II.

GAS TRUBINE COMPONENTS

A. COMPRESSOR

An axial flow compressor has two main elements, a rotor and a stator. The rotor consists of rows
of blades fixed on a rotating spindle. The angle and airfoil contour of the blades forces air rearward in
the same manner as a propeller. The stator vanes, on the other hand, are arranged in fixed rows
between the rows of rotor blades and act as diffusers at each stage, decreasing air velocity and
raising pressure. Each consecutive row of rotor blades and stator vanes constitutes a pressure stage.
The number of stages is determined by the amount of air and total pressure rise required.

The task of an axial compressor is to raise air pressure rather than air velocity. Therefore, each
compressor stage raises the pressure of the incoming air while the air's velocity is alternately
increased then decreased as airflow proceeds through the compressor. The rotor blades slightly
accelerate the airflow, then the stator vanes diffuse the air, slowing it and increasing the pressure.
The overall result is increased air pressure and relatively constant air velocity from compressor inlet
to outlet.

Compressor Rotor Blades

The rotor blades used in an axial flow compressor have an airfoil cross-section with a varying
angle of incidence, or twist. This twist compensates for the blade velocity variation caused by its
radius. In other words, the further from the axis of rotation a blade section is, the faster it travels.
The base, or root of a rotor blade often fits loosely into the rotor disk. Rotor blade roots are designed
with a number of different shapes such as a bulb, fir tree, or dovetail. To prevent a blade from
backing out of its slot, most methods of blade attachment use a pin and a lock tab or locker to secure
the coupling.
Compressor Stator Vanes

Stator vanes are the stationary blades located between each row of rotating blades in an axial
flow compressor. the stator vanes act as diffusers for the air coming off the rotor, decreasing its
velocity and raising its pressure. In addition, the stators help prevent swirling and direct the flow of
air coming off each stage to the next stage at the appropriate angle. Like rotor blades, stator vanes
have an airfoil shape. In addition, the angle of attack of stator vanes can be fixed or variable. Stator
vanes are normally constructed out of steel or nickel because those metals have high fatigue
strength.

Figure 2: GE J79 Rotor and Stator Airfoils

Compressor Air Bleeds

In addition to supplying air for combustion, the compressor supplies high pressure, high tempera-
ture air for various secondary functions such as cabin pressurization, heating, and cooling. Also,
compressor air is used for de-icing, anti-icing, and for pneumatic engine starting. This air is referred
to as bleed air, or customer bleed air and is tapped from the compressor through bleed ports at
various stages. A bleed port is a small opening adjacent to the compressor stage selected for bleed
air supply. The choice of which compressor stage to bleed air from depends on the air pressure or
temperature required for a particular function.
 B. Combustion Chamber

After the air is compressed by the compressor and by the diffuser, it enters into the
combustion chamber.

Approximately 20 per cent of the air mass flow entering the combustion chamber is taken in
by the snout or entry section. Through the wall of the flame tube body are a selected number of
secondary holes through which a further 20 per cent of the main flow of air passes into the primary
zone. The air from the swirl vanes and that from the secondary air holes interacts and creates a
region of low velocity recirculation or vortex similar to a smoke ring, which has the effect of
stabilizing and guiding the flame.
 The air not used for combustion, which amounts to about 60 per cent of the total airflow, is
therefore introduced progressively into the flame tube.

Approximately a third of this is used to lower the gas temperature in the dilution zone before it
enters the turbine and the remainder is used for cooling the walls of the flame tube. This is achieved
by a film of cooling air flowing along the inside surface of the flame tube wall, insulating it from the
hot combustion gases.

There are two types of airflow in the combustion chamber: primary airflow and secondary
airflow. Primary airflow is the air that is actually used for combustion. Secondary airflow is air that is
used cool the combustion chamber, as well as, the combustion gases entering the turbine section.

