it was in the
installations because in most cases today past. Most new water systems should be
open-channel conveyance systems are operated designed with some degree of automation.
under less than optimal conditions. Subjects
covered include automation needs, types of Less than optimal operation of an
automation, research and development, planned open-channel conveyance system is frequently
installations, and cost considerations. due to the difficulty of matching the inflow and
outflow of the system. Mismatches between
Water deliveries from Federal Reclamation diversions and deUveries can occur as a resul t of
projects totaled nearly 27.0 million acre-feet inaccurate regulation, unexpected changes in
during 1971. Water service was provided to inflow or outflow, lack of adequate storage, and
nearly 16 million people. Deliveries were made the long time lag inherent in conventional canal
to over 147,000 farms comprising over 10 operation. For instance, many conventionally
million acres of i"igable lands and to 249 operated canal systems require a full day or
municipalities or other entities for municipal, more of travel time for a change in flow to get
industrial, and miscellaneous uses. Some 47,000 through the conveyance system. The ability to
miles of canals and laterals, 305 storage accommodate increases or decreases in demand
reservoirs, and 316 diversion dams were in at the turnouts due to unexpected rainfall,
operation on Bureau of Reclamation projects to critical temperature changes, or other reasons is
provide this service. Considering these varied and dependent upon the time lag of the system.
extensive facilities and current and projected Automation can greatly decrease the effect of
water needs, the best practical methods of water this time lag, compensate for inaccurate
management should be developed and instituted regulation, and generally provide better service
to assure efficient use and conservation of to the water users at less cost and with less waste
existing developed water supplies. These of water.
methods, including use of automation, should be
adopted for planning new water projects. Pressure pipe systems are the best means of
providing automatic control of discharge to a
Water systems are automated to improve turnout where delivery is based on demand.
service to' water users, to increase efficiency of However, pipe systems are usually more
expensive to construct than open-channel technology to water projects is often limited by
systems and some water conveyance systems are economic considerations.
not intended to be operated to meet a demand.
Proper automation of a water system requires an A partial inventory of types of automation in
analysis of what the system is intended to do use on Reclamation projects is included as an
appendix to this report. The inventory includes
and an economic comparison of the alternatives
to maximize the benefits. installations on carriage facilities-canals, carriage
facilities-pipelines, diversion dams, major
pumping plants, and storage reservoirs-outlet
Advances in technology now make some works. Information on the type of equipment
types of automation possible for almost any and mode of control is included where known.
water system. Equipment is now becoming Also included in the appendix is a list of
available which can be used to monitor and definitions of commonly used automation terms
control even the most complex installation. and a description of the basic parameters W[]
However, the application of these new tools of of downstream control. S rl
2
~lJT[]r:1~TU]~ I}iEE[)S
A utomatic and remote controls are needed
for water storage and conveyance
of operation desired should be assembled prior
to final decisions. Listed below are some of the
systems to improve service to water users, items which should be considered in these
increase efficiency of operation, and reduce cost studies:
of operation.
1. Water conservation measures.
Recent Bureau of Reclamation water-use
studies have shown that an average of only 44 2. Water rights-downstream requirements.
percent of the water delivered to irrigators'
fields on Reclamation projects is stored in the 3. Operator attendance.
root zone for beneficial comsumptive use by
crops. Seepage from canals and laterals accounts 4. Accessibility of water system features.
for 20 percent of the total water diverted for
irrigation in the United States. These 5. Communication channels.
percentages do not represent real losses because
much of this water returns to streams or 6. Degree of control desired.
replenishes ground-water aquifers that provide
the water source for wells or springs. However, 7. Maintenance of automation system.
there is a real need for improvement of
management and utilization of water in 8. Reliability of forecasting.
irrigation operations. Factors responsible for
inefficient management and utilization of 9. Rapidity of inflow and time available
irrigation water are many and often interrelated. for operation.
Application of modern technology in programs
of research and development for automation of 10. Consequences of overtopping storage
water systems will improve the efficiency of or conveyance features.
project and farm irrigation systems and
management of conveyance and distribution 11. Reliability of power source.
systems. More efficient use and better
management of irrigation can make more water 12. Reliability of automatic control
available for municipal, industrial, and equipment.
recreational use to help meet today 's and future
needs. 13. Shutdown time for power generating
stations or pumping plants.
No absolute rule can be made to include or
omit automatic or remote controlling and 14. Economic comparisons.
monitoring devices on specific features of
Bureau projects. Planners, designers, and The water users' need for water is not always
operators together face the tasks of analysis and predetermined sufficiently in advance to assure
synthesis to arrive at solutions for each feature expeditious delivery or permit rapid shutoffs.
and/or project. Comprehensive studies of costs, Such uncontrolled situations as unexpected
safety, and reliability along with the service to rainfall or the need for protective spray to
be provided by each feature and the overall type prevent frost are often not readily
3
accommodated. Control systems which make Automation has been applied in varying
water more quickly available greatly enhance the degrees to all types of water control structures
margin of profit for water users, and those from the storage works through the distribution
which accommodate quick shutoffs can improve systems. Each water control structure serves a
system efficiency. specific function in a water system. Generally
speaking, all of the control structures control
Automation of water systems is needed to either a water surface elevation by regulation of
reduce labor cost to the water user. Simple a control gate or pumping plant, or control the
automatic devices have been used for many quantity of water being discharged through or
years to operate single water control structures. into a particular structure. The type of
Although these devices are limited in the degree automation selected to accomplish a particular
of control they can provide, they are proven control structure function or to operate a total
labor-saving devices. In the past most such water system depends upon the requirement for
devices have been for control of individual and economics of the particular situation. The
structures. A real need now exists for equipment discussion of the need for automation in the
and concepts which will provide efficient following sections includes descriptions of the
operation of complete conveyance and/or functions of various water control structures as
distribution systems. This requires a systems they apply to the segments of the total system.
approach to fit the concepts and equipment to The concepts of operation of the control devices
the operational needs. The end product will go and the applications of these devices are
beyond automation per se and will include discussed in the next chapter-Operation and
operations research techniques to optimize the Automation.
controls and operations. Further sophistication
of automation devices will not only reduce labor
costs but help conserve water through better STORAGE WORKS
operation of water control structures.
Outlet Works
The facilities of a typical water system can be
classified generally. as storage works, diversion Perhaps more than any other water control
works, conveyance system, and distribution structure, outlet works of dams are operated on
system. The storage works consist usually of one a scheduled basis. At present, changes for system
or more storage reservoirs, generally having demands are seldom made automatically at the
outlet works for regulation of water releases storage reservoir. Consequently, most outlet
therefrom, and a spillway for protection of the works are either manually or remotely operated.
dam. The diversion works may consist of a Operation of water systems in a manner which
typical diversion dam with headworks for automatically meets the demands of the water
controlling releases into the conveyance system, users will require automatic operation of outlet
and with a sluice gate and spillway for stream works. In many systems, remote control of a
regulation and protection of the structure. It distant storage dam outlet works can result in a
may also consist only of a head works or a cost savings due to the elimination of the need
pumping plant discharging into the conveyance for a full-time dam tender.
channel. The conveyance system generally is an
open-channel system with structures for control Spillways
of flow in the system and for delivery into the
distribution system. It may also be a pipe or In contrast to the routine operating purposes
aqueduct with control and delivery structures. served by other automatic applications discussed
The distribution system is a series of open in this report, spillway gate automation serves
ditches or pipe laterals with a control structure primarily as an emergency protective device.
and a delivery structure to the water user. Often Spillways pass flood inflows in excess of outlet
the same control concepts can be applied to the works discharge and available reservoir storage
conveyance and distribution systems. capacities. The use of gated spillways introduces
4
~
DIVERSION WORKS
Diversion Dams and Structures
5
plant that has pumping units with manual
ON-OFF control. However, when the water
conveyance system is operated automatically on
a demand basis. the supply pumping plant must
also include automatic downstream control.
Thus, the degree of pumping plant automation
and the number and sizing of pumping units are
defmed by the degree of automation provided
for the downstream water system.
CONVEYANCE
AND
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS -
Prototype installation of automatic controls above a canal
check. Photo P801-D-73319
Canal Checks
Canal check gates should be automated to decisions to operate the control gates for the
improve the operation of a canal, to isolate entire system.
reaches of a canal in the event of a break, and to
eliminate repetitive operator attendance. Pipe Systems
To provide full turnout discharge or delivery Full pressure pipe systems provide the best
from a canal, a specific minimum depth of water system of automatic control of discharge. For
is required. Automatic controls will sense demand systems, water delivery to turnouts, as
deviations of water surfaces on the canal and with household faucets, can vary from no flow
operate adjacent checks upstream or to full flow or vice versa automatically with no
downstream to provide a nearly constant water prior scheduling by the user. Full pressure pipe
level. Interference or interplay between' canal systems meet this demand. Because of this
checks in series may cause hydraulic transients inherent capability, a higher state of automation
to build up and create undesirable conditions. has been achieved for full pressure pipe systems
Optimum operation will result only from proper than for open systems. However, these pipe
control of the entire canal system. A control systems are sometimes prohibitively expensive;
scheme which takes this interplay into account thus low head pipe systems or open channel
can result in operation as efficient as that of a systems are used. Also, demand systems do not
closed pipe system . have universal application.
