“Interpretation of the music of the

late 18th/early 19th centuries on the

modern piano”
A performer’s view

Garyfallia Katsimiga
Student Number: 283934

Master of Music

Classical Music

18/05/2015
Figure in front page: http://www.fortepiano.eu, Design D. Sedlak. Powered by Basal Pro.

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 -Table of Contents-
Summary..................................................................................................................................5
Preface ......................................................................................................................................7
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................8
1.1 Research questions ..................................................................................................8
1.2 Methodology ...........................................................................................................8
2. Research process/results ..........................................................................................9
2.1 Performance practice ...............................................................................................9
2.2 Rhetoric in music...................................................................................................10
2.3 Articulation marks and other expression markings ...............................................15
2.4 Fortepiano and modern piano ................................................................................17
2.5 Content of the related video ..................................................................................21

3. Discussion/Conclusions ...........................................................................................21
3.1 Afterthoughts on the topic .....................................................................................21
3.2 Evaluation: strong & weak points of the research .................................................22
3.3 Further research- recommended topic ...................................................................23
4. References / Recommended literature ...............................................................24

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[4]
 -Summary-
Looking for musical solutions and suggestions on interpretation of music from a period in
which instruments were different from today, led me to explore many different early pianos
and understand how a sound closer to the past can invite something different in regards to
what we are used to in our modern times. After realizing that a modern piano is an instrument
with different musical capabilities, I understood that adaptations have to be made and choices
for the interpretation of the music need to be taken, in order for the music that was written
over two centuries ago to still reflect its meanings upon a modern instrument. Moreover, I
discovered that there is a lot of unexplored knowledge running through treatises and books,
which rarely meets the practice of the modern performers, or simply is hardly understood and
processed. With this research, primarily I tried to understand the music throughout all these
sources I had at my disposal and further I experimented with the sound and capabilities of the
instruments by trying out different musical solutions and ideas.

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[6]
 -Preface-

The inspiration for this research arose while studying for my Bachelor degree, when I was
introduced to a fortepiano at the Prins Claus Conservatoire, in Groningen. I had never
encountered a historical instrument before during my musical education in my home country,
Greece, but I had seen one piano of the middle 19th century while attending a concert
somewhere abroad. However, I was not curious enough by that time to look into it or to be
intrigued by the interpretation of music connected with these earlier pianos.

Nevertheless, I believe that there is always the right moment of doing things and consequently
meet the right people to help you pursue these things as well. Therefore, I would like to take a
moment and express my gratitude to a few people for their guidance and further help to
develop my own ideas either about this topic or in general. To my research method coach Dr.
Peter Mak, for supporting my way to this research and showing me the steps to follow, to
Prof. Johan Hoffman for offering plenty of information in regards to historical performance
practice and his brilliant ideas around it and last but not least, to my piano teacher, Prof. Paul
Komen for all the knowledge he has shared with me all these years and for assisting my way
to develop an independent musical mind. Thank you.

Throughout my musical education I was always feeling ‘uncomfortable’ when playing the
music of Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert and others of this era. One moment I was
really enjoying playing this music, the next I was always instructed to play very strictly what
is written on the scores, to be very careful about the pedal and so on, but without really
understanding why or how this occurs. I was used to interpreting this music either too flatly or
too excessively – so I was “accused” of being too romantic- and always feeling that
something was missing, that something was not natural. Now of course, I can say that I did
just not understand the music itself, since this is a ‘language’ I didn’t know how to
pronounce. Surely, I never heard or played on instruments that this music was written for, but
I did also not know how to look at the score, what is important and what is not important,
what to stress and what not. Therefore, making a master research on this subject was a crucial
point to me, a moment to finally discover more about it and help myself to understand this
music in depth and while learning and studying further, to build my own interpretation for it.
Improving my playing and establishing a new mindset also led me to think that I could share
this knowledge with others, offering a little bit of inspiration and information to those who
seek to find some, hence I created a video in which I am demonstrating some of my ideas
using examples on both an early piano and a modern one. This is a product of my research
which will go viral in the upcoming future, but it is just a sample, yet quite representative one.

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 1. Introduction

1.1 Research questions

How could we interpret the music of the late 18th/ early 19th centuries on the modern piano?

