LECTURE – 2

THE CONTENTS OF THIS LECTURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1.0 LAMINAR FLOW

2.0 FRICTION FACTOR

3.0 TURBULENT FLOW

REFERENCES

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1.0 LAMINAR FLOW

We have already discussed a change of flow pattern of water flowing from a tap.
The simple and ordered flow is called laminar flow while the complex and
disordered one is known as turbulent flow.

In simple terms, laminar means “layers” or a group of “laminae”. Alternatively,

they can be thought of as thin sheets or thin streams. In this type of flow, the
molecules move in the stream they were initially and do not change their stream
while flowing. That is why the flow is simple and ordered. Ordered flow is justified
only when velocity is less. Fig. 1 illustrates a laminar flow wherein it can be seen
that the molecules flow in their own streams. Fig. 2 shows a cylindrical laminae or
streams for laminar flow of fluid in circular pipes.

Fig. 1 Laminar flow wherein the molecules flow in their own stream

Fig. 2 Cylindrical laminae or streams for laminar flow of fluid in circular

pipes

We see that the laminae are plane sheets parallel to each other for fluid flowing
between parallel plates (rectangular pipes) and cylindrical of different radii for
circular pipes. Laminar flow is observed if the fluid is viscous.

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Due to viscosity, when a fluid flows in a pipe or duct, there will be a drop in
pressure. Let us discuss in detail.

Let us consider a circular pipe of diameter ‘d’, cross-sectional area ‘a’ and length ‘l’
as shown in Fig. 3. P1 is the pressure at the point where the fluid enters i.e., point
1 and P2 is the pressure at the point where the fluid exits i.e., point 2. τw is the
shear stress exerted on the fluid due to wall of the pipe.

Fig. 3

Let the change in pressure be Δ p between points 1 and 2.

Thus, p2 + Δp = p1

Let ‘f’ be the required force to move the fluid from point 1 to point 2.
Therefore, f = Δp× 𝑎
Where, a = area of cross section (m2) and a= Πd2/4, d = diameter of pipe (m)

This force must be equal and opposite of the shear stress acting on the fluid due to
the wall. The reason being, the fluid is flowing in equilibrium condition.
Force due to shear stress can be written as
𝑑
Shear stress × 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜏𝑤 × 2 × 𝛱 × × 𝑙 where, l= rubbing length (m)
2

Now shear force = force required for fluid movement

1 𝑑
Thus, 𝛥𝑝 × 𝛱𝑑2 × 4 = 𝜏𝑤 × 2 × 𝛱 × 2 × 𝑙
4×𝜏𝑤 ×𝑙
This results in 𝛥𝑝 = 𝑑
……………..(1)

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Now, according to Newton’s law of viscosity, we know that -:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=µ
𝑑𝑦
From the above equation we see that shear stress between fluid elemental layers is
distance dependent. The stream closer to the wall faces more shear stress. Let us
see this with the help of a diagram shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Variation of shear stress on fluid with distance from the axis

We can see that at the center the shear stress is minimum, so velocity will be
maximum at the center. Let us have a look at the velocity profile for gases or fluid
flowing in a pipe as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Velocity profile for a fluid flowing in a circular pipe for laminar flow

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From Fig. 5, we find that the velocity follows parabolic profile. Now we will provide
a proof of the same.

Fig. 6

We have seen earlier that shear stress will be zero along the axis of the pipe. Let
the maximum radius of the pipe be R.
Let us consider two concentric cylinders one of radius r and other of radius (r+ δr).
Now, we can write shear stress for cylinder 1 of radius r as-:

𝛥𝑝×𝑟
𝜏= (from equation (1), and also, d=2r)
𝑙×2

Now, according to Newton’s law of viscosity we can write-

𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = −µ 𝑑𝑟 (-ve sign shows decrease in velocity as one move away from the

center)

𝛥𝑝×𝑟 𝑑𝑢
Thus, 𝑙×2
= −µ 𝑑𝑟
𝛥𝑝
u= − 𝑙×2µ ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟

Integrating this, we get

𝛥𝑝𝑟 2
u= − 𝑙×4µ + 𝑐

Now, we know that

At r =0, u = umax and at r=R, u=0

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 𝛥𝑝×𝑅2
Thus c= 𝑙×4µ

𝛥𝑝×(𝑅2 −𝑟 2 )
So we can write u(r)= 𝑙×4𝜇
[u(r) is a function of ‘r’]

Now if we want to calculate Q (quantity of matter flowing), we must know mean

velocity (um). Here integrating u(r) with appropriate limits will be useful. Taking
lower limit as zero and upper as R and integrating we get
∆𝑝 𝑅 ∆𝑝×𝑅2 ∆𝑝×𝑑 2
um = ∫ (𝑅 2
4𝑙𝜇 0
− 𝑟 2 )𝑑𝑟 =
8𝑙𝜇
=
32𝑙𝜇

32×𝜇×𝑢𝑚 ×𝑙
Thus, pressure drop, Δp = 𝑑2
…….(2)

where, um= mean velocity = umax/2; d = diameter of duct (m); l= length of pipe
(m); µ= viscosity of fluid (Nsm-2)
∆𝑝𝜋𝑑 4
Now, quantity = um× 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 128×𝑙𝜇
----------------------------- (3)

Equation (3) is called Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow in pipes.