Canal breaks can flood the surrounding Low head pipe systems present special control
countryside. Checks can be operated in such an problems due to their tendency to amplify
emergency to isolate reaches of a canal so that harmonic surges. The cost of such a system is
the entire canal is not drained. To provide the usually between that of a comparable
desired checking action, the check gates may be open-channel and a full pressure pipe system .
operated manually, remotely, or automatically. Many miles of low head pipe have been installed
on Reclamation projects. Generally, such
Manual operation requires manual opening systems do not have the rapid response of full
and closing of the gate at the canal check. pressure systems and prior scheduling for
Remote monitoring and control has the operation is required. Special needs do exist for
advantage of bringing water level and gate the automatic operation of both full pressure
position information to a central point. From and low head pipe systems. On Reclamation
this control center man or computer can make projects, common control problems include
6
E"! 1/
.;:ii :2
limiting head to economic ranges, limiting Operators of manually controlled canals and
discharge, and limiting water-hammer transients. laterals often find it difficult to maintain
uniform water surfaces while making the
Turnouts changes necessary for operation. This difficulty
'-"' is increased by the occurrence of unexpected
Automation of gravity flow turnouts is storms. The automation of control structures
needed to provide uniform deliveries from will increase the stability of water surfaces on
distribution systems. A changed water surface in canals and laterals where such automation is
- a canal or a changed pressure in a pipeline installed. However, different concepts of
change the rates of flow through turnouts from automation provide different degrees of
the canal or pipeline. Turnout flows that stability, some of which are not compatible with
increase or decrease unexpectedly are difficult gravity-flow turnouts. Automation of the
to accommodate and often create costly and turnou t structures can eliminate this
time-consuming problems for irrigators using incompatibility, thereby increasing the overall
surface irrigation. Automation can e/iminate flexibility of operating concepts. Improved
these prob/ems with equipment that adjusts a operation resulting from automated turnout
turnout to maintain uniform de/ivery in spite of structures will not only benefit irrigators by
fluctuating water surfaces or pressures. minimizing problems associated with
-
,
f
i
,
"-'
Aerial view of the intake channel to the Pleasant Valley Pumping Plant, a major turnout on the San Luis Canal a few miles from
Coalinga, California. Photo P80S-200-S87NA
7
-
nonuniform delivery, but will also permit the result of unscheduled reduction in delivery flows
operators of distribution systems to be more or inflow resulting from storm runoff.
accurate in scheduling operations. Accurate Wasteways require automation to assure that
scheduling promotes the conservation of water either scheduled or unscheduled excess water is
resources by eliminating the need for operation removed from the canal without attendance by
waste. an operator.
8
[]PE RI1T ~[]~ 11~() I1LJT[]r:1I1T~[]~
CONCEPTS OF OPERATION Each of the structures described previously
can be operated with either of these methods
General but upstream control has been the traditional
method of operation on open-channel systems.
I fthea sufficient supply of water exists and
conveyance system is capable of
Whether upstream or downstream the method of
operation can be independent of the automation
transporting the appropriate flows, then a water incorporated therein. However, downstream
system can be operated to meet the needs of the control of open-channel systems has been
users. Such a demand-type system is not achieved largely through the use of automatic
feasible, however, if the supply or the devices.
conveyance of water is limited to lesser amounts
than required. Where the use of water must be The operation of storage dam outlet works is
limited because of less than adequate storage or usually based on meeting the needs of the water
conveyance capacities, a supply-type system is users consistent with providing storage reserves.
necessary. For instance, a domestic water supply Thus, releases from storage during periods of
usually operates to meet the demands of the adequate supply serve to meet the full demands
users whenever a faucet is turned on. However, of the users. During periods of limited supply,
in times of water shortages, water use is limited however, the releases are restricted and a system
and water is available only on a rationed or of priorities or across-the-board reductions is
prorated basis. Conversely, in any water system, imposed. The flow of water can be traced
if water is available in plentiful supply and the through the system from source to user and the
conveyances are adequate, the system can be control structures described previously can be
operated to meet the demands. Otherwise, water operated to meet the demand on the system or
may be only available to users with the highest to deliver a restricted supply to the users.
priorities or all users may have available only a
fraction of their full demand. Upstream Control
The two most common methods of operating Equipment that is operated to regulate a
a water system utilize either upstream or water surface immediately upstream from the
downstream control. With upstream control the controlling element provides upstream control,
sensor is located upstream from the structure Figure 1. When more water is supplied than is
being controlled and with downstream control required to satisfy deliveries, the excess is passed
the sensor is located downstream from the downstream to the end of the conveyance where
structure being controlled. Upstream control is it must be wasted or stored. When the supply is
associated with a supply-type operation and less than the demand, deficiencies will first
downstream control is associated with a affect deliveries at the lower end of the system.
demand-type operation. Also, open-channel Satisfactory operation depends upon the
systems have predominantly been operated with amount of water supplied to the system. This
unstream control while pressure conduit systems type of operation is called a supply system. To
have for the most part been operated with assure that all deliveries are satisfied, operators
downstream control. of supply systems usually introduce a little
9
-::--
- -- - - --=-
FL°t:
excess water into the system, which results in all flow conditions, Figure 2. The achievement
operational waste. of uniform flow through each check reach is
delayed by the need to either build up or draw
Traditional operation of a water system i:, down storage within the reach. Extensive
complex, requiring numerous visits to control systems that require considerable time between
structures for adjustment when changes are the introduction of water into the system and
made. Water is introduced into the system delivery often use regulating reselVoirs to speed
according to schedules developed from orders up response.
placed by users. As the water reaches each
control structure in the system, that structure Automation can minimize the need for
must be adjusted to pass the desired flow. When developing schedules for the operation of
changes are large, adjustment at individual upstream controlled structures. In all other
structures may require several hours. respects, the requirements for operating an
Satisfactory operation requires scheduling automated upstream controlled conveyance are
sufficiently in advance to allow water to travel the same as for local manual operation in that:
from the source to arrive at the point of delivery
at the desired time. 1. Deliveries may be controlled manually
or by some other automatic equipment.
Automation of upstream control is most
appropriate for structures where inflow cannot 2. Operators must develop schedules for
be scheduled, such as spillway control gates on introducing water into the conveyance based
dams, and wasteway gates that remove storm on desired delivery rates, desired delivery
inflow from a canal. Automation of upstream times, and the time required for water travel
control is also generally appropriate for to the delivery locations.
structures in conveyances that are operated in
the traditional manner. Traditional operation These similarities permit the installation of
becomes more appropriate as the distance upstream controls on individual structures
between control structures becomes greater. 1 ,
Other situations which are compatible with '..
al~ I..
traditional operation are long lengths of ~It; i:~
~I~ "'It)
10
without requiring automation of the entire being supplied to the system at any time is
conveyance. Rate-of-flow controllers are often determined by the amount of water being
utilized at headworks or inlet structures to withdrawn.
assure that inflow into the conveyance remains
uniform. Downstream control eliminates the need for
developing schedules for either the operation of
Downstream Control individual structures or for introducing water
into the system. Except for control of deliveries,
Equipment that is operated to regulate a no manual input is required as long as sufficient
water surface downstream from the controlling water is available at the inlet or head works
element provides downstream control. The structure. When the supply of water is not
sensor location is selected at a point that sufficient to meet the demand, deficiencies first
provides the best intelligence to relate affect deliveries at the upper end of the system.
downstream demands to upstream inflow, to
provide stability of control, and to maximize the Pressure pipe conveyances inherently provide
channel capacity. Generally, this means that the a demand-type operation. However, several
sensor should be at the downstream end of the factors make demand-type operation more
reach, Figure 3. Such location reduces the need difficult to achieve on open-channel systems.
for considering variations of friction factors, but Gravity flow with a free water surface is more
usually increases the effect of time lag. sluggish and more sensitive to relative variations
in head than is flow through pipe under
Where downstream controls are used to pressure. The dead time or time required for a
maintain uniform flow through a Parshall flume change of flow to move through the system is
or over a weir they become rate-of-flow much greater for an open system than for a pipe
controllers. The control water surface should be system. Water surfaces must be controlled more
located appropriately for measuring depth of closely because the physical facilities required to
flow through the structure. The measuring contain wide fluctuations are much more
structure should be installed as near as practical extensive and costly.
to the controlling element to reduce lag.
Commercial rate-of-flow controllers are also Because pressure pipe conveyances inherently
available to suit nearly all types of commercial provide a demand type of operation, the
measuring devices. operators of pipe systems readily recognize the
concept of downstream control. Conversely, the
Downstream control provides a demand-type concept is difficult for many operators of
operation in which overall operation is open-channel systems to understand because it is
controlled by the amount of water being contrary to their traditional method of
withdrawn from the conveyance. As water is operation. Upstream controls are not normally
withdrawn, controlling elements are adjusted to intermingled with downstream controls on a
introduce water into the system. Operational conveyance except downstream controlled
waste is minimized because the amount of water rate-of-flow controllers are sometimes used at
DOWNSTREAM
CONTROLLER DOWNSTREAM
CONTROLLER DOWNSTREAM
CONTROLLER
(
-
- -FLOW
II
the headworks of upstream controlled canals. operation at any time to any desired condition.