1. What do we ignore or misinterpret as modern performers when playing this music on

modern instruments?
2. How can we translate the musical information from the earlier instruments to the
modern ones?
3. How can the style be preserved while playing this music on an instrument that has
been built to display different styles of music?

‘Problems’ /issues that the research was based on:

 The modern piano has been built to display different styles of music
 (historical) performance practice is being studied a little more by performers who are
performing on the actual historical instruments
 Earlier pianos have parallel strings (articulated sound, fast decay of tone) while
modern pianos have crossed strings (large resonance, long lasting tone)
 Modern instruments invite a longer phrasing from the performers
 Urtext editions, unintentionally created a strict approach to music (non-expressive)
while making efforts to revive the style of the Classical period
 All historic instruments represent different composers who had these instruments in
mind while writing their composition

1.2 Methodology

 Study of original sources by:

o Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach
o Leopold Mozart
 Study of original instruments
 Experimenting with different fortepianos and clavichord
o Reflective diary comparing performances on different instruments
 Lessons on the fortepiano

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There are many different opinions which accompany this subject and throughout my research
I tried to listen to and study many of them. For me it was very important to find convincing
suggestions for the music, solutions which will preserve the artistic elements, the ones which
make the music have a continuous live flow; a mystery to feel adventurous for as a performer,
intrigued as an investigator. Thus, the methods I used to design and conduct my research were
mainly experimental and reflective. There was also a literature research, which gave me
strong foundations in regards to the existing study of the subject and the various opinions
around it.

2. Research process/results
2.1 Performance practice

There is a lot of information concerning the performance practice of early music “trapped”
into books, journals and other sources that is not very well understood or has not been brought
to light and to our practice often enough. The keyboard performers who are studying
(historical) performance practice are usually harpsichordists, organ players, or forte-pianists;
or they are scholars and musicologists. They are studying the treatises, analyzing them and
learning how to translate all these into their performance on the actual historical instruments.
Modern players – such as myself- are maybe ignorant of this kind of research, and we often
forget that the music of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was written for different types of
pianos than the ones we are used to performing on today. Nevertheless, (historical)
performance practice should not be considered as written directions on how to play music.
Performance practice is rather a collection of practical information and knowledge about
musical performance that will always be in the need of evaluation and further understanding.
Surely, there are no recordings of the Classical period – which could reveal precious
information on how to perform the corresponding music instantly, something that we do
witness with early recordings of the late Romantic music- but there is a lot of evidence found
in different types of sources, such as the huge variety of historical instruments, treatises, the
scores (manuscripts), letters from composers, students and others, even the paintings or other
kinds of art of the time. When we know how to look at these sources, then we might be able
to see a lot more in our musical interpretation than we think.

After reading some books and journals about the performance practice of the classical period,
I realized how important the constant study of the performance practice of any music is,

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something I was neglecting as a modern pianist. Most of these books support the fact that
playing the corresponding music on earlier keyboard instruments can give insights into the
interpretation on modern instruments or into the music itself, something I have discovered
and experienced myself as well. Two very interesting DVD’s with lectures given by Prof.
Malcolm Bilson with regard to understanding the score and performing it enlightened my
research quite a lot, as well as many other lectures and interviews on the subject found on
Internet.

In the following chapter I am quoting the most important elements that -according to this
research- help to conduct and build up a performance of the music of the late 18th and early
19th centuries. Rhetoric in music as well as evaluation of the musical score, are very important
elements to be thought of and sorted out. Furthermore, a possible experimentation with
instruments and realization of the differences between the earlier and the modern pianos is
going to provide an excellent background to step on and discover more about the
interpretation of this music.

2.2 Rhetoric in music

The 18th century witnessed different passages from the Baroque era and its ideals to the
Classical or the so-called ‘pre-Romantic period’, either with the more international “galant”
style and the German “Empfindsamkeit” in the middle of the century, or later on with the
“Sturm und Drang”. All these music styles and forms were having the same principle;
expression of emotions. Sandra Rosenblum writes in her book about performance practices in
Classic Piano Music, “[...] Classic music owes the roots of some of its attitudes toward
expression to Baroques ideals; but, as the Classic style matured, it shaped these attitudes to
its own need.”, and also “Rhetoric interested Baroque musicians and theorists for two
different reasons: It provided concepts of temporal form and some applicable descriptive
vocabulary; and its avowed purpose was to move the ‘affections’(emotions) of the listener.”
(Rosenblum, 1988).