Parts of a Combustion Chamber

C. TURBINE

TURBINE BLADE ASSEMBLY

In one aspect, a wind turbine blade assembly includes a central shaft defining an axis of
rotation and a plurality of helically twisted blades supported on the central shaft. The helically twisted
blades have an inner edge and an outer edge, and at least a portion of the helically twisted blades is
radially spaced apart from the central shaft. In another aspect, a wind turbine apparatus employing
the wind turbine blade assembly is provided.
FIG. 1 is a rear perspective view of a wind turbine device in accordance with a first exemplary
embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a generally side view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a generally side view of a wind turbine blade assembly in accordance with a second
exemplary embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 4 is a perspective view illustrating the blades of the FIG. 3 embodiment disassembled from the
blade assembly.

FIGS. 5A-5D are plan views of exemplary is flat blanks which may be used to form the helical
blades herein.

FIG. 6 is a side view of a wind turbine device in accordance with a third exemplary embodiment of
the invention.

FIG. 7 is a front view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6.

FIG. 8 is a rear view of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 6.

FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a turbine device in accordance with a fourth exemplary embodiment
of the disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a side view of a wind turbine device in accordance with a fifth exemplary embodiment.

FIG. 11 is an enlarged view of the rotational dampening system appearing in FIG. 10.

FIG. 12A is a side view of a wind turbine blade assembly according to a sixth exemplary
embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12B is a perspective view of the embodiment appearing in FIG. 12A.

FIG. 12C shows the blade assembly of FIGS. 12A and 12B in a disassembled state.
FIG. 13 illustrates beveled discs which may be employed to keep the wind turbine aligned with a
prevailing or preferred wind direction.

FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplary blade assembly embodiment wherein the outer edge of each of the
blades has a lip.

TYPES OF TURBINE BLADES

Turbine blades are generally classified as impulse, reaction, or a combination impulse-reaction

type. In a turbine that uses impulse blades, the blades merely change the direction of airflow coming
from the turbine nozzle and cause relatively no change in gas pressure or velocity. The turbine wheel
simply absorbs the force required to change the direction of airflow and converts it to rotary motion.
[Figure 3-49]

Reaction turbine blades, on the other hand, produce a turning force based on an aerodynamic
action. To do this, the turbine blades form a series of converging ducts that increase gas velocity and
reduce pressure. The result is similar to what happens to an airfoil in that the reduced pressure
produces a lifting force.

Figure 3-49. In an impulse turbine system, the

turbine nozzle vanes form a series of
converging ducts that increase the velocity of
the exhaust gases. The impulse turbine
blades then extract energy from the gases as
the blades redirect the flow of high velocity
gases.

Figure 3-50. The nozzle guide vanes in a reaction

turbine direct the exhaust gas flow to strike the
turbine blades at a positive angle of attack. The
convergent shape between the turbine blades
then increases gas velocity and decreases its
pressure to create a component of lift that rotates
the turbine wheel.

However, in a turbine, the force is exerted in the direction of rotation. [Figure 3-50]

To more evenly distribute the workload along the length of the blade, most modern turbine
engines incorporate impulse-reaction turbine blades. With this type of blade, the blade base is
impulse shaped while the blade tip is reaction shaped. This design creates a uniform velocity and
pressure drop across the entire blade length. [Figure 3-51]
 Figure 3-51. To help account for the Figure 3-52. Shrouded blades form a band
different rotational speeds along the length around the turbine wheel perimeter which helps
of a turbine blade, most turbine engines use
impulse-reaction type turbine blades. This reduce blade vibration and increase efficiency.
type of blade is constructed with an impulse
section at its base and a reaction section at its
tip.

Turbine blades can be open or shrouded at their ends. Open ended blades are used on high
speed turbines, while shrouded blades are commonly used on turbines having slower rotational
speeds. With shrouded blades, a shroud is attached to the tip of each blade. Once installed, the
shrouds of the blades contact each other, thereby providing support. This added support reduces
vibration substantially. The shrouds also prevent air from escaping over the blade tips, making the
turbine more efficient. However, because of the added weight, shrouded turbine blades are more
susceptible to blade growth. [Figure 3-52]

To further improve the airflow characteristics around shrouded turbine blades, a knife-edge
seal is machined around the outside of the shroud that reduces air losses at the blade tip. The knife-
edge seal fits with a close tolerance into a shrouded ring mounted in the outer turbine case.