However, different conveyances within a system Remote adjustment of these control structures is
may be appropriate to either method of control needed to provide the coordination required.
depending upon operational requirements. Detailed schedules of flow requirements at each
structure are also needed. Computer-assisted
Downstream control is most appropriate for operation is desirable where numerous
automating structures where deliveries cannot be adjustments must be made simultaneously.
scheduled, such as in a municipal or industrial
water supply system. The appropriateness of
downstream control increases with increasing TYPES OF WATER SYSTEMS
difficulty in preparing accurate schedules for
both introducing water into the conveyance and AUTOMATION
detailed operation of control structures. An
increasing trend towards demand-type operation General
by irrigators also increases the appropriateness
of downstream control for all conveyances that The trend in recent years has been toward
have appreciable delivery requirements. increased automation of water systems, as
described previously in this report. Not only are
Controlled Volume Operation. During the aut 0 mat i c con troIs desired for existing
formulat~on of plans for operating the California installations but automatic operation is also
Aqueduct, the California Department of Water being included for features that are either under
Resources developed a new concept of canal construction, in the design stage, or being
operation. Operation by this method, called planned for future construction. This trend
controlled volume operation, virtually eliminates increases the importance of understanding both
the need for regulating reservoirs while the concepts that are available for operating
increasing operational flexibility. Response time water systems and the present capabilities of
is reduced to the time required to achieve stable automation to conform to these concepts.
flo w within a check reach. However
adjustments at control structures must b~ The application of automation to water
scheduled and well coordinated. This method of systems has been in the form of local automatic
operation is included in operational studies that (feedback) control or remote control. These
are underway for the Granite Reef Aqueduct on categories are somewhat overlapping, however,
the Central Arizona Project. in that remote automatic operation can use
feedback control. Nevertheless, the following
This new concept was originally called discussion of feedback control, remote control,
constant volume operation because it appeared and applications serves to describe the current
that the volume of water within each check state-of-the-art for automation of water systems.
reach would be maintained at a nearly uniform
value for all flow conditions, Figure 4. However,
hydraulic analysis shows that this is not always w
the case. Controlled volume operation does 61~ -.Jr~
01::>
~,t
zp
reduce the need to build up or draw down 81~
~Ig
81~
storage required for traditional operation. ~---, I'"
Normal water surface-FULL FLOW
I'"
Checked water surface- NOFLOW) I
,~~
By controlling water surfaces upstream from I
Nearly balanced areaS require na additional
I
control structures at elevations that are higher I storage when Increasing flow from "NOFLOW II-- - -
I ta FULLFLOW' I
than required for f70w at design capacity, I I
I
controlled volume operation provides capability ////'III~'~/// ~Bottom grade
I
to pass design flow through each structure at I
/'lo/PE'O\ \\
any time. Simultaneous adjustment at all
structures makes it possible to adjust canal Figure 4.-Constant volume concept of canal operation.
12
A completely automatic system requires no prescribed relationship between input and
input from operators for normal operation. output signals. This feature provides a means to
Arrangements of equipment sense physical damp out oscillations and produce minimum
conditions and make the decisions and overshoot for a more stable and responsive
adjustments necessary for operation. Municipal control system.
water systems often provide highly automated
operation in which overall operation of the Feedback controls for the automatic
system is controlled by individual users as they operation of water conveyance systems can
withdraw water from the system. Operators do control either rate-of-flow or water surfaces. The
not enter the decisionmaking process until the following discussion is directed primarily
conveyance becomes relatively large. Irrigators towards controllers that control water surfaces
also desire this type of demand operation. although the principles involved also apply to
rate-of-flow controllers. Feedback controls that
Because of difficulties in estimating realistic operate equipment to control water surfaces do
friction factors for conveyances and discharge not require the difficult field calibrations of
coefficients for gates, operators of water gates and valves that are associated with
conveyance systems normally utilize water rate-of-flow controllers.
surfaces at selected locations within the system
as indicators of desirable conditions. It thus The characteristic manner in which feedback
becomes appropriate for automatic control controls perform control fWlctions, or react to
equipment to utilize water levels to control deviatiolls, of the controlled variable, is called
operation. Flow is normally measured where the mode of control. The five common modes of
required for accounting purposes or to assure control are two-position control, floating
proper operation of the system. The alternative control, proportional control, reset action, and
method of controlling operation by estimating rate action.
flows at all control structures presents additional
complications. Two-position, floating, and proportional
controls provide three different control
The automation of industrial processes is functions, and all three of these modes of
highly developed. Knowledge of the control are in common use on Reclamation
characteristic results of different control projects. Equipment installed for each of these
functions and appropriate application of these types of control varies widely because some of
functions has developed into a specialty. Where the automation on Reclamation projects has
similarities exist this knowledge and much of the been developed independently by operating
equipment developed for industrial automation personnel. Limitations imposed by mechanical
has application to Bureau requirements for equipment and differing local conditions have
automatic operation of water conveyance also required modification of the control
systems. Much of the equipment needed for function in many instances.
automatic operation of Reclamation pipe
conveyances is available commercially. However, Reset action is generally used with
while present technology now makes it possible, proportional control to eliminate the offset that
there is very little commercial equipment that is inherent in this mode of control. Rate action
has been developed specifically for, or can be never exists alone, but is always combined with
appropriately applied to, automatic operation of proportional or proportional plus reset actions
open-channel conveyances. to increase the speed of response and reduce
overshoot of the con trolling element.
Feedback Control Equipment for accomplishing proportional plus
reset control of water systems is under
General. Basic feedback control systems are development. Future studies are planned to
designed to return a portion of the output signal include proportional plus rate control and
to the input of a controller to maintain a proportional plus reset plus rate control.
13
Mathematical representation of these control to the rate of corrective action. If storage is large
functions becomes desirable when feedback and corrective action occurs at a suitable rate,
control is to be programed into a computer for lag becomes immaterial.
real-time control or study. Feedback control can
be represented mathematically by the. Floating Control. Floating control is more
generalized process control algorithm properly called single speed floating control. In
contrast to two-position control, which changes
N the position of the controlling element from one
Output = Kl (e) + e (dt) + K3 (de/dt) extreme position to the other (ON-OFF),
K:f floating control changes the position of the
~ controlling element at a constant speed
Proportion Reset Rate whenever the controlled water surface deviates
from its target depth by a predetermined
where output = position of the con- amount. The direction of gate movement is
trolling element determined by the direction of the deviation.
The controlling gate makes no mqvement as long
as the controlled water surface is within the
Kl , K2 , and K3 = real numbers repre-
senting gain factors dead band (the desired range of operation).
When the controlled water surface is outside the
of proportion, reset,
dead band, the controlling gate will continue to
and rate, respectively
move until either the water surface returns to
the dead band or the gate reaches a fully opened
e = deviation of the controlled variable
or fully closed position. The control function
(error)
and its common modifications are shown in
de and dt = increments of deviation and Figure 6.
time, respectively
N = period of time for reset action The speed at which the controlling element
moves is critical for floating controls. Movement
Two-position control is a special case of the is at a much slower rate than for two-position
proportional portion of this algorithm in which control because intermediate positioning is
Output = ON or OFF and e =0 or 1. Floating desired. Controlled water surfaces have an
control is a special case of the reset portion of inherent tendency to cycle, which can be
this algorithm where e = I, 0, or -1. minimized and often limited to the width of the
dead band by a proper speed of corrective
Two-position Control. Two-position control action. Significant lag in the system, or rapid
is the simplest mode of automatic control. The load changes even though small, will aggravate
control function moves the controlling element these cycling tendencies. Floating control is
to one of two extreme positions as determined most appropriate for installations with no
by the controlled water surface. When these two
extreme positions become fully opened or fully
closed, the controller becomes an ON-OFF ;z
0
-
TIME
slightly larger than the maximum requirement. b. CONTROL FUNCTION IN PUMP OPERATION
(ORIENTED FOR DOWNSTREAM CONTROL)
Two-position controls are most appropriate for
installations where storage is large as compared Figure 5.-Two-position control.
14
predetermined amount in each cycle, it seldom
n U U
j 2o~g~t- d~!h--
n
arrives at the exact position required. However,
- - - _l--=t: - - - - -- - -
-- f-! _n-
-1----- controls that make two small adjustments or less
u- !_nnn_U---tU-
--:-De~d-b~nd- in an hour are ususally considered satisfactory.
o.( CONTROLLING WATER SURFACE
RESULTS OF CONTROLNOT SHOWN)
copenlng~ f CIOSlng:l A controller that reacts too slowly cannot
keep pace with changes and lags behind
deviations of the controlled water surface. By
b. CONTROL FUNCTION IN GATE OPERATION
(ORIENTEDFOR UPSTREAM CONTROL) the time a lagging controller has made sufficient
adjustment of the controlling element to reverse
[Openi ng--+-Ant,- Hunt.j f- CIOSingjAntl-Huntl the direction of water surface movement, the
adjustment is often larger than needed to
c. CONTROL FUNCTION MODIFIED BY ANTI-HUNT maintain uniform flow. Unless the control
function is modified, the gate will continue to
move while the water surface is returning to th~
dead band, increasing overshoot in corrective
action. Similar lag then creates overshoot in the
opposite direction so that long period cycles
develop. Flow conditions can amplify these
Open f-Anti-HunH I Close cycles.
