Protective

Relay
Principles

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Protective
Relay
Principles
A n t h o n y F. S l e v a

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sleva, Anthony F.
Protective relay principles / Anthony F. Sleva.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8247-5372-6 (alk. paper)
1. Protective relays. I. Title.

TK2861.S49 2009
621.31’7--dc22 2008040966

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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................... xiii
Author.................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments......................................................................................... xvii

  1. Power System Components...................................................................... 1

1.1 Transmission Lines........................................................................... 1
1.2 Distribution Lines............................................................................. 5
1.3 Transformers.................................................................................... 10
1.4 Circuit Breakers............................................................................... 15
1.5 Buses................................................................................................. 16
1.6 Switchyards...................................................................................... 18
1.7 Fuses................................................................................................. 19
1.8 Substations....................................................................................... 22
1.9 Reclosers........................................................................................... 23
1.10 Generators........................................................................................ 24

  2. Power System Subcomponents.............................................................. 27

2.1 Current Transformers..................................................................... 27
2.2 Voltage Transformers...................................................................... 31
2.3 Capacitive Coupled Voltage Transformers.................................. 32
2.4 Protective Relays............................................................................. 34
2.5 Control Relays................................................................................. 34
2.6 Master Trip Relays.......................................................................... 35
2.7 Programmable Logic Controllers................................................. 35
2.8 Insulators.......................................................................................... 35
2.9 Bushings........................................................................................... 36
2.10 Cable Terminators........................................................................... 36
2.11 Disconnect Switches....................................................................... 36
2.12 Air Break Switches.......................................................................... 38
2.13 Motor-Operated Air Break Switches............................................ 38
2.14 Ground Switches............................................................................. 39
2.15 Surge Arrestors................................................................................ 39
2.16 Sectionalizers................................................................................... 40
2.17 Batteries............................................................................................ 40

  3. Abnormal Power System Conditions................................................... 41

3.1 Short Circuits................................................................................... 41
3.1.1 Three-Phase Faults............................................................ 42
3.1.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults........................................................ 44
3.1.3 Double Phase-to-Ground Faults...................................... 44
3.1.4 Single Phase-to-Ground Faults........................................ 45
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3.1.5 Turn-to-Turn Faults............................................................ 47

3.1.6 Winding-to-Winding Faults............................................. 47
3.1.7 Winding-to-Ground Faults............................................... 47
3.1.8 Plate-to-Plate Faults........................................................... 47
3.2 Overloads......................................................................................... 48
3.3 Overvoltage...................................................................................... 48
3.4 Undervoltage................................................................................... 49
3.5 Overfrequency................................................................................. 49
3.6 Underfrequency.............................................................................. 50
3.7 Open Phase...................................................................................... 51
3.8 Single Phasing................................................................................. 51
3.9 Phase Unbalance............................................................................. 52
3.10 Volts per Hertz................................................................................. 54

  4. Short-Circuit Calculations...................................................................... 57
4.1 Symmetrical Components............................................................. 57
4.2 Positive Sequence Networks.......................................................... 59
4.3 Negative Sequence Networks....................................................... 60
4.4 Zero Sequence Networks............................................................... 60
4.5 Operators.......................................................................................... 61
4.6 Sequence Diagram Connections—Three-Phase Faults............. 63
4.7 Sequence Diagram Connections—Phase-to-Phase Faults........ 64
4.8 Sequence Diagram Connections—Single Phase-to-
Ground Faults.................................................................................. 65
4.9 Per-Unit Quantities......................................................................... 65
4.10 Sample Calculations....................................................................... 67
4.11 Sample Calculations—Three-Phase Faults.................................. 68
4.12 Sample Calculations—Phase-to-Phase Faults............................. 69
4.13 Sample Calculations—Single Phase-to-Ground Faults............. 71
4.14 Sample Calculations—Mutual Coupling..................................... 74

  5. Protective Relay Functions..................................................................... 79

5.1 Time Overcurrent Relay (51).......................................................... 80
5.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay (50)......................................... 82
5.3 Overvoltage Relay (59).................................................................... 83
5.4 Undervoltage Relay (27)................................................................. 85
5.5 Distance Relay (21).......................................................................... 86
5.6 Differential Relay (87)..................................................................... 88
5.7 Directional Relay (67)..................................................................... 89
5.8 Underfrequency Relay (81)............................................................. 90
5.9 Overfrequency Relay (81)............................................................... 91

  6. Protective Relay Functional Combinations........................................ 93

6.1 Voltage-Controlled Time Overcurrent Relay.............................. 93
6.2 Torque-Controlled Time Overcurrent Relay............................... 94