In addition to drilling holes in a turbine vane or blade, some nozzle vanes are constructed
of a porous, high-temperature material. In this case, bleed air is ducted into the vanes and exits
through the porous material. This type of cooling is known as transpiration cooling and is only
used on stationary nozzle vanes.

Modern engine designs incorporate many combinations of air cooling methods that use low and
high pressure air for both internal and surface cooling of turbine vanes and blades. However, to
provide additional cooling, the turbine vane shrouds may also be perforated with cooling holes.
CONNECTION OF TURBINE TO COMPRESSOR

D. ENGINE CYCLE EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is the (often measurable) ability to avoid wasting materials, energy, efforts, money,
and time in doing something or in producing a desired result. In a more general sense, it is the ability
to do things well, successfully, and without waste. In more mathematical or scientific terms, it is a
measure of the extent to which input is well used for an intended task or function (output). It often
specifically comprises the capability of a specific application of effort to produce a specific outcome
with a minimum amount or quantity of waste, expense, or unnecessary effort. Efficiency refers to
very different inputs and outputs in different fields and industries.

Efficiency is very often confused with effectiveness. In general, efficiency is a measurable

concept, quantitatively determined by the ratio of useful output to total input. Effectiveness is the
simpler concept of being able to achieve a desired result, which can be expressed quantitatively but
does not usually require more complicated mathematics than addition. Efficiency can often be
expressed as a percentage of the result that could ideally be expected, for example if no energy were
lost due to friction or other causes, in which case 100% of fuel or other input would be used to
produce the desired result. In some cases efficiency can be indirectly quantified with a non-
percentage value, e.g. specific impulse.

APPLYING EFFICIENCY TO THE ENGINE SYSTEM:

Cycle Efficiency, often-abbreviated CE, is a ratio that measures the effectiveness and
productivity of the production process by comparing the value added time with the total production
time. In other words, it’s a calculation that cost accountants use to measure how efficiently products
are being produced.

What Does Cycle Efficiency Mean?

The cycle efficiency formula is calculated by dividing the value added time by the total cycle
time. The value added time is the actual amount of time spent working on the unit. The cycle time is
the total time it takes to produce the unit. This calculation shows the value added time as a
percentage of the overall time spent producing a product. This way management can analyze how
much actual process work is needed and how much time is wasted in the process.
 Management can use this formula for a production cycle as a whole or a single process in the
production cycle.

Heat engines transform thermal energy, or heat, into mechanical energy, or work. They
cannot do this task perfectly, so some of the input heat energy is not converted into work, but is
dissipated as waste heat into the environment.

The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed
into work.

Engine efficiency of thermal engines is the relationship between the total energy contained in
the fuel, and the amount of energy used to perform useful work. There are two classifications of
thermal engines.

Internal combustion (gasoline, diesel and gas turbine-Brayton cycle engines) and
External combustion engines (steam piston, steam turbine, and the Stirling cycle engine).

Each of these engines has thermal efficiency characteristics that are unique to it. Engine efficiency,
transmission design, and tire design all contribute to a vehicle's fuel efficiency.

The efficiency of internal combustion engines depends on several factors, the most important
of which is the expansion ratio. For any heat engine the work which can be extracted from it is
proportional to the difference between the starting pressure and the ending pressure during the
expansion phase. Hence, increasing the starting pressure is an effective way to increase the work
extracted (decreasing the ending pressure, as is done with steam turbines by exhausting into a
vacuum, is likewise effective).

Most gasoline (petrol) and diesel engines have an expansion ratio equal to the compression
ratio (the compression ratio calculated purely from the geometry of the mechanical parts) of 10:1
(premium fuel) or 9:1 (regular fuel), with some engines reaching a ratio of 12:1 or more. The greater
the expansion ratio the more efficient is the engine, in principle, and higher compression / expansion
-ratio conventional engines in principle need gasoline with higher octane value, though this simplistic
analysis is complicated by the difference between actual and geometric compression ratios. High
octane value inhibits the fuel's tendency to burn nearly instantaneously (known
as detonation or knock) at high compression/high heat conditions. However, in engines that utilize
compression rather than spark ignition, by means of very high compression ratios (14-25:1), such as
the diesel engine or Bourke engine, high octane fuel is not necessary. In fact, lower-octane fuels,
typically rated by cetane number, are preferable in these applications because they are more easily
ignited under compression.