I
I L L SOT /SRT Cycles
e. CONTROL FUNCTION MODIFIED BY SOT/SRT
J~ r-Anti-Hunt-j
>1
AND ANTI-HUNT
In order to reduce these long period cycles,
some operators have incorporated a friction
Figure 6.-Floating control. clutch and additional switches into
float-operated equipment to provide an antihunt
appreciable lag and where load changes can be device. The antihunt device prevents additional
counteracted by gradual changes in gate gate movement when the controlled water
position. Corrective action should be slightly surface is returning to the dead band, even
faster than needed to accommodate the most though the water surface is outside the dead
rapid load changes that can occur. band. Use of the antihunt device increases the
range of changes that can be accommodated by
When the controlling gate moves too rapidly single speed floating control. The device is not
it behaves like two-position control with completely effective because it can stabilize
characteristic cycling of the controlled water uniform flow outside the dead band for some
surface and frequent reversal in direction of gate flow conditions. In addition, when installed for
movement (hunting). Because the mechanization downstream control it frequently prevents
provided on most Reclamation gates is intended desired gate movement.
to permit manual adjustment as rapidly as
practicable, the resulting speed of movement is The major portion of operating time on open
usually much faster than desired for single speed channel conveyance systems usually involves
floating control. In order to achieve the slower uniform flow. When changed flow conditions are
movements required for their installations, most required, the changes are made as rapidly as
operators have incorporated timers into the possible. In order for a controller to be
control equipment to provide satisfactory, it must not only provide a stable
set-operate-time/set-rest-time (SOT/SRT) cycles gate position for uniform flow, but also it must
of operation for gate motors. Adjustability in be able to change the gate opening rapidly to
the timer settings provides flexibility to select suit flow changes. Single speed floating control
the appropriate average speed of gate movement usually does not have the range of operation
for each structure. A completely stable gate needed to suit the extremes of both of these
position for uniform flow is seldom achieved by requirements. As a result, most controllers are
this modification, because, as the gate moves a adjusted to provide gate movements slightly
15
larger than needed for uniform flow and TIME
0z --
antihunt devices are added to reduce the cycling
that occurs with flow changes.
~ ~" ~~~~o;:7; ~~"~~=f~~~~'-"~~~~~-!~~
;: I I
l
moves faster in its corrective action as the
controlled variable deviates farther from its b. CONTROL FUNCTION IN GATE OPERATION
(ORIENTED FOR UPSTREAM CONTROL)
desired value, Figure 7. This changing speed of
Figure 7.- Proportional speed floating control.
movement requires that the controlling element
be operated by a variable speed motor in lieu of z'
TIME
~
~:t~~~~\~o~~~~--~~~-~--
----------------
I
---I
~n~~!~:l~~t~~~~~-~~
-----
I
JJ J [ C
and faster gate movement, upon a single speed opening closing
~
openlng--V closing
results of mathematical model studies show that
one additional stage greatly increases the ~~ L ,St
Stage cycles
c. CONTROL FUNCTION IN GATE OPERATION WITH
J --J ---1
.
Antl-Hunt--j
~
I.
Vanable CYCles--J+..\
~
Ill: 1
Equal closures
16
proportional-positioned control), the position of appropriate for either upstream- (supply-) or
the controlling element has a fixed relationship downstream- (demand-) type operation.
to the controlled variable. A controlling gate has Adaptability to combination with dead time
a position for each water surface elevation that (lag), and the reset and rate modes of control
is defined by multiplying deviation of the water make it most appropriate for downstream
surface by a gain factor. The elevation of the control. Resulting operation should inherently
controlled water surface varies from one edge of be very responsive to changes of any size at any
the proportional band for no flow to the other point in a system, and have a high degree of
edge of the band for full flow, Figure 10. sa f e ty against overtopping the canal in
emergency conditions.
Because the controlled water surface must be
expected to vary throughout the proportional The width of the proportional band and its
band, proportional control is not appropriate for associated range of controlled water surface
installations where it is necessary to maintain a variation is a function of gain factor. In canal
constant water surface elevation. Where designs operation, an inverse relationship exists between
provide a range within which the water surface gain factor and stability of flow. Stability
can fluctuate, or where fluctuation throughout increases as gain factor decreases. These
the proportional band can be tolerated, relationships work against each other to create
proportional control becomes appropriate. For stability problems when a narrow proportional
example, upstream proportionally controlled band is desired. The width of proportional band
gates are most appropriate for flood control required to achieve stable flow in canals often
structures, because designs usually include an becomes unacceptable for gravity deliveries.
operating range compatible with the However, the range of water surface variation is
proportional band. At such installations the usually not large enough to have a serious effect
proportional action of the gate combines with upon pump discharges. Therefore, proportional
storage that increases rapidly as the controlling control is generally appropriate for use on open
water surface rises to provide the usually desired systems where deliveries are made by pumping.
function of retarding flow from storm runoff.
Flow through the gate is related to the amount Proportional Plus Reset Control. Proportional
of water impounded rather than inflow at any control can be made more acceptable for open
specific time. systems with gravity deliveries by the addition of
a reset function to eliminate the proportional
Very little information is available on past deviation. Addition of the reset function does not
usage of proportional controls for automating eliminate variations of the controlled water
canal control structures. Except for the surface elevation that occur when flows change,
limitations imposed by the need for a but it does return this water surface to the
proportional band, proportional control is elevation that existed before the change. Minor
TIME
differences in position of the controlled gate
z +-
- - - - - - -.- -
account for the characteristic differences shown
in Figure 11 between water surfaces controlled by
-- ---- --
~ ~;;;O~O~:b~n~ ~ - - ~ ~~ ~ ~
proportional control and those controlled by
~
~
'"
II I proportional plus reset control.
o. CONTROLLING WATER SURFACE
I RESULTS OF CONTROL NOT SHOWN)
By recovering the controlled water surface to
!~i Full
b. CONTROL
i
~closed
17
development of undesirable or dangerous
~
~I
~ I
If
~110
/02:0,+110
conditions in the system.
U
o. DEMANDCHANGEAT CONTROLLEOWATERSURFACE Operation by remote manual control can be
_ To!:g::~eE.t~-~o_fl:>~~- quite similar to operation by local manual
Z _h- - - - - - -
1-7 -
§ Initial
~
OJ
offset
l-
- - -
;: Adjusted offset
Proportionol bond
control. Schedules for operation of the various
control structures should be developed based on
uj
~ - - - - - - - - Mo.lmum Offset-full flow:::.r - - - - - - --
~xperience. However, the additional flexibility
b. CONTROLLED WATER SURFACE-PROPORTIONAL CONTROL of controlling all structures from a master
station permits a high degree of coordination in
I £::::
Torget depth adjusting structures. Properly utilized, this
:
1
..1
~ coordination can greatly reduce the time
required to accomplish flow changes in many
c. CONTROLLEO WATER SURFACE-PROPORTIONAL PLUS RESET CONTROL
conveyance systems.
18
usually be assembled from commercially headworks structures by both floating and
available components to accommodate those proportional modes to maintain uniform
situations where equipment is not readily diversions.
available. Some situations will require
development of new equipment and specialized 3. Upstream control of wasteway gates in
computer programing. canals and spillway control gates in dams by
both floating and proportional modes to pass
The major portion of cost for a remote excess water.
control system is represented by the
communication channels that are required 4. Upstream floating control of gates in
between the master station and all remote individual canal control structures and in a
stations. The type and number of circuits series of canal control structures to pass canal
required are determined by the manner in which flows through the structures while
the controls are to be operated and by the maintaining desired upstream water surfaces
amount of data that is to be telemetered. at the other structures in the system.
Direct-current (dc) channels are suitable for
sending impulse-type signals and usually require 5. Downstream floating control of gates in
a separate channel for each set of data. Voice individual canal control turnouts and
grade channels with tone transmitting he adworks structures to maintain uniform
equipment can accommodate large quantities of flow through measuring structures.
data.
Because of simplicity, two-position controls
Alternatives for providing communication are probably the most widely used mode of
channels include direct wire, radio, and feedback control. The ON-0FF characteristics
microwave. For most reliable operation, direct of these controls make them most appropriate
wire systems, whether buried or overhead, for the operation of pumps. Oriented for
should be dedicated exclusively to the control downstream control, they operate pumps to
system. Radio or microwave systems may maintain the water surfaces in reservoirs at the
require repeater stations where distances are elevations desired for operating distribution and
great or where adverse topographic conditions conveyance systems. Oriented for upstream
exist. Selection of the type of communication control, they are commonly used to operate
system is usually based on economic factors. A sump pumps to remove unwanted accumulations
completely separate backup communications of water from structures and drains. The
sy stem is always desirable and strongly operating ranges of pumps in a multiple pump
recommended for extensive conveyance systems. installation are often overlapped and staggered
to increase flexibility in total pump discharge.