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Contents vii

6.3 Logic-Controlled Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay................. 94

6.4 Torque-Controlled Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay............... 95
6.5 Logic-Controlled Overvoltage Relay............................................ 95
6.6 Logic-Controlled Undervoltage Relay......................................... 95
6.7 Logic-Controlled Distance Relay.................................................. 96
6.8 Current-Supervised Distance Relay............................................. 96
6.9 Logic-Supervised Differential Relay............................................ 96
6.10 Current-Supervised Differential Relay........................................ 97
6.11 Current-Supervised Underfrequency Relay............................... 97
6.12 Dual Underfrequency Relays........................................................ 97

  7. Zones and Regions of Protection.......................................................... 99

7.1 Zones of Protection......................................................................... 99
7.1.1 Relay Characteristics and Applied Setpoint................ 101
7.1.1.1 Overcurrent Relays.......................................... 101
7.1.1.2 Distance Relays................................................. 102
7.1.1.3 Differential Relays............................................ 103
7.1.2 Instrument Transformer Location, Connection,
Polarity, and Ratio............................................................ 103
7.1.2.1 Overcurrent Relays.......................................... 103
7.1.2.2 Distance Relays................................................. 104
7.1.2.3 Differential Relays............................................ 104
7.1.3 Control Scheme Logic..................................................... 105
7.1.4 Power System Configuration.......................................... 105
7.2 Regions of Protection.....................................................................111
7.2.1 Relay Characteristics and Applied Setpoint.................113
7.2.1.1 Overvoltage Relays...........................................113
7.2.1.2 Undervoltage Relays.........................................115
7.2.1.3 Underfrequency Relays....................................115
7.2.1.4 Overfrequency Relays......................................116
7.2.1.5 Unbalanced Voltage Relays..............................117
7.2.2 Instrument Transformer Location, Connection,
Polarity, and Ratio.............................................................117
7.2.2.1 Overvoltage Relays...........................................117
7.2.2.2 Undervoltage Relays.........................................117
7.2.2.3 Underfrequency Relays....................................117
7.2.2.4 Overfrequency Relays......................................117
7.2.2.5 Unbalanced Voltage Relays..............................118
7.2.3 Control Scheme Logic......................................................118
7.2.4 Power System Configuration...........................................118

  8. Physical Characteristics of Protective Relays................................... 123

8.1 Electromechanical Relays............................................................ 123
8.2 Solid-State Relays.......................................................................... 125
8.3 Microprocessor-Based Relays...................................................... 126

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8.4 Relay Operation............................................................................. 126

8.5 Relay Packaging............................................................................ 127

  9. Setting Considerations.......................................................................... 131

9.1 Power System Configuration and Operation............................ 131
9.1.1 Mutual Coupling.............................................................. 133
9.1.2 Ground Bank Action....................................................... 135
9.2 Power System Requirements....................................................... 140
9.3 Maximum Short-Circuit Current—Fault in Protected
Zone.................................................................................................141
9.4 Maximum Relay Short-Circuit Current—Fault in
Adjacent Zone................................................................................ 142
9.5 Minimum Relay Short-Circuit Current—Fault in
Protected Zone.............................................................................. 142
9.6 Fault Current Ratio....................................................................... 143
9.7 Relay Sensitivity............................................................................ 145
9.8 Circuit Loading............................................................................. 146
9.9 Relay Coordination....................................................................... 151
9.10 Directionality................................................................................. 152
9.11 Accuracy of Calculations............................................................. 153
9.12 Device Accuracy............................................................................ 154
9.13 Circuit-Breaker Operating Times............................................... 155
9.14 Transient Overreach..................................................................... 155
9.15 Cold Load Inrush.......................................................................... 157
9.16 Redundancy................................................................................... 159
9.17 Relay Drift...................................................................................... 159
9.18 Security........................................................................................... 160
9.19 Arc Flash Hazard.......................................................................... 160
9.20 Circuit Breaker-Failure Detection and Isolation.......................161
9.21 Free-Standing CT Flashover Detection.......................................162
9.22 Switchable Settings........................................................................162
9.23 Recovery Voltage Inrush...............................................................162

10. Protection and Control Schemes......................................................... 163

10.1 Alternative Protective Relay Trip Logic..................................... 171
10.2 Supervised Protective Relay Logic............................................. 173

11. Protective Relay Coordination............................................................. 175

11.1 Instantaneous Current Relays..................................................... 175
11.2 Time Overcurrent Relays..............................................................176
11.2.1 Maximum Current Flow with Normal Fault
Clearing..............................................................................176
11.2.2 Maximum Current Flow When a Remote Circuit
Breaker Fails to Open...................................................... 177

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11.2.3 Maximum Ratio of Through Current for

Restricted Faults on Each Remote Line........................ 177
11.2.4 Maximum Ratio of Through Current for
Restricted Faults on Each Remote Line and
Remote Circuit Breaker Fails to Open.......................... 178
11.3 Instantaneous Voltage Relays...................................................... 178
11.4 Time-Delayed Voltage Relays...................................................... 179
11.5 Instantaneous (Zone 1) Impedance Relays