The GE J79

The J79 is a single-spool turbojet with a seventeen-stage compressor with, what was at the
time, a novel arrangement of variable stator blades which allow the engine to develop pressure
similar to a twin-spool engine at a much lower weight.

The J79 is a single-spool turbojet with a seventeen-stage compressor with, what was at the
time, a novel arrangement of variable statorblades which allow the engine to develop pressure similar
to a twin-spool engine at a much lower weight.
 For the first time, an advanced aircraft (F-104) and a powerplant (J-79) were developed and
produced simultaneously.

The engine's thrust-to-weight ratio - 3500 pounds weight and 15,000 plus pounds thrust - is
unprecedented.

Developed in co-operation with the U.S. Air Force under the government's weapon system
management concept, the J-79 was the first production engine capable of powering aircraft twice the
speed of sound.

It had more than 12,000 hours of factory, simulated altitude and flight testing time before
reaching the production stage. Variable-pitch stator blades adjust automatically to (1) reduce stall
problems at low engine speeds, (2) give maximum compressor efficiency under all flight conditions
and (3) to match engine and airframe induction system for good stall margin at high airplane speeds.

The Compressor
The axial flow compressor has 17 stages and a single rotor, with the first six stator stages and
inlet guide vanes variable. Rotors are made of thin webbed discs and spacer rings bolted together.
Blades are attached to the rim sections by conventional dovetails. (Top and bottom compressor
casing sections can be removed for inspection and maintenance.)

The Combustion Chamber

The annular-design combustion chamber has a split casing that can be disassembled quickly
and contains 10 combustion chambers.

Anti-Icing
Compressor discharge air guards against inlet guide vanes and struts icing.

The Turbine
Wheels of the three-stage turbine are coupled to the compressor rotor by a conical shaft for
low weight and high strength. The light weight casing is made of fabricated sheet metal. Top and
bottom sections are removable.

Controls
The engine's separate fuel systems - main and afterburner - both are flow controlling units,
hydro-mechanically operated. An integral part of the basic engine, controls have electrical trim, with
both hydraulic and electric power. Overall, the system serves main fuel, afterburner fuel, nozzle area
and variable stator controls (integrated with main fuel controls).
Afterburner features are fully modulated, variable area, with a converging diverging exhaust nozzle
that works automatically.
III. TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER

Turbocharger

A turbocharger, or turbo, is a gas compressor. It is used to force air into an internal

combustion engine. A turbocharger is a form of supercharger. It increases the amount of air entering
the engine to create more power. A turbocharger has the compressor powered by a turbine. The
turbine is driven by the exhaust gas from the engine. It does not use a direct mechanical drive. This
helps to improve the performance of the turbocharger.

Reason why Turbochargers and superchargers are important to be implemented into an

engine is that it compresses the air meaning more air would be able to go in the system thus
increasing the power generated

Turbocharger and Supercharger’s main difference is its way to power itself, in a supercharger
a belt is connected to the engine itself and gets its power the same an alternator or water pump
does, while a Turbocharger gets power from exhaust gas from the turbine itself, as the turbine spins
it is connected to the compressor via shaft thus powering the turbocharger.

Supercharger

A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an
internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen, letting it burn
more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power.
Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, or chain
connected to the engine's crankshaft.

Superchargers do not suffer lag -- a term used to describe how much time passes between the
driver depressing the gas pedal and the engine's response. Turbochargers suffer from lag because it
takes a few moments before the exhaust gases reach a velocity that is sufficient to drive the
impeller/turbine. Superchargers have no lag time because they are driven directly by the crankshaft.
Certain superchargers are more efficient at lower RPM, while others are more efficient at higher RPM.
Roots and twin-screw superchargers, for example, provide more power at lower RPM. Centrifugal
superchargers, which become more efficient as the impeller spins faster, provide more power at
higher RPM