These controllers are usually activated by either
GENERAL APPLICATIONS electrical probe or float-operated switches.
2. Upstream control of the sluice gates in Reclamation projects do not include any
diversion dams and the inlet gates or valves of open-channel distribution or conveyance
19
systems that are completely automatic in
Incoming power source
operation. The Friant-Kern Canal on the Central
Valley Project in California and the West Canal
on the Columbia Basin Project in Washington
represent the most extensive applications of
automatic canal operation among the various
Reclamation projects. Both of these canals
utilize a large number of little man controllers Raise relay
Operators on the Friant-Kern Canal pioneered Figure 12.-Schematic diagram for a Columbia
the development of little man controls. The Basin type little man controller.
development of similar controls on the
Columbia Basin Project was completely
independent of the earlier effort. Both Incoming power source
Lo~e~ .!~m~~ Lower relay
developments perform almost identical
functions but with considerably different
equipment. Schematic diagrams of this
equipment are shown in Figures 12 and 13. Both
of these developments, operated by floats,
disclosed a need for an antihunt device. Raise relay
can make some allowance for lag. But there are '"
many situations in which the use of floating Figure 13.-Schematic diagram for a Friant-Kern
controls is not appropriate. type little man controller.
20
As a general rule, floating control can be
Gaielawer
considered appropriate for upstream control but mlcraswitch
0
,...caunter wei 9 ht
not for downstream control. An exception is
made to this rule for downstream control when
Switch trip blacks attached
the controlled water surface is located ta flaat tape
sufficiently close to the controlling gate so that Gate raise
the effects of lag are not objectionable. micraswitch
water surface,
..
a"". .
j .J~t~ ~I!,a.g';!'-
Some attempts have been made to operate a ,
series of canal control structures by downstream r1~;lerc~~~:~ce,gate
21
0
. .
Float :Q'
.P.
Inl~
Figure IS.-Schematic diagram of equipment for upstream control of hydraulically powered gate.
utilizing feedback controls widely. Older from several segments of the water control
systems are also being automated. Full pressure industry .
systems utilize feedback controls widely to
achieve virtually complete automatic operation. Design of these control systems requires a
Low-pressure systems, and systems wherein flow thorough knowledge of both the conveyance
is controlled to a great extent by gravity rather and the control functions performed by
than pressure, combine feedback controls with automatic equipment. Investigations often reveal
remote operation to improve operation. While the need for special requirements or limitations.
no Reclamation pipe systems are computer However, designers confidently approach
controlled at this time, information is becoming automation for pipe systems with the attitude
available on computer controlled pipe systems that any automatic operation desired by WD
operators can be provided. S rl
22
AESE~RLH ~~U UEUEl~~~E~T
GENERAL particular scheme of operation to a water system
can be determined by constructing a
Research and development are necessary mathematical model of the system and imposing
to provide methods and equipment for operational and control concepts on the model.
aut 0 mat i on of water system s. Theories, Designing the mathematical model with
methods, and equipment have been developed to sufficient flexibility can result in a versatile tool.
a utomatically control a wide variety of The ultimate mathematical model would
industrial processes. The control theories and simulate any water system under any scheme of
principles developed for industry are useful in operation. This ultimate model does not appear
the research and development necessary for to be practical at the present time. However,
water systems automation. Normally, the mathematical models of open-channel systems
automation satisfying the needs of industry is can be versatile enough to accommodate a wide
not directly convertible to the needs of water range of canal systems being studied under a
distribution. For example, stabilizing the variety of operating schemes. Likewise,
discharge in a long canal requires a long period mathematical models of pressure pipe systems
of time compared to that necessary for are usually designed not as unique models
maintaining a uniform voltage level in an electric limited to one system but as models which can
power network. Also, mechanisms used in be used to study a wide range of systems and
industry for process control are not directly assumptions of operation. Thus, the response of
adaptable to control of water systems. a water system can be determined for any
number of schemes.
The research and development program under
way in Reclamation is concentrating initially on The use of mathematical modeling readily
the problems of open channel automation. permits application of various principles of
Valuable tools such as mathematical models and control theory to automation of water systems.
laboratory models are used in this effort. Equations of flow are combined to describe the
Immediate application of improved control performance of the conveyance and structures.
techniques is needed for the operation of Although a precise prediction of hydraulic
existing and new projects. transients in open channel systems is difficult to
attain, mathematical simulation of the canal or
Papers and reports on completed phases of pipeline provides an adequate model for
this program are written and published as analyzing the results of applying various schemes
progress is made. The results of the research and of automatic control. The more complete and
development will be the basis for a water accurate the equations and data used in the
systems automation manual to be published in model, the better will be the representation of
the future. the system and its operation.
23
needed to establish time constants for the integration are normally employed to solve
controls. Resistance to flow through canals, them. In this program, a numerical
pipes, and structures guiding the flow finite-difference method known as the method
throughout the system must be known in of specified time intervals is used. This method
assembling a mathematical model that will belongs to the more general category of
accurately describe the system. solutions known as the method of
characteristics.
The mathematical modeling techniques
presently in use or under study by Reclamation By the method of specified time intervals,
are analog, characteristics, and implicit methods. each channel reach is subdivided into a number
Each method may have a place in the research of subreaches of equal length and the depth and
and development of water systems automation. velocity of flow are computed at each of the
One may be beneficially used for study of the delineating boundaries between the subreaches.
entire system, another for a detail of that The depth and velocity thus computed are not
system. In Reclamation work, the characteristics determined as continuous functions of times,
method has received the greatest attention in but rather, computed values are obtained at
development because of the promise of more discrete points in time only. The time interval
immediate results. The implicit and analog between discrete points in time is specified by
methods of developing the mathematical I
models the user and is the same for all delineating
appear to be more general than the boundaries such that solutions are attained at all
characteristics method. For example, the boundaries for the same coincident points in
implicit method is not limited to subcritical time. Details of this method are described in
flows and can give a detailed description of Chapter 15 of the text by V. L. Streeter and E.
supercritical flow. However, flow processes B. Wylie entitled "Hydraulic Transients,"
encountered in the water systems automation McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1967.
program have yielded to analysis by the method
of characteristics. For this reason, an intensive Each channel reach is bounded on either end
study of the analog and implicit methods has by a control structure. These control structures
not been required, but study of these methods serve as connecting links between the series of
will be part of the future development of open-channel reaches. Unsteady flow through
mathematical models. control structures is simulated by a succession of
short, steady-state conditions, using appropriate
Currently, the most widely used mathematical combinations of steady-state equations to
model is the computer program "Unsteady Open simulate the physical facilities. Appropriate
Channel Flow, Method of Characteristics." This steady-state equations representing any
program simulates gradually varied unsteady particular control structure are solved
flow in open trapezoidal channels. It is simultaneously with the unsteady-flow
particularly adapted to irrigation canals which equations representing the adjacent
are characterized by a series of open-channel open-channel reaches to form an effective link
reaches. The program is primarily intended for between the control structure and the adjoining
the purpose of simulating the response of canal open-channel reaches.
flow to anyone of several concepts of automatic
control.
At each control structure, any combination of
Gradually varied unsteady flow in open the following physical facilities may be
channels is characterized by two basic partial simulated: in-line flow through orifice gates,
differential equations, a continuity equation and in-line flow through stoplog bays, in-line flow
a momentum equation. Because of the over check gates, in-line flow through an
mathematical complexities involved in obtaining inverted siphon, in-line flow through a minor
exact integration of these two equations, transition in invert grade and/or channel section,
numerical finite-difference methods of diverted flow through a constant discharge
24
turnout, and diverted flow through an overflow 5. The specified time interval and the total
wasteway. real time to be simulated.
-- . T T . . --
-. CONTROLLED GATE AT MILE 0.14
--
-. -
- -
i"J' -
.. I- - --, --
0
4.4 . . . I I I I I
-
CONTROLLED WATER SURFACE AT MILE 1.9
~~~~.....
-
4.0
0 120 240 "0 480 '00 720 ..0 "0
TIME IN "INUTES
Figure 16.- Typical cathode-ray-tube plot of output data from mathematical model studies.
25
2. The program is restricted to trapezoidal The mathematical model cannot define
channels only. physically the effect of a part of the control on
other parts; therefore, components are
3. The program is valid for sub critical flow assembled to study the control function.
only. No provision has been made for
supercritical flow. A complete canal model or simple tank of
water with inlet and outlet may be satisfactory
4. Relatively short-time intervals must be for the development of a control. The facility
used to achieve accurate results. For this provides, through the sensor, an electrical or
reason, considerable amounts of computer mechanical input to the control that follows the
time are required for long channels which change of controlled variable indicated by the
must be simulated over long periods of time mathematical model. Deviations in the control
(time periods of several days duration). 0 u t P ut significantly different than those
Programs which use any of the methods of predicted by the mathematical model may be
solution generally known as the implicit cause for further development of the facility,
method are probably better suited for mathematical model, or control.
problems of this category, since relatively
longer time intervals may apparently be used The use of laboratory models allows the
successfully with this method. researcher to develop optimal controllers. For
example, modular construction of the control
This program was originally developed by components requires research and development
Michael J. Shand at the College of Engineeri,ng, to find compatible units. Size, reliability,
University of California, Berkeley. Numerous stability of operation, and range are factors to
modifications have been made to the original be judged in relation to initial cost and
program since it was received at the Engineering maintenance in developing the control. The
and Research Center. development includes the selection of
commercially available electrical and mechanical
Mathematical models have also been parts that will lower the cost of the control. The
developed for pressure pipe systems. While the control should be designed so that maintenance
analysis of operation under various schemes of can be performed with standard test
automatic control has been a part of the instruments. Specifications and procedures for
pressure pipe modeling, the main purpose of the installation, adjustment, operation, and
pressure pipe models has been to facilitate water maintenance become a part of the research and
hammer and hydraulic transient analysis. development study.
