The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement

protocols in seven layers. Use this handy guide to compare the different layers of the OSI model
and understand how they interact with each other.

Webopedia Study GuideThe Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking
framework to implement protocols in seven layers. There is really nothing to the OSI model. In
fact, it's not even tangible. The OSI model doesn't perform any functions in the networking
process. It is a conceptual framework so we can better understand the complex interactions that
are happening.

Who Developed the OSI Model?

The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It divides network communication into seven layers. In this model, layers 1-4 are
considered the lower layers, and mostly concern themselves with moving data around. Layers 5-
7, called the the upper layers, contain application-level data. Networks operate on one basic
principle: "pass it on." Each layer takes care of a very specific job, and then passes the data onto
the next layer.

The 7 Layers of the OSI

In the OSI model, control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer
(Layer 7) in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station
and back up the hierarchy. The OSI model takes the task of inter-networking and divides that up
into what is referred to as a vertical stack that consists of the following 7 layers.

Note: Click each hyperlink in the list below to read detailed information and examples of each
layer or continue scrolling to read the full article:

Layer 7 - Application

Layer 6 - Presentation

Layer 5 - Session

Layer 4 - Transport

Layer 3 - Network

Layer 2 - Data Link

Layer 1 - Physical

7 Layers of the OSI Diagram

Did You Know...? Most of the functionality in the OSI model exists in all communications systems,
although two or three OSI layers may be incorporated into one. OSI is also referred to as the OSI
Reference Model or just the OSI Model.

Application (Layer 7)

OSI Model, Layer 7, supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and
any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application-specific. This
layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services.
Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level. Tiered application
architectures are part of this layer.

Presentation (Layer 6)

This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to
transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and
encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is
sometimes called the syntax layer.

Session (Layer 5)

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session
layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

Transport (Layer 4)

OSI Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.

Network (Layer 3)

Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual
circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this
layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet
sequencing.

Data Link (Layer 2)

At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission
protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control and
frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access
Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a
computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer
controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

Physical (Layer 1)

OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal — through the
network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and
receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet,
RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
 ip addresses

The IP address is a familiar term for most computer users. An IP address is the unique numerical
address of a device in a computer network that uses Internet Protocol for communication. The IP
address allow you to pinpoint a particular device from the billions of devices on the Internet. To
send you a letter, someone needs your mailing address. In the same sense, one computer needs
the IP address of another computer to communicate with it.

An IP address consists of four numbers; each can contain one to three digits. These numbers are
separated with a single dot (.). These four numbers can range from 0 to 255.
Types of IP addresses

The IP addresses can be classified into two. They are listed below.

1) Static IP addresses

2) Dynamic IP addresses

Let us see each type in detail.

Static IP Addresses

As the name indicates, the static IP addresses usually never change but they may be changed as
a result of network administration. They serve as a permanent Internet address and provide a
simple and reliable way for the communication. From the static IP address of a system, we can
get many details such as the continent, country, region and city in which a computer is located,
The Internet Service Provider (ISP) that serves that particular computer and non-technical
information such as precise latitude and longitude of the country, and the locale of the
computer. There are many websites providing IP address lookups. You can find out your IP
addresses at http://whatismyip.org/.

Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP address are the second category. These are temporary IP addresses. These IP
addresses are assigned to a computer when they get connected to the Internet each time. They
are actually borrowed from a pool of IP addresses, shared over various computers. Since limited
number of static IP addresses are available, ISPs usually reserve the portion of their assigned
addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this way.

Static IP addresses are considered as less secure than dynamic IP addresses because they are
easier to track.

IP Version 4 and IP Version 6

The two versions of IP addresses currently running are IP versions 4 (IPv4) and IP versions 6
(IPv6). There are many features with these two versions.

IP Version 6

The IPv6 is the most recent version of Internet Protocol. As the Internet is growing rapidly, there
is a global shortage for IPv4. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
IPv6 is intended to replace the IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address and it allows 2128 i.e.
approximately 3.4×1038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller as some ranges are
reserved for special use or not used. The IPv6 addresses are represented by 8 groups of four
hexadecimal digits with the groups being supported by colons. An example is given below:

Eg: 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
The features of IPv6

The main features of the IPv6 are listed below.