APPLICATION: Turbocharger

For our engine’s model GE J79 Turbojet Engine it uses a 17-stage compressor considered an
Axial flow compressor. It uses a Turbocharger that helps it achieve higher compression ratio as it
already does compare to a centrifugal compressor although using the axial compressor assembly
makes the engine more susceptible to FOD the advantages it gives overshadows its disadvantages
which the primary advantage being it able to produce higher power per second compared to its
centrifugal counterpart with the same parameters since the turbocharger would increase the density
of the air entering keeping in mind that the power of an engine corelates to how much fuel it can
burn per second, of course fitting a turbocharger has its disadvantages to the engine as well
especially since its being used in aviation, fitting the turbocharger would mean an increase in weight
therefore an increase in fuel consumption per distance also installing a Turbocharger requires
extensive modification to the exhaust system, but at the same time fitting a turbocharger into a
 N stage compressor would basically mean just adding another stage to its configuration so
whether it is advantageous or not depends on the aircraft it would be fitted to and its application and
use.

Application (Supercharger)

As stated above the main difference between the Supercharger and Turbocharger is how it is
powered for our engine the GE J79 model it is possible to implement the Supercharger and is
probably more efficient to use at lower speeds and RPM depending on the type of Supercharger
specifically the TwinSpool supercharger which gives a constant RPM which corelates to constant
efficiency but in application of this charger in an engine for an aircraft its disadvantage is too great
considering that the power to start the charger would come from the engine itself contrary to the
turbocharger where it gets powered by the byproduct of the engine so from that alone you already
lose power from the engine plus the added weight that a supercharger would induce to the engine is
greater due to the need of blower since a supercharger requires a separate blower to cooldown the
compressed air where as the turbocharger sends the compressed air out into a intercooler also
another disadvantage of using a supercharger is that in some designs the supercharger is installed at
the side of the engine and the air is redirected to the intake compared to a turbocharger that uses
the shaft as a medium, so in summary Supercharger is an option to use if the applications and use of
the engine is practical to overlook the disadvantages it brings compared to a Turbocharger it is also
better to use in lower speeds due to constant rpm and efficiency it gives,
IV. FUEL FLOW

INTRODUCTION

Fuel system deliver a uniform flow of clean fuel under constant pressure to the engine under
all operating conditions. It allows the crew to pump, manage and deliver aviation jet fuel to the
propulsion system and auxiliary power unit. Fuel system differs according to the engine and
performance of the aircraft. The typical aircraft fuel system consists of fuel tanks, float-operated
transfer valves, selector and shutoff valves, and fuel tank boost pumps. Jet A-1 is the commonly used
fuel for turbojet engine.

It must be possible to increase or decrease the power at will to obtain the thrust required for
any operation condition. In turbojet engine, this control is provided by the varying the flow of fuel to
the combustion chambers. Fuel quantity supplied must be adjusted automatically to correct for
changes in ambient temperature or pressure. If the quantity of the fuel exceeds in relation to mass
airflow through the engine, the limiting temperature can be exceeded, thus, it will produce
compressor stall and a condition referred to as a rich blowout. Another scenario that can happen if
fuel quantity is not monitored is there could be a flame out.
Fuel System Operation

The fuel pump receives fuel from the airplane fuel system. The low pressure boost stage of
the pump pressurizes the fuel and sends it to the fuel/oil cooler. The fuel flows from the FOC,
through the fuel pump filter element, and then to the high pressure and sends it the fuel metering
unit. It also supplies servo fuel to the servo heater and engine components. The fuel for combustion
goes through the fuel flow transmitter to the distribution valve. When the time that the metered fuel
reaches the valve, it supplies the fuel supply manifolds. Then the fuel injectors get the metered fuel
from the fuel supply manifold and spray the fuel into the engine for combustion. The fuel pump
housing contains a disposable fuel filter element. The fuel filter differential pressure switch supplies
signal to the EEC that indicates an almost clogged filter condition. Unfiltered fuel can bypass the filter
element if the element becomes clogged.