26
Studies of the methods, devices, and control
parameters* are in progress both in the
Engineering and Research Center Laboratory
and at operating canals. Relatively simple
equipment is being used in the l-aboratory to
investigate the characteristics of a control,
Figure 17.
Phases of the environmental research can be Both analysis and development are in progress
performed in the laboratory .Equipment can be on floating controls. Water surface elevations
studied in chambers having variable temperature near a control structure are used by operators in
and humidity. Causes for deviations from a adjusting gate openings in open channels. The
computed level of operation can be promptly development of floating controls to maintain a
studied and corrected in a minimum time. nearly constant level at selected locations was a
Modifications to equipment to overcome effects natural outcome of such operation. The controls
27
were developed independently and thus the FEEDBACK PATH
Smith Controller. An open-channel response An "offset" in the canal water surface was
of water delivery similar to that for a closed allowable at Corning. For satisfactory delivery,
conduit system would greatly improve an "offset" was not allowable in the South Gila
operations. Response of this kind requires Canal, Yuma-Mesa Project, Arizona. Therefore, a
eliminating or minimizing the nonoperating time reset control was added to the proportional
28
control circuitry. A long-tenn analog-type centralized computer control systems. Each of
integrator for resetting was not available. As a these possibilities requires research a..'lQ
substitute, a circuit was designed to vary the development because of the wide variety of
speed of a direct-current motor according to the choices.
rate of change of the water level. The output of
a potentiometer connected to the motor Computers appear attractive for control of
provides a voltage necessary to move a gate and water because they can be programed to control
return the water level to a target elevation. specific parts of the system. These parts can be
controlled in entirely different ways to meet
Satisfactory completion of the proportional specific conditions without the use of
plus reset controller will allow the use of specialized components.. Also, as water system
another mode of control on Reclamation water control theory develops, computers offer the
systems. :This mode of control has been used flexibility of applying new methods of control
widely in industrial applications for some time. at a future time without major alterations to the
Completion is planned as a result of the field controlled structures.
trials in 1973 on the South Gila Canal.
Initial studies indicate virtually any control
Proportional Plus Reset Plus method using on-site control components can be
Rate Control programed into a computer. The computer then
provides an equivalent control of the structure
Applications of proportional or proportional but performs the control from a central
plus reset control are sometimes less than ideal location. Progress in this area can occur only
because of the large initial overshoot of the through intensive research into the literature and
controlling element. This large overshoot can commercial applications and the development of
often be drastically reduced by the addition of computer programs applicable to water systems.
rate action to the controller. In applications to
electric power control, the addition of rate Study of local control and supervisory control
action has reduced the initial overshoot by 50 is planned for the laboratory. A canal simulation
percent from the best conditions obtainable model will be designed for investigating the
with proportional or proportional plus reset capabilities of the control modes analyzed in the
con t rol. The large overshoot in certain mathematical model. This model will include a
applications is often due to a large dead-time or set of response times and structures with
large transfer lag. Also, the proportional band controls to receive commands. As an
must be set exceptionally wide and the reset rate intennediate step to field application, the
unusually slow to avoid excessive cycling. Load laboratory canal model will help resolve
changes then create a large error in the discrepancies between the abstract mathematical
controlled variable and a long time is required to model and the field application of the control.
reach the set point. Rate action provides a large
initial correction to bring the variable up to the
set point rapidly, reducing the overshoot. Also, IRRIGA TION SCHEDULING -
the time and magnitude of cycling are reduced.
Development of rate action is planned in the
MANAGEMENT INTERFACE
near future.
An important development parallel to water
Computer-operated Supervisory systems automation in the Bureau of
Controls Reclamation is the Irrigation Management
Services (IMS). IMS provided infonnation
Large water conveyance and distribution relative to the scheduling of irrigations on
systems may adapt to control from a centralized 96,000 acres of irrigated land in six states during
computer system. Alternatives include the use of the 1972 irrigation season. Irrigation scheduling
a combination of local automatic and provides benefits to the irrigator, the irrigation
29
district, to the Nation, and the Bureau of 3. Benefits to the Nation and the Bureau
Reclamation. These benefits by their categories of Reclamation are:
are as follows:
30
tJL~~~E[) ~~ST~LL~T~[]~S
P ersonnel at the Bureau of Reclamation's
E&R Center are currently developing
local automation equipment for three existing
CALIFORNIA
AQUEDucr-\
\
,
v
canal systems. These are the Coalinga Canal and tQ
Corning Canal, California, and the South Gila
\ ~o
\.
Canal, Arizona. Also under consideration are (:)t
\~
computer-assisted automation systems for use tV
(,0
on major projects such as the Garrison Diversion
Unit, North Dakota, and the Central Arizona ~o'
<r,"
Project, Arizona. A brief description of these ~~ / ~ Iu
~ ~
installations is included below. Additional ~«\
q ('I :NEV.
I'" c."P v<
development of automation is also being / ~ ~~ 0 """,
oc. ~-z. Q
performed through various regional offices. --;I)
~- -:z.-'
q
0: °1>1-
0«\ G\~
Some of these developments relate to control of Q
..J ~V
and the Enders, Medicine Creek, Norton, Red «\
Willow, and Trenton Darns, Nebraska and ~ -' KEY MAP
-:z.
Kansas. «\
COALINGA CANAL
The Coalinga Canal includes 12 miles of
x
concrete-lined canal and is supplied from the
San Luis Division of the California Aqueduct,
Figure 19. Water is introduced into the canal by
the 1,185-cfs Pleasant Valley Pumping Plant.
Flow downstream from the pumping plant is
controlled by three check structures. 0
0
"P
~
-:z.
The pumping plant is designed for essentially G\
unattended operation. Six large pumping units "P
0
will be operated manually to accommodate "P
-z.
major changes in demand and three small units "P
~
will cycle on and off automatically to suit minor
fluctuations in demand. The plant is also
designed for possible future supervisory control
(if this becomes a desirable feature).
31
completion of the project prevented utilization of single-stage downstream SOT/SRT floating
of these controls. During the delay ongoing control (without antihunt). However, before the
research into downstream control techniques controls were installed it was recognized that a
demonstrated that proportional plus reset similar downstream control system installation
control could better serve the water users by on the South Gila Canal in Arizona produced
reducing scheduling and storage requirements of unstable control. To avoid a similar problem on
the system. Mathematical model studies have the Corning Canal the equipment was installed
also shown that use of downstream control will for upstream control, but upstream control
eliminate the need for the regulating reservoir.
leased circuit.
32
proved to be inadequate to maintain canal-side
demands on the Corning Canal. Subsequently,
the control equipment was modified to
downstream control with antihunt and gate
movement limit switches, which allowed the
canal to operate with marginally satisfactory
stability .
33
STATE HIGHWAY 9~
.N
Q
GILA GRAVITY
« MAIN CANAL,
0
II:
-.JG
1[' .....
\J
«
II:
oq
PACIFIC ,
SOUTHERN
~
...~'-"A" CANA
L
-- ..c
-~
"s" CANAL
4000
.. . SCALE
0
I
OF FEET
4000
I
KEY MAP
should provide control that meets the desired designed for manual operation with provisions
criteria. Therefore, the South Gila Canal has for future automation. The conveyances will
been selected as the prototype canal for include several hundred miles of canal, 4
development of this mode of control. reservoirs, 4 major pumping plants, and 53 canal
control structures, Figure 22. The project will
Also as a separate research feature on the include the McClusky, Velva, New Rockford,
South Gila Canal, the Bureau of Reclamation Warwick, James River Feeder, and Oakes Canals
will develop and install an upstream floating and will utilize a portion of the James River for
controller with a set-operate-time!variable-rest- water conveyance. The widespread and complex
time (SOT!VRT) feature on the first section of nature of the project makes automation a very
the canal for operation of the canal headgate. desirable feature as a means of minimizing the
The controller will operate essentially as a number of operating personnel required. Initial
downstream controller by operating the gate in feasibility studies have shown that automation
response to the water level a short distance of the project can be best accomplished with a
downstream from the headgate. Programmable Master Supervisory Control
(PMSC) system. Computers would be used to
Communications channels are provided by analyze programed water schedules and perform
project-owned buried cable between structures. the computations required for total automatic
No alarm circuits are provided at the present control of all structures based on scheduled and
time. actual water demand. The system may include
one central master station with possible satellite
The controls for South Gila Canal are master stations at two or three other locations.