Note that these equations hold only when the pipe is placed in horizontal direction.
If it is made inclined, the role of gravity in pressure difference comes into existence
and the following conversions in equation (1) takes place-:
∆𝑝 → ∆𝑝 ± 𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 where, ∆𝑧 = 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃; ρ= density; g= acceleration due to
gravity

The ± sign is taken because it depends upon the direction of flow. It is taken as
positive if fluid flows downward and negative when the fluid flows upward.

Now if we are interested in calculating pressure loss (head loss), we can use the
formula
∆p
𝜌𝑔
= ℎf where hf = head loss (m)

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2.0 FRICTION FACTOR

This is one parameter which we generally dealt in turbulent flow. It is found out by
taking the ratio of pressure drop to the inertial stress (expressed in Newton per
meter square) i.e ,
∆𝑝
𝜌𝑣 2
2

Substituting the value of Δp from equation (2) we get -:

𝜇 𝑙 𝑙 𝜌𝑣𝑑
64( ) = 64 × ( ), where, Re =
𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝑑 𝑅𝑒 ×𝑑 µ

where, Re = Reynolds number and the friction factor λ is given by λ = 64/Re. It is

called Darcy friction factor and is a dimensionless quantity.

3.0 TURBULENT FLOW

This can be thought of as opposite to laminar flow. Most of the flow which we see in
our day to day life are examples of turbulent flow. Whether it is the flow of exhaust
gases from vehicle, flow of a river in undulating terrain, or water flowing from
drainage system, they are all turbulent in nature. We all know very well, the factors
or the parameters determining the type of flow i.e., laminar or turbulent. If we
remember the expression for REYNOLDS’ NUMBER, we can easily make out that
increase in velocity or diameter of duct (shape of pipe), as well as decrease in
viscosity make the flow turbulent. We all know the value of Reynolds number for
turbulent flow. If the value exceeds 4000, the flow is said to be turbulent. We also
know that, in case of turbulent flow the flow is highly chaotic in nature, or in other
words flow is complex or highly disordered. Now, let us discuss the path of a
moving piece of paper in air. Under which condition it is easy for you to predict the
path of paper: when the air velocity is low or high? Definitely its path can be
predicted in a better way if the air flows at low velocity whereas at higher air
velocity it is difficult to predict its path. Now, let us consider the case of a dust
particle, the size of which is much smaller compared to that of the paper. In this
case also, at lower velocity, it is possible to predict the path of the dust particle but
at higher velocity when the flow becomes turbulent, it becomes extremely difficult

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to predict its path. The dust particles are too small in size and they can be
compared to that of the particles of the fluid. At higher fluid velocity, as we are
finding difficulty in predicting the path of the dust, in the same way, it is also
difficult to predict the path of the fluid particles. However, the average velocity of
fluid particles is taken as the direction that comes out to be the direction of flow of
fluid in bulk. Fig. 7 shows the case of turbulent flow in fluids.

Fig. 7 Turbulent flow of fluid

From Fig. 7, we see that the molecules in a fluid move in a zig-zag motion and it is
difficult to predict their motion/path. It has no defined layers and if we try to draw
a velocity profile for it, we can’t do as we did in case of laminar flow.

It is said that presence of turbulent flow helps in heat transfer because of its
disordered motion. It also does not allow dust or smaller solid particles to settle
down. Do you think turbulent flow to be better for underground mine ventilation? In
mine ventilation, we want lesser heat transfer from the strata to mine atmosphere.
Further, if the flow is turbulent, it does not allow the dust particles to settle down
and such particles remain suspended in the atmosphere. This creates dusty mine
atmosphere which will have adverse impact on the health of workers and their
efficiency ultimately bringing down the production.

Coming to the head loss in case of turbulent flow, it is always higher than in case of
laminar flow. Besides providing frictional loss, it enhances shock loss because of the
formation of eddy current and simultaneously produces drag force. Thus in this
case head loss is more which in turn consumes more power for ventilation.

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REFERENCES

Hartman, H. L., Mutmansky, J. M. & Wang, Y. J. (1982); “Mine Ventilation and Air
Conditioning”; John Wiley & Sons, New York.

McPherson, M. J. (1993); Subsurface Ventilation and Environmental Engineering”;

Chapman & Hall, London.

Vutukuri, V. S. & Lama, R. D. (1986); “Environmental Engineering in Mines”;

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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