Important Parts Of A Fuel System In A Turbojet Engine

The fuel pump receives fuel from the airplane fuel system. The low pressure boost stage of
the pump pressurizes the fuel and sends it to the fuel/oil cooler (FOC). The fuel flows from the FOC,
through the fuel pump filter element, and then to the high pressure main stage of the pump. The
high pressure main stage increases the fuel pressure and sends it to the fuel metering unit (FMU). It
also supplies servo fuel to the servo fuel heater and engine components. Fuel for combustion
(metered fuel) goes through the fuel flow transmitter to the distribution valve. The fuel distribution
valve supplies metered fuel to the fuel supply manifolds. The fuel injectors get the metered fuel from
the fuel supply manifolds and spray the fuel into the engine for combustion.

The fuel pump housing contains a disposable fuel filter element. The fuel filter differential
pressure switch supplies a signal to the EEC that indicates an almost clogged filter condition.
Unfiltered fuel can then bypass the filter element if the element becomes clogged.

Fuel Distribution Valve Fuel Manifold

Fuel Flow Transmitter

Fuel Pump Housing
 V. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

A. LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEM

Both wet- and dry-sump lubrication systems are used in gas turbine engines. Wet-sump
engines store the lubricating oil in the engine proper, while dry-sump engines utilize an external tank
mounted on the engine or somewhere in the aircraft structure near the engine, similar to
reciprocating piston engines mentioned earlier.

Turbine engine’s oil systems can also be classified as a pressure relief system that maintains a
somewhat constant pressure: the full flow type of system, in which the pressure varies with engine
speed, and the total loss system, used in engines that are for short duration operation (target
drones, missiles, etc.). The most widely used system is the pressure relief system with the full flow
used mostly on large fantype engines. One of the main functions of the oil system in turbine engines
is cooling the bearings by carrying the heat away from the bearing by circulating oil around the
bearing.

The exhaust turbine bearing is the most critical lubricating point in a gas turbine engine
because of the high temperature normally present. In some engines, air cooling is used in addition to
oil cooling the bearing, which supports the turbine. Air cooling, referred to as secondary air flow, is
cooling air provide by bleed air from the early stages of the compressor. This internal air flow has
many uses on the inside of the engine. It is used to cool turbine disk, vanes, and blades. Also, some
turbine wheels may have bleed air flowing over the turbine disk, which reduces heat radiation to the
bearing surface. Bearing cavities sometimes use compressor air to aid in cooling the turbine bearing.
This bleed air, as it is called, is usually bled off a compressor stage at a point where air has enough
pressure but has not yet become too warm (as the air is compressed, it becomes heated).

The use of cooling air substantially reduces the quantity of oil necessary to provide adequate
cooling of the bearings. Since cooling is a major function of the oil in turbine engines, the lubricating
oil for bearing cooling normally requires an oil cooler. When an oil cooler is required, usually a
greater quantity of oil is necessary to provide for circulation between the cooler and engine. To
ensure proper temperature, oil is routed through either air-cooled and/or fuel-cooled oil coolers. This
system is used to also heat (regulate) the fuel to prevent ice in the fuel.

B. IGNITION SYSTEM

Since turbine ignition systems are

operated mostly for a brief period during
the engine-starting cycle, they are, as a
rule, more trouble-free than the typical
reciprocating engine ignition system. The
turbine engine ignition system does not
need to be timed to spark during an exact
point in the operational cycle. It is used to
ignite the fuel in the combustor and then it
is switched off. Other modes of turbine
ignition system operation, such as
continuous ignition that is used at a lower
voltage and energy level, are used for
certain flight conditions.

Most gas turbine engines are equipped with a high-energy, capacitor-type ignition system and
are air cooled by fan airflow. Fan air is ducted to the exciter box, and then flows around the igniter
lead and surrounds the igniter before flowing back into the nacelle area. Cooling is important when
continuous ignition is used for some extended period of time. Gas turbine engines may be equipped
with an electronic-type ignition system, which is a variation of the simpler capacitor type system.