1) IPv6 provides better end-to-end connectivity than IPv4.

2) Comparatively faster routing.

3) IPv6 offers ease of administration than IPv4.

4) More security for applications and networks.

5) It provides better Multicast and Anycast abilities.

6) Better mobility features than IPv4.

7) IPv6 follows the key design principles of IPv4 and so that the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is
smoother.

These are the key features of the IPv6 when compared to the IPv4. However, IPv6 has not
become popular as IPv4.

IP Version 4
IP Version 4 (IPv4) was defined in 1981. It has not undergone much changes from that time.
Unfortunately, there is a need of IP addresses more than IPv4 could supply.

IPv4 uses 32-bit IP address. So the maximum number of IP address is 232—or 4,294,967,296.

This is a little more than four billion IP addresses. An IPv4 address is typically formatted as four 8-
bit fields. Each 8-bit field represents a byte of the IPv4 address. As we have seen earlier, each
fields will be separated with dots. This method of representing the byte of an IPv4 address is
referred to as the dotted-decimal format. The bytes of the IPv4 is further classified into two
parts. The network part and the host part.

Network Part

This part specifies the unique number assigned to your network. It also identifies the class of
network assigned. The network part takes two bytes of the IPv4 address.

Host Part

This is the part of the IPv4 address that you can assign to each host. It uniquely identifies this
machine on your network. For all hosts on your network, the network part of the IP address will
be the same and host part will be changing.
IP address and classes

The IP hierarchy contains many classes of the IP addresses. Broadly, the IPv4 addressing system
is divided into five classes of IP address. All the five classes are identified by the first octet of the
IP address.

The classes of IPv4 addresses

The different classes of the IPv4 address are the following:

1) Class A address

2) Class B address

3) Class C address

4) Class D address

5) Class E address

Class A Address
The first bit of the first octet is always set to zero. So that the first octet ranges from 1 – 127. The
class A address only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. The IP range 127.x.x.x is
reserved for loop back IP addresses. The default subnet mask for class A IP address is 255.0.0.0.
This means it can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2). Class A IP address
format is thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.

Class B Address

Here the first two bits in the first two bits is set to zero. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x
to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 (214)
Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses. Class B IP address format is:
10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C Address

The first octet of this class has its first 3 bits set to 110. Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x
to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152
(221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses. Class C IP address format is:
110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

Class D Address

The first four bits of the first octet in class D IP address are set to 1110. Class D has IP address
rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for Multicasting. In multicasting data
is not intended for a particular host, but multiple ones. That is why there is no need to extract
host address from the class D IP addresses. The Class D does not have any subnet mask.

Class E Address

The class E IP addresses are reserved for experimental purpose only for R&D or study. IP
addresses in the class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. This class too is not equipped
with any subnet mask
 1. router
A router[a] is a networking device that forwards data packets between
computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on
the Internet. Data sent through the internet, such as a web page or
email, is in the form of data packets. A packet is typically forwarded
from one router to another router through the networks that constitute
an internetwork (e.g. the Internet) until it reaches its destination node.
[2]

A router is connected to two or more data lines from different

networks.[b] When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the
router reads the network address information in the packet to
determine the ultimate destination. Then, using information in its
routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network
on its journey.

The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers
that simply forward IP packets between the home computers and the
Internet. An example of a router would be the owner's cable or DSL
router, which connects to the Internet through an Internet service
provider (ISP). More sophisticated routers, such as enterprise
routers, connect large business or ISP networks up to the powerful
core routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber
lines of the Internet backbone. Though routers are typically dedicated
hardware devices, software-based routers also exist.

2.switch
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC
bridge[1]) is a computer networking device that connects devices on a computer
network by using packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the
destination device.

A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to

process and forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some
switches can also process data at the network layer (layer 3) by additionally
incorporating routing functionality. Such switches are commonly known as layer-3
switches or multilayer switches.[2]

Switches for Ethernet are the most common form of network switch. The first
Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.[3] Switches also exist for
other types of networks including Fibre Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode,
and InfiniBand.

Unlike less advanced repeater hubs, which broadcast the same data out of each
of its ports and let the devices decide what data they need, a network switch
forwards data only to the devices that need to receive it.[4]

3.hub:-
A hub, also called a network hub, is a common connection point for devices in a
network. Hubs are devices commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. The
hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the
other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
What Hubs Do

Hubs and switches serve as a central connection for all of your network
equipment and handles a data type known as frames. Frames carry your data.
When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted on to the port of
the destination PC.