During the period of the Baroque, music was considered as a language full of meanings,
hidden meanings which were filling the music stories (musical pieces) and all the other
musical and artistic events. Feelings were being represented and expressed by specific
intervals and other musical or rhythmic devices and every composer knew what to use in

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order to indicate a specific occasion; sadness had its own tonalities, happiness too. Anger, joy,
surprise, they all had their equivalents in music. Some of these fixed explanations and
meanings for every interval or different tonalities are displayed in the following tables about
Rhetorical Performance in the Baroque music, by Judy Tarling (Tarling, 2004):

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All these are rhetorical elements -connected with common speech- and as we can see from the
sources, they were quite present in the music of the past. Moving through the time, this is
something we can understand either by studying these sources and treatises, by knowing how
to read the score or perhaps by playing the earlier instruments. In the same way we would
raise the volume of our voice or accent syllables or entire words in order to insist on
something while speaking, we could similarly use different dynamical ranges or different
articulation to indicate different meanings in our musical performance.

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An upbeat, for example – especially at the beginning of a movement- could be the equivalent
of an article in the normal speech and should therefore not receive an accent; on the contrary,
it should be light and short.

Figure 1: F. Schubert, Impromptu D. 935, n. 2 in a flat major, mm. 1-8 (upbeat example)

1
Figure 2: F. Schubert, Moment Musicaux D 780, n.6, mm. 1-17 (upbeat as a chord)

Moreover, harmony progressions are important to conduct our phrasing; therefore an analysis
of them could be valuable. Dissonant chords, accents and extension of tone are also very
important elements to consider. Short and long articulation markings, syncopated rhythms,
dotted rhythms, pauses, etc., should be triggered in our interpretation; a thorough assessment
of all these elements, always according to the character of the piece, is going to make our
performance more understandable to our audience and to ourselves as well.

Below there is a fragment of the Haydn variations in f minor, a piece which hosts a lot of
these elements and it’s interesting to see how they are reflected in the score and furthermore,
a few suggestions on how we could render them using a modern piano.

1
Figures 1 & 2: F. Schubert, “Impromptus, Moments Musicaux”, G. Henle Verlag, München
1948/1976.

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 2
Figure 3: J. Haydn, Variations in f minor, Hob. XVII:6, mm. 1-22

Haydn wrote short articulations for the middle voice in the beginning and I think it’s crucial
to decide how to play them. A slight tension on the first note of each slur and a diminuendo
on the second will give a better pulse and help the melody which comes right after to be more
flexible. Looking at the harmonic progressions till bar 4, especially when we reach the point
of the repeated notes, it’s interesting to think how the building up of the harmony could help
to “conduct” the line and to understand what is important to stress. In bar.6 we arrive at a
double dissonance and since dissonances have energy and tension, it is clear that they need to
be stressed, so then the consonance which follows is the moment where we have to release
this energy.

2
Figure 3: J. Haydn, “Variations in f minor”, G. Henle Verlag, München, 1969.

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Carl Philip Emanuel Bach writes in his treatise “Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu
spielen : ‘The subject matter of performance is the loudness and softness of tones, touch, the
snap, legato and staccato execution, the vibrato, arpeggiation, the holding of tones, the retard
and accelerando. Lack of these elements or inept use of them makes a poor performance’.
(CPE Bach, 1753).

The above explains clearly what was considered to be important when interpreting music.
‘Exaggeration’ of these rhetorical elements will indicate a very good speaker, as well as a
very good performer. Exaggeration is important in art; music is in need of expression, since it
is a language full of ideas and emotions, and the performer is in need of finding out how to
bring out all these elements from the music text. By the time later instruments brought new
sound capabilities and inspired different styles of composition, oriented more towards
strength and volume, over-exaggeration was conceived as normal in the interpretation of
music. The earlier style was neglected and modern performers got very far removed from
what this music conveyed. However, during the 20th century there were some very important
efforts to revive the style of the Classical period with the famous “Urtext edition”
phenomenon, which indeed brought the actual text of the composers to light, but it also
created an unintentional strict approach to music, frequently making it less expressive or as
Malcolm Bilson writes in his foreword to Sandra Rosenblum’s book, “Some would argue that
most players of today may be more faithful to the text, but those of the past played with more
imagination and flair” (Rosenblum, 1988).