The typical turbine engine is equipped with a capacitor-type, or capacitor discharge, ignition
system consisting of two identical independent ignition units operating from a common low-voltage
(DC) electrical power source: the aircraft battery, 115AC, or its permanent magnet generator. The
generator is turned directly by the engine through the accessory gear box and produces power any
time the engine is turning. The fuel in turbine engines can be ignited readily in ideal atmospheric
conditions, but since they often operate in the low temperatures of high altitudes, it is imperative that
the system be capable of supplying a high heat intensity spark. Thus, a high-voltage is supplied to
arc across a wide igniter spark gap, providing the ignition system with a high degree of reliability
under widely varying conditions of altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, fuel vaporization,
and input voltage.

A typical ignition system includes two exciter units, two transformers, two intermediate ignition
leads, and two high tension leads. Thus, as a safety factor, the ignition system is actually a dual
system designed to fire two igniter plugs.

From the breaker points, a rapidly interrupted current is delivered to an auto transformer.
When the breaker closes, the flow of current through the primary winding of the transformer
establishes a magnetic field. When the breaker opens, the flow of current stops, and the collapse of
the field induces a voltage in the secondary of the transformer. This voltage causes a pulse of current
to flow into the storage capacitor through the rectifier, which limits the flow to a single direction.
With repeated pulses, the storage capacitor assumes a charge, up to a maximum of approximately 4
joules. (Note: 1 joule per second equals 1 watt.) The storage capacitor is connected to the spark
igniter through the triggering transformer and a contactor, normally open.

When the charge on the capacitor has built up, the contactor is closed by the mechanical
action of the single-lobe cam. A portion of the charge flows through the primary of the triggering
transformer and the capacitor connected with it. This current induces a high-voltage in the
secondary, which ionizes the gap at the spark igniter.

When the spark igniter is made conductive, the storage capacitor discharges the remainder of
its accumulated energy along with the charge from the capacitor in series with the primary of the
triggering transformer. The spark rate at the spark igniter varies in proportion to the voltage of the
DC power supply that affects the rpm of the motor. However, since both cams are geared to the
same shaft, the storage capacitor always accumulates its store of energy from the same number of
pulses before discharge. The employment of the high-frequency triggering transformer, with a low
reactance secondary winding, holds the time duration of the discharge to a minimum. This
concentration of maximum energy in minimum time achieves an optimum spark for ignition purposes,
capable of blasting carbon deposits and vaporizing globules of fuel.

All high-voltage in the triggering circuits is completely isolated from the primary circuits. The
complete exciter is hermetically sealed, protecting all components from adverse operating conditions,
eliminating the possibility of flashover at altitude due to pressure change. This also ensures shielding
against leakage of high-frequency voltage interfering with the radio reception of the aircraft.

C. PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

OPTICAL GAS TEMPERATURE SENSOR SYSTEM

The combination of an optical probe (sensing element incorporated in a housing), a fiber optic
cable, and an electro-optic signal processor constitutes a fiber optic temperature sensor system. The
theoretical basis and operation of the system has been described previously and only a brief
description is presented here. The sensing element is heated primarily by convection from the gas
and, to a lesser degree, by radiation from the gas and walls.

The relatively small diameter of the probe combined with the relatively low thermal
conductivity of sapphire causes the temperature of the sensing element tip to approach the gas
temperature. The thermal radiation (visible and infrared) is produced by the emissive material
embedded in the tip of the sensing element is in direct proportion to the temperature of the tip. A
portion of this thermal radiation is propagated down the sapphire lightguide to the outside of the
engine case. The optical signal is then relayed to the electro-optic signal processor with a fiber optic
cable. The temperature of the probe tip is determined from thermal radiation versus temperature
calibration data stored in the signal processor. Sensing Element Sapphire, the single crystal form of
aluminum oxide, possesses a melting point above 2000°C (3632°F), chemical inertness in combustion
flows, and optical transparency from the near infrared to the ultraviolet.

These properties combine to make it particularly suitable as a lightguide for a combustion gas
temperature sensor. A thermally emissive source was embedded inside the tip of a sapphire rod.
Thermal radiation generated by the emissive material is internally reflected at the sapphire to air
interface and propagated down to the opposite end of the sapphire rod. Therefore, the sapphire rod
served as both a lightguide and a protective shroud for the emissive material. The sensing element
was fabricated with a diameter of 0.06 inches. This small diameter combined with the high flow rate
of gas in the turbine engine results in a rapid response time.