Hub Icon
Image: Hub and wireless hub network icons

In a hub, a frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports. It

doesn't matter that the frame is only destined for one port. The hub has no way of
distinguishing which port a frame should be sent to. Passing it along to every port
ensures that it will reach its intended destination. This places a lot of traffic on the
network and can lead to poor network response times.

Compared to a standard switch, the hub is slower as it can send or receive

information just not at the same time, but typically costs more than a hub.
Passive, Intelligent and Switching Hubs

A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one
device (or segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubs include additional
features that enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the
hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are also called
manageable hubs.

A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination address
of each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.
Home and Small Business Hubs

Hubs can be used as a standalone device or connected to compatible hubs and

switches to form a larger network. Hubs are generally easy to install and
maintain, making these devices a good option for home networking. A hub is also
easily configured for small business branch office networking.

4.bridge:-
A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single
aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segments.
This function is called network bridging.[1] Bridging is distinct from routing.
Routing allows multiple networks to communicate independently and yet remain
separate, whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if they were a
single network.[2] In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link layer
(layer 2).[3] If one or more segments of the bridged network are wireless, the
device is known as a wireless bridge.

There are three main types of network bridging technologies: simple bridging,
multiport bridging, learning or transparent bridging.

5.repeater:-

A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in

transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss. Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal while
digital repeaters can reconstruct a signal to near its original quality.

In a data network, a repeater can relay messages between subnetworks that use
different protocols or cable types. Hubs can operate as repeaters by relaying
messages to all connected computers. A repeater cannot do the intelligent
routing performed by bridges and routers.

6.regenerator:-
A regenerator in a telecommunications context is a type of repeater that is used
in copper line or optical fibre line transmission systems. The regeneration
function involved also appears in other types of systems, e.g. computer
networking systems.
A digital signal travelling a significant distance will become weaker and distorted
and require periodic help to continue its journey successfully.
A simple amplifier will only increase the amplitude of the signal and will not
correct the distortion of the waveform shape.
A threshold detector can be used to correct the amplitude levels although the
exact time that the transition occurs may not be in the right place. This timing
inaccuracy is referred to as jitter.
A regenerator includes circuitry to recover the clock timing information, which is
then used to determine when the output signal switches its state. This ensures
that the recovered data from the threshold detector is adjusted to provide the
correctly timed signal output.

7. gateway:-
A gateway is a piece of networking hardware used in telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that allows data to flow from one discrete network
to another. Gateways are distinct from routers or switches in that they
communicate using more than one protocol[1][2] and can operate at any of the
seven layers of the open systems interconnection model (OSI).
The term gateway can also loosely refer to a computer or computer program
configured to perform the tasks of a gateway, such as a default gateway or
router.

8. modem:-
A modem (portmanteau of modulator-demodulator) is a hardware device that
converts data into a format suitable for a transmission medium so that it can be
transmitted from computer to computer (historically over telephone wires). A
modem modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information
for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information.
The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to
reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used with almost any means
of transmitting analog signals from light-emitting diodes to radio. A common type
of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer into modulated
electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines and demodulated by
another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

Modems are generally classified by the maximum amount of data they can send
in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second (symbol bit(s),
sometimes abbreviated "bps") or bytes per second (symbol B(s)). Modems can
also be classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes
symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new
signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency-shift keying
with two possible frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit
per symbol), to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the
original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols
(two bits per symbol), transmitted 1,200 bits by sending 600 symbols per second
(600 baud) using phase-shift keying

9.network interface controller:

A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card,
network adapter, LAN adapter or physical network interface,[1] and by similar
terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer to a
computer network.[2]

Early network interface controllers were commonly implemented on expansion

cards that plugged into a computer bus. The low cost and ubiquity of the Ethernet
standard means that most newer computers have a network interface built into
the motherboard.

Modern network interface controllers offer advanced features such as interrupt

and DMA interfaces to the host processors, support for multiple receive and
transmit queues, partitioning into multiple logical interfaces, and on-controller
network traffic processing such as the TCP offload engine.