2.3 Articulation marks and other expression markings

The precise notation of articulation marks, slurs, accents, etc. gives to the piece its strong
stylistic identity, but it’s not sufficient to make a modern performer understand how to
perform it, in addition to the fact that the modern instrument is already removing us from the
earlier style and its original context. What is not written in the score –and that in old times
often was considered as obvious- belongs to the choices of interpretation of each performer,
something to work on and think further. We need to understand the character of the piece and
as Leopold Mozart writes in “Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule”(a treatise on the
fundamental principles of violin playing), written in 1756, in Chapter XII par. 3 “Not only
must one observe exactly all that has been marked and prescribed and not play it otherwise
than as written; but one must throw oneself into the affect to be expressed and apply and
execute in a certain good style all the ties, slides, accentuation of the notes, the forte and
piano; in a word, whatever belongs to tasteful performance of a piece; which can only be

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learnt from sound judgment and long experience.’ And also in par.7 “Before beginning to
play, the piece must be well looked at and considered. The character, tempo, and kind of
movement demanded by the piece must be sought out, and carefully observed whether a
passage occurs not therein which often at first sight seems of little importance, but on account
of its special style of execution and expression is not quite easy to play at sight.’ (L. Mozart,
1756).

The modern interpreter tends to create longer lines in his or her phrasing, either with the use
of pedal or not, since this is what a modern instrument invites you to do. It’s hard to “hide”
the great resonance or suppress it and sometimes it’s rather difficult to follow the text with the
exact notation and realize it on the modern piano, since the technical characteristics invite a
different approach. Nevertheless, there are choices that could be taken in order to preserve the
style of the composition and according to my experimentation, they concern the approach of
the finger to the keyboard, the different concept of the resonance through pedaling and
holding notes, the tempo and of course the constant evaluation of the score and all the
expression markings included in it.

Figure 4: L. v. Beethoven, Piano Sonata “Quasi una fantasia” op. 27, n. 2, I, mm. 1-25
3

3
Figure 4: L. v. Beethoven, “Piano Sonata, opus 27, no. 2 (“Moonlight”), copy of the first edition
(Cappi, Vienna 1802) in the Austrian National Library, Hob. Collection, S.H. Beethoven 134.
(Autograph manuscript: Bonn, Beethoven-Archiv)

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The instruction of Beethoven in the beginning of the piece “Si deve suonare tutto questo
pezzo delicatissimamente e senza sordino” ,which means “The whole piece must be played as
delicate as possible and without dampers” is basically indicating that we should play very
softly while keeping the sustain pedal down during the whole movement. But, how could we
keep the sustain pedal down on the modern piano, while having all this sonority of
harmonies? Except keeping the left pedal down -to have the softest possible sound-, I think
that by making late changes in the right pedal we could perhaps achieve a balanced blend of
harmonies, that could give the mysterious atmosphere that Beethoven clearly wanted and that
would also not disturb our ears with extra resonance. This way we are more faithful to the
composer, but above all more faithful to the musical idea.

2.4 Fortepiano and modern piano

After experiencing playing on the replica of an Anton Walter fortepiano which is in the Prins
Claus Conservatorium, I visited several collections of period pianos of which the most
important was the studio of Mr. Edwin Beunk in Enschede, the Netherlands. There I had the
chance to play on different original fortepianos, beautifully restored, from c. 1780-1870 by
builders such as Conrad Graf, Ignaz Pleyel, Sébastien Érard, Johann Baptist Streicher, Johann
Schanz, John Broadwood & Sons, and many others. All of them represent, in a way, different
composers who had these instruments in mind while writing their compositions. After trying
out different repertoire such as the Haydn variations in f minor, Schubert’s Momens (sic)
Musicales (sic),4 Mozart sonatas, Brahms Klavierstücke etc., I found the variety of sound of
these instruments quite stunning and realized that they offer plenty of choices for the
interpretation with regard to touch, pedaling, and articulation. We should understand that
within less than a century, pianos were changing rapidly, without implying that the one was
the progress of the other; on the contrary, every one of them shows the necessity of
diversification, like the different surviving dialects in a speaking language.