expected to be operational by 1974. Each master station would include displays of
system conditions using two or more
cathode-ray tubes. Also under consideration is
GARRISON DIVERSION UNIT the use of inexpensive versions of local
automatic feedback controllers to back up the
Automation of the Garrison Diversion Unit is PMSC system.
in the initial stages of development and portions
of the conveyances are already under The types of communication channels to be
construction. The initial structures are being used have not been determined but initial
34
K ,
,
0(.,
1('
rWARWICK
\
CANAL
SNAKE CREEK NEW ROCK-
PUMPING PLANT" FORD CANAL
O'VERS'ON CANAL)
,
,
.-JAMESTOWN RESERVOIR
CANADA
_JAMES RIVER
,
,
Z
Z
"'''R "''"VO'"
The distribution portion of the project is The Central Arizona Project will include
expected to be included in the automatic system approximately 275 miles of concrete-lined canal,
for the conveyances. This will make justification 10 pumping plants, and 3 storage reservoi.rs,
of a PMSC-type automatic system more Figure 23. The water conveyance features will
attractive than any other type of system based include the Granite Reef, Salt-Gila, Tucson, and
on existing technology. San Pedro Aqueducts. Extensive studies of
automation have not been made for this project
The Garrison Diversion Unit is one of the few to date; but mathematical modeling is being
projects where major consideration has been used to attempt to define the methods of
given to automation during design of the automatic control that will be appropriate.
conveyances. It is anticipated that this planning Preliminary investigations indicate a PMSC-type
will result in optimum efficiency of water system will be advantageous due to the size and
conveyance. complexity of the project.
35
oN
PARKER DAM
r A R z 0 N A UTAH COLO.
--TUCSON
AQUEDUCT
I
.. . Tucson I
KEY MAP
The type of control to be provided for the with supervisory control interfaces to the master
pumping plants has not yet been defined, but it station.
is anticipated that the plants will include
local-automatic computer control with The communication channels for the Central
supervisory control interfaces to the master Arizona Project have not been defined but it is
station. When this project reaches the design anticipated that either leased or project- WD
stage, the technology may allow local-automatic owned buried cable or radio will be used. S rl
computer control of each canal control structure
36
LCiST LCi~~~[)EA~T~Ci~~
GENERAL expensive compared to radio or microwave.
Also, rough terrain or rock trenching may
I nformation on the costs of implementing
water system automation is incomplete
increase the installation cost of buried cable. An
average installed cost for buried cable of $1 per
and the application of the limited data to foot is often used in estimates. While the cable
differing situations is difficult. The following itself may be purchased for $0.25 to $0.50 per
information is intended to serve as a general foot, the installation often pushes the total to
guide in investigations leading to the the $1 per foot figure.
implementation of automation. For most
studies, this general knowledge will not be Voice grade telephone circuit leases typically
sufficient and additional information will be range from $0.50 to $4 per mile per month. The
needed for a specific analysis. Economic distance is usually figured point to point from
analyses of this type cover a definite period the remote station through a telephone
during which there are investment costs and switching center to the master station. Thus, the
annual costs. While this report does not include mileage is charged from the shortest
the economic analysis of a project, it provides point-to-point distance from the sensor through
general information on costs of automation. the telephone system to the control center.
Also, telephone companies often add an
On Reclamation projects, the investment cost additional one-time construction charge on
of automation has generally ranged from less installations where special routing of dedicated
than 1 percent to 3 percent of the total project circuits are involved. Less than desirable service
cost. This investment can usually be broken into has been experienced with some leased
three components, namely, (1) communications com m unication channels because of
system, (2) automatic equipment, and (3) other administrative and technical problems.
items including installation, programing, and
debugging. On most widespread projects, Item 1, Investment costs for microwave or radio
the communications system, is the most systems are not directly proportional to
expensive component. distance. This cost is usually constant for
distances up to 50 or 60 miles. This distance is
sometimes restricted by topography. Repeater
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS stations are required for greater distances. Data
transmission by microwave or radio can be
Data and control signals can be transmitted adversely affected by atmospheric activity. As a
by either direct wire or radio/microwave. Direct minimum, a simple radio transmitter and
wire may l1e either buried or overhead cable. receiver have a purchase price of about $1,500.
Communication facilities can be either Installation and auxiliary equipment will
project-owned or leased from the telephone increase this figure considerably.
company. Each of these methods has advantages
and disadvantages. Project-owned buried cable Annual operation, maintenance, and
has proven to be quite reliable, except as it is replacement (OM&R) costs are important in
affected by cuts from excavating equipment, communication system cost considerations.
burrowing animals, or vandalism. For long OM&R costs are included in the lease charge for
distances, however, buried cable can be very telephone circuits. However, some additional
37
O&M costs are usually required for for as little as $1,000 per gate. Most of the
administration by the operating entity. When automatic control installations on Reclamation
facilities are owned rather than leased, OM&R projects are of this type. The basic equipment
costs should include replacement costs based on for these simple installations usually consists of
the expected life of the installation. A buried a float or probe to sense water surface elevations
cable life of 35 years is used in Reclamation and additional components to energize the gate
studies. Microwave and radio can have motor. In contrast to these simple installations,
considerably higher OM&R costs than buried the purchase price of computers for a
cable. Replacement costs are based on a typical computer-controlled system can range from a
life of 15 years for microwave and radio few thousand dollars to several million dollars.
equipment in Reclamation usage. Also, this Recent technological developments and
equipment requires periodic preventive competition have resulted in drastic reduction of
maintenance to insure dependable operation. An computer costs. This is particularly true for
important consideration in determining OM&R minicomputers which have many automatic
costs is the availability of qualified electronic control applications.
technicians at remote locations.
38
~~~E~()~X ~
DEFINITIONS
Many of the definitions used in the automation industry have been developed for a specific
segment of the industry and are too restricted for application to water-conveyance systems.
Others have been expanded to become so broad that they offer no real definition. The following
definitions, although similar to those encountered in studying automation terms, are suggested as
being better directed towards basic principles:
Algorithm. A rule of procedure for solving controlled variable becomes the controlling
a mathematical problem. variable.
39
d at a; performing control functions to interpretation.
maintain controlled variables at desired
values; and providing notification of abnormal Upstream Control. Feedback control
conditions. utilizing a controlled variable upstream from
the controlling element as the controlled
Telemetering. Sensing, encoding, and variable.
transmitting data to a distant point for
40
~FJFJE~[)~X ~~
Automatic equipment has been installed on spillway gates at storage reservoirs. However,
recent information is not readily available on these applications. Also, application of this type of
equipment is usually intended to function only in emergency flood control situations and as such
is different from most of the control equipment included in this report.