The thinner strings and sounding board causes the faster decay of tone in the fortepiano, and a
thicker strings and sounding board on the modern piano creates larger resonance and a long
lasting tone. One of the greatest differences between a fortepiano and a modern piano is the
action (the mechanical transfer of key movement to the hammer). Observing the actions on

4
Six moments musicaux, D 780 (Op. 94) a collection of six short pieces for solo piano, were published
by Leidesdorf in Vienna in 1828, under the title "Six Momens [sic] musicals [sic]". The correct French
forms are now usually used – moments (instead of momens), and musicaux (instead of musicals).

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the pictures below, we can already see this complexity of the double repetition action of the
modern piano, compared to that of the fortepiano.

Figure 5: Viennese (Prellmechanic) action (fortepiano from Mozart’s time)

5
Figure 6: English action (c. 1771)

5
Figures 5 & 6: http://www.lvbeethoven.com/VotreLVB/English_Trudelies.html)

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 6
Figure 7: Modern Steinway action (1859 - present)

Diagrams showing the decay of tone in modern piano (pic.1) and fortepiano (pic.2)

Picture 1 (modern piano)

dB

Time

Picture 2 (fortepiano)

dB

Time

6
Figure 7: https://www.speech.kth.se/music/5_lectures/askenflt/timing.html

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The touch of the keys on the fortepiano is much lighter than on the modern instrument where,
most of the time, the pianist needs to use the mass of his/her entire arm in order to produce a
full tone. Due to the light touch and the parallel strings, a fortepiano can have a very
articulated, clear, and crisp sound, while the modern grand piano- with its crossed strings- has
a fuller and more brilliant sound quality, which makes it suitable for large concert halls and
performances with orchestras.

7
Figure 8: W. A. Mozart, Fantasia in c minor, K. 475, mm. 1-9

As we see in the score, Mozart writes an “f” (forte) and then a “p” (piano). This can be very
easily done in the fortepiano, exactly because of the fast decay of tone that causes a natural
connection between these two notes. The sound in a modern piano will be much stronger and
of course, will last longer. So, the forte and immediate piano effect actually would be easy to
achieve there, but the effect of a natural diminuendo, showing a fast, gradual dying of the
forte sound to a softer one will be very difficult, if not impossible. Assuming that the
fortepiano is the only instrument that Mozart had in mind when composing this piece of
music, we are already getting a hint of what is important for interpreting it. But what would
be a realizable solution for the modern piano? A lot of modern performers take a very slow
tempo which gives the time to prolong the chord and make a natural diminuendo on the
second beat. But I do not –personally- prefer that, because I think it’s important to keep the
“adagio” character and not turn it into “lento”. The way Mozart writes these first bars makes
also clear to me that the attack of the first chord seems to be quite important for the character
of the piece. So, I wouldn’t play it softer in the modern piano just to have a faster decay of
tone and imitate the natural connection with the next chord -like it’s happening on the
fortepiano- since that wouldn’t be convincing in this instrument. Choosing a tempo similar to
what I would have on the fortepiano and changing the pedal slowly between the first and

7
Figure 8: W. A. Mozart, “Fantasia in c minor”, Chez Artaria Comp., Vienna, 1785

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second beat, focusing on the connection of the two chords, could perhaps offer a solution for
this musical “problem”.

2.5 Content of the video

List of the musical examples - why I chose them and what do I want to demonstrate

1. Beethoven : Piano Sonata “Quasi una Fantasia” op. 27, n. 2

This example is going to be used for demonstrating the different functions of pedals
in the fortepiano and in modern piano.
2. Mozart : Fantasia in c minor, K. 475
This musical example will help us understand the fast decay of tone in the
fortepiano and the long lasting tone in the modern piano.
3. Haydn: Variations in f minor, Hob. XVII:6
Several excerpts of the piece will be used in order to show how the rhetoric is
reflected in music and how they can help us with the interpretation. Discussion
about the articulation marks and other expressive markings, or what is not written
in the score and can give hints for the performance
4. Schubert : Moment musicaux n. 1, D. 780
Rhetoric in music- evaluation of the score
5. Brahms: Klavierstücke op. 76, Capriccio n. 1
Rhetoric in the late romantic music. Interpretation of the score, similarities to the
score of the Classical period- hints on how to read the score

3. Discussion/Conclusions

3.1 Afterthoughts on the topic

So, after understanding that these two instruments work differently and therefore represent
different artistic ideas, it was intriguing for me to find out how I would play the music of
Mozart, for instance, on an instrument that it is totally different from the one for which it was
originally composed. Would it be wise to ignore all this excess of information? I wouldn’t
like to exclude this music from my modern piano repertoire, even after realizing that the
modern performer has a more difficult job to accomplish. The literal transfer of the

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information gained from the fortepiano straight to the modern instrument wouldn’t work, as it
wouldn’t work for a direct and exact translation of a poem from its original language to
another. First the interpreter has to understand both languages and both instruments, and most
importantly, the music. Then the performer is able to take decisions that would honor the
music and its style, and at the same time, the two different instruments and their capabilities.

Concluding, the interpretation of the music of the late 18th/early 19th centuries on the modern
piano, appears to me as a moment of personal decisions which will hopefully include all the
information, demonstrated and discussed above and certainly, a moment to create new
insights for the music which always is in the need of expression regardless the medium.
Knowledge gives us the power to decide for ourselves how to use it and how to act upon it. I
believe that there are plenty of possibilities to consider for the rendering of this music using
the modern piano and the only thing to stop anyone from realizing them would be the lack of
creativity, imagination or no wish to express them.

3.2 Evaluation

Strong points of research

Mentioning the strong points that this research has, I believe that the extensive literature
research and the constant update of new ideas through experimentation with the instruments
or the different sources of knowledge are the most important ones to talk about. I believe that
this research and its results are trustworthy due to the fact I read a lot about the topic, I got a
lot of information through books, but I also tried to apply these insights into my practice and
create foundations for my personal interpretation for this music.

Weak points of research

The fact that my results are not going to be discussed with other professionals more widely
and outside of the institution that hosts my research is perhaps one of the weak points of this
comprehensive study. Getting feedback from other researchers and musicians occupied with
the topic would add value to my findings and would perhaps establish them in the general
academic surrounding. Nevertheless, the way I conducted this research made my findings
anyway relevant and valuable to me, since the experimentation I did with the instruments
gave me solutions and ideas which allowed me to answer my research questions with success.

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3.3 Further research- recommended topic

Rhetoric in the late Romantic music

Rhetorical elements can be found in all kinds of music style. However, moving away from the
Classical period, we can see that the connection between rhetoric and music is conceived in a
different way by the composers already and of course by performers as well. Early rhetorical
elements are nevertheless still echoing into the late Romantic era and into the music of the
early 20th century.

During these two years of research about this topic, I realized that most of my findings could
be applied and adapted for the interpretation of the music of the Romantic era, as well as for
the music of the early 20th century. However, I am certain that there would be a lot more to
discover about the interpretation of this music, so if there was a continuation in my research, I
would recommend a further study on the understanding of the rhetoric in the music of the late
Romantic period and early 20th century. Investigating the music and composition styles of
Brahms, Debussy, Ravel, Scriabin and others, could enlighten the bridge which definitely
connects these two periods and offer many hints for interpreting it. Early recordings of the
pupils of Clara Schumann, with performances of the music of Brahms are quite illuminating
and interesting to listen to (Scott, 2014). The expressive tools used throughout these
recordings, such as dislocation and arpeggiation are having their roots back in the earlier
practice, but of course these are subject matters to be thought of and evaluated in a greater
extend. The articulation marks in the later music are very often disregarded or conceived in a
different way than they were written. It seems that the modern performers are tempted to use
the sustain pedal quite extensively and most of the times this has as a result the constant
resonance of the sound which ‘hides’ the true text of the composer and takes away an
alternative – perhaps more realistic- view to it. If we could see the rhetoric elements in this
music as well, we might unlock a beauty that could be expressed in so many different ways.
Flexibility and flair should be accompanying all kinds of music; we should not feel trapped
into the different styles of music and produce stiff performances, just for the sake of being
correct and faithful to the text. Preserving the style is a necessary signature which should lie
behind our interpretation, provided that the artistic instinct to make music effective and
meaningful will always remain active to all performers.

Garyfallia Katsimiga 18 May, 2015

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 4. References

Bach, C. P. E. (1949). Essay on the true art of playing keyboard instruments.W. J. Mitchell. New York:
(Ed.). WW Norton.

d60944. (2010, January, 23). Carl Friedberg (1872-1955): Brahms – Intermezzo in Ab op. 76 No.3
[Audio file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uq3Fz3FSeRc

Mozart, L., & Beckmann, M. (2008). The art of the violin: Title of the original work, ründliche
Violinschule. Salzburg: Kulturverlag Polzer.

Malcolm Bilson, Knowing the Score DVD (Ithaca: Cornell University), 2005

Malcolm Bilson, Performing the Score DVD (Ithaca: Cornell University), 2011

Pianopera. (2011, July, 17). Ilona Eibenschütz and plays: Reminiscences of Brahms (1952) [Audio
file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mLGIRHCPqN4

Rosenblum, S. P. (January, 1988). Performance Practices in Classic Piano Music. USA: Indiana
University Press

Scott, A. (2014). Romanticizing Brahms: early recordings and the reconstruction of Brahmsian
identity. (Doctoral dissertation).

Tarling, J. (2004). The weapons of rhetoric: A guide for musicians and audiences. St. Albans: Corda
Music.

Recommended Literature

Books

Dolge, A. (reprinting of 1911 edition) (1972). Pianos and their makers: a comprehensive history of the
development of the piano. New York: Dover publications, Inc.

Brown, C. (1999). Classical and Romantic performing practice 1750-1900. USA: Oxford University
Press

Hollis, H. R. (October 1984). Piano: A pictorial account of its ancestry and development. New York:
Hippocrene Books; Rev Sub edition

Neumann, F. (1993). Performance practices of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. USA:
Schirmer Books, Macmillan Publishing Company

Thurston, D. (4th Ed.) (1967).The interpretation of Music. London: Hutchinson & Co LTD

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Articles

Bilson, M. (May, 1992). Execution and Expression in the Sonata in E flat, K282. Early Music, Vol. 20,
No. 2, Performing Mozart's Music III, pp. 237-238+241-243. Oxford University Press.

Bilson, M. (November, 1997). The future of Schubert Interpretation: What is really needed? Early
Music, Vol. 25, No. 4, 25th Anniversary Issue; Listening Practice, pp. 715-722. Oxford University
Press.

Bowen, José Antonio (1996) "Performance Practice versus Performance Analysis: Why Should
Performers Study Performance," Performance Practice Review: Vol. 9: No. 1, Article 3. DOI:
10.5642/perfpr.199609.01.03
Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol9/iss1/3

Huray, P. (1990). Authenticity in Performance: Eighteenth- Century Case studies, XVII, p.202.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univeristy Press

Jackson, Roland (1990) "Performance Practice: A Manifestation of Our Time?," Performance Practice
Review: Vol. 3: No. 2, Article 2. DOI: 10.5642/perfpr.199003.02.2
Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol3/iss2/2

Jackson, Roland (1996) "José Bowen's Essay: A Few Afterthoughts," Performance Practice Review:
Vol. 9: No. 1, Article 4. DOI: 10.5642/perfpr.199609.01.04
Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol9/iss1/4

Jackson, Roland (1997) "Authenticity or Authenticities?--Performance Practice and the Mainstream,"

Performance Practice Review: Vol. 10: No. 1, Article 2. DOI: 10.5642/perfpr.199710.01.02
Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol10/iss1/2

Pearson, Ingrid E. (2012) "By Word of Mouth: Historical Performance Comes of Age," Performance
Practice Review: Vol. 17: No. 1, Article 5. DOI: 10.5642/perfpr.201217.01.05
Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol17/iss1/5

Online lectures

Levinismyhero. (2007, September, 14). Robert Levin Mozart Lecture part 1[Video file]. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWKbOGMqDVw

Levinismyhero. (2007, September, 14). Robert Levin Mozart Lecture part 2[Video file]. Retrieved
from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r-DEhpPgtSY

Levinismyhero. (2007, September, 14). Robert Levin Mozart Lecture part 2[Video file].Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPuxV0xXEc8

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