1. Carriage facilities-Canals.
2. Carriage facilities-Pipelines.
3. Diversion dams.
41
1. Carriage Facilities - Canals
Boise Project
Black Canyon Canal. 29 1,300 Upstream control of was'tewaygate -
(47) (37) Floating mode (SOT /SRT)
Friant-Kern Canal 151.2 4,000 36 15.5 1-1/4:1 Upstream control of check gates,
(243) (113) (11) (5) Checks 1-9 - Floating mode
Downstream control of check gates,
Checks 10-13 - Floating mode
Madera Canal. 35.9 1,000 20 9.2 1-1/2:1 Downstream control of turnout M.P.32.2 -
(58) (28) (6) (3) Floating mode (SOT/SRT)
Pleasant Valley Canal 6.3 1,100 12 11.3 1-1/2:1 Present operation upstream control of canal
(10) (31) (4) (3) checks - Floating mode
Planned operation downstream control of canal
checks - Proportional plus reset mode
1. Carriage Facilities - Canals - Continued
San Luis Canal. 101.3 13,100 110 32.8 2:1 Remote control (manual and computer assisted)
(163) (371) (34) (10) operated by the California Department of
Water Resources
Eltopia Branch Canal. 25.3 555 20 6.6 1-1/2:1 Upstream control of check gates - Floating
(41) (16) (6) (2) mode (SOT/SRT)
Royal Branch Canal. 8.5 900 37 7.2 1-1/2:1 Upstream control of check gates - Floating
(14) (25) (11) (2) mode (SOT/SRT)
Wahluke Branch Canal. 40.5 1,520 12 10.4 1-1/2:1 Upstream control of check gates - Floating
(65) (43) (4) (3) mode (SOT/SRT)
Wes t Canal. 82.2 5,100 38 16.4 1-1/2:1 Upstream control of 29 check gates - Floating
(132) (144) (12) (5) mode (SOT/SRT)
1. Carriage Facilities - Canals -
Continued
Deschutes Project
North Unit Main Canal. 65 1,000 60 5.6 1-1/2:1 Upstream control of check gates and upatream
(105) (28) (18) (2) and downstream control of headworks gatea -
Floating mode (SOT/SRT)
Gila Project
South Gila Valley Canal 7.7 110 5 4.2 1-1/2:1 Present operation upstream control check
(12) (3) (2) (1) gates - Floating mode (SOT/SRT)
Planned operation downstream control check
gates - Proportional plua reaet mode
~~Klamath
Project
tlJ"Canal. 23.4 800 26 9.5 1-1/2:1 Remote manual control of headworks gates
(38) (23) (8) (3) Upstream control of check gates - Floating
mode (SOT/SRT)
Minidoka Project
Cross Cut Canal 6.6 591 26 5.7 1-1/2:1 Upstream control of check gates - Floating
(11) (17) (8) (2) mode (SOT/SRT)
Milner-Gooding Canal. 70 2,700 50 12.6 1-1/4:1 Upstream control of check gates - Floating
(113) (76) (15) (4) mode (SOT/SRT)
1. Carriage Facilities - Canals - Continued
~SouthSide Canal. 13 1,325 57 7.5 1-1/4:1 Upstream control of check gates - Floating
(21) (38) (17) (2) mode (SOT /SRT)
Unit "A" Main Canal 4.4 240 14 4.5 2:1 Upstream control of check gstes -
Floating
(7) (7) (4) (1) mode (SOT/SRT)
Solano Project
Putah South Canal 32.3 956 12 10.3 1-1/2:1 "Q" controller at canal headworks -
(52) (27) (4) (3) Proportional mode
2. Carriage Facilities - Pipelines
Initial
Length capacity Diameter
Cubic feet
Project and feature Miles per second Type Inches Automation
(kilometers) (cubic meters (centimeters)
per second)
A. CONSTRUCTED
Arbuckle Project
Wynnewood Aqueduct (Includes Davis
Branch and~inery Branch). . . 17.9 9.6 Precast concrete 24--12 Downstream control of pump units -
(29) (--) (61--30) ON-OFF mode
Norman Project
Norman Pipeline. . . . . . . . . 8.4 21.8 Precast concrete 33 Downstream control of pump units -
(14) (1) (84) ON-OFF mode
Foss Aqueduct. . . . . . . . . . 50.8 19.7 Precast concrete 42--6 Downstream control of pump units -
(82) (1) (107--15) ON-OFF mode
2. Carriage Facilities - Pipelines - Continued
Initial
Length capacity Diameter
Cubic feet
Project and feature Miles per second Type Inches Automation
(kilometers) (cubic meters (centimeters)
per second)
HaDlDond Project
H8DlDondDiversion Dam, New Mexico, San Juan River
Rockfill' overflow. embankment wings. . . . . . . . . 90 12 1,370 25 Upstream control of sluiceway
(3) (4) (418) (19) gate - Floating mode (SOT/SRT)
~ Klamath Project
Lost River Diversion Dam. Oregon. Lost River
0= Concrete multiple-arch weir. embankment wings. . . . . . . 3,000 26 675 20 Remote manual control of diversion
(85) (8) (206) (15) gates - See O&M Release 1132
Plant2C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pumping 6 85 103 1,025 Downstream control of pump units -
(2) (31) (1,039) ON-OFF mode
4. Major Pumping Plants - 1,000 Total Horsepower or Greater - Continued
Corning Canal Pumping Plant. . . . . . . . . . 6 477 59--71 4,050 Downstream control of pump units -
(14) (18--22) (4,107) ON-OFF mode
East Unit
Booster Pumping Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 76 652 7,500 Downstream control of pump units -
(2) (199) (7,605) ON-OFF mode
~LateralDistribution System
~"A" Pumping Plant. 5 51 419 2,500 Downstream control of pump units -
(1) (128) (2,535) ON-OFF mode
Ventura Avenue Pumping Plant No. 1. 4 50 429 3,200 Downstream control of pump units -
(1) (131) (3,245) ON-OFF mode
Ventura Avenue Pumping Plant No. 2. 3 48 220 1,800 Downstream control of pump units -
(1) (67) (1,825) ON-OFF mode
5. Storage Reservoirs - Outlet Works
Capacity
Project Active Total Surface area
Name of Division (Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program) Thousand Thousand Hundred
Name of Unit (Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program) Purpose acre-feet acre-feet acres Automation
Name of Reservoir, State, Stream (million (million (hundred
cubic meters) cubic meters) hectares)
B = gate width
The flow into a controlled section may be expressed in terms of an elementary wave traveling
downstream in a trapezoidal channel.
v = channelvelocity
C = wave celerity (v' gAIT) where A equals the cross-
sectional area of the total flow
The ratio of ~Qout/~Qin must be unity for steady flow expressed as:
~Qout ~G LB * Cd~
)=
I
~Qin ~Y . T(V+C)
~
The ratio of ~G/~ Y, by definition, is the GAIN for the controller and is the first main control
parameter:
T(V+C)
GAIN = ~G
l:1Y = B * Cd v' 2g.6.H
55
FEEDBACK PATH
ANALOG
MOTOR CONTROLLER FILTER
CONTROL A F
Q~
O~Q(rnO)() . STATIC WATER
Q=O
LEVEL
P
') II II
- TARGET
~OFFSET"
WATER LEVEL
SENSOR LOCATION~
y y DOWNSTREAM
0 GATE
~
The GAIN equation shows that the controller is dependent upon the characteristics of the
upstream channel and the flow (submerged or free-flow) through the controlling check gate.
After the GAIN is computed, the value of f:y,
Y can be found by arbitrarily selecting a value for f:y,G
(usually 0.10 foot).
Offset(max) = G(max)/GAIN
where G(max) is the maximum gate opening required to discharge the maximum desired flow.
56
The "offset(max)" would have to be a value less than the difference in elevation between the
maximum safe operating level or spill crest and the normal water surface operating level. An
attempt to use an offset less than determined above would require the GAIN of the controller to
be larger. In turn the ratio of boQout/boQin would be larger than unity and could cause excessive
opening or closing of the gate (overshoot) and instability of control would result in unsteady
flow.
The above analysis can be used to determine approximate values of the control parameters,
GAIN and "offse1(max)-" The approximate method provides a first approximation of the control
parameters for a particular installation. Greater accuracy can be achieved through mathematical
modeling before selecting final values.
The "time lag" of the system is the third control parameter. The need to minimize the
possibility of unsteady flow requires that the gate changes be made out of synchronization with
the waves caused by the gate movement. Mechanical, fluid, or electrical delay units between a
level sensor and the control may be necessary to prevent an amplification of the wave.
Wave travel time between the sensor and controlled structure is computed from the
relationship C = ygA/T. Selection of the response time of the system may be made from
methods proposed by the University of California, Berkeley!!. For steady flow and stable
operation of the canal, gate movements must not coincide with the wave travel period.
57
AEfEAE~LES
1. Amorocho, J. and Strelkoff, T. S.,Hydraulic 8. Langley, Maurice N., Automation of
Transients in the California Aqueduct, Report Irrigation, Paper, American Society of Civil
No.2, California Department of Water Engineers' National Irrigation and Drainage
Resources, Davis, California, June 1965 Specialty Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, pp
1-21, November 1968
2. Bureau of Reclamation Federal Reclamation
Projects-Water and Land Resource 9. Mann, T. E., Automation for Small Irrigation
Atcomplishments, 1971 Projects, Prepr. 1289, ASCE Na.tional Water
Resources Engineering Meeting, Phoenix,
3. Buyalski, Clark P. and Fults, Dan, Corning Arizona, January 1971
Canal Automatic Downstream Control Field
S ca Ie Application of' the Feedback 10. Schuster, J. C., and Serfozo, E. A., Study of
Method-Prototype Test Program Procedure, Hydraulic Filter Level Offset (HyFLO)
Bureau of Reclamation, Regional Office, Equipment for Automatic Downstream Control
Sacramento, California, February 1969 of Canals, Bureau of Reclamation Technical
Report REC-ERC-72-3, January 1972
4. Buyalski, Clark P., Basic Equipment in
Automatic Delivery System, Paper Symposium, 11. Shand, Michael J., Final Report Automatic
Nat. Irrig., Irrigation Today and Tomorrow, Downstream Control Systems for Irrigation
Lincoln, Nebraska, November 1970 Canals, Report HEL-8-4, University of California
Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory, Berkeley,
5. Golze, A. R., Aqueduct Control System California, August 1971
Saves $100 Million, Power Engineering, Volume
73, No. 10, pp 30-35, October 1969 12. Shand, Michael J., Final Report-The
Hydraulic Filter Level Offset Method for the
6. Gray, H. R. and Humes, J. D., ExperieTlce in Feedback Control of Canal Checks, University
Operation of Automatic Water Level Control of California Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory,
Structures in Large Irrigation Canals, Report No. Berkeley, California, June 1968
8, pp 28.2.97-28.2.109, ICID Symposium,
October 1970 13. Streeter, V. L., and Wylie, E. B., Hydraulic
Transients, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1967
7. Harder, J. A., Shand, M. J., and Buyalski, C.
P., Automatic Downstream Control of Canal 14. Sullivan, Edwin F. and Buyalski, Clark P.,
Check Gates by the Hydraulic Filter Level Operation of Central Valley Project Canals,
Offset (HyFLO) Method, Paper for Symposium, Paper, ASCE National Irrigation and Drainage
International Committee, Irrigation and Specialty Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, pp
Drainage, October 1970 97-126, November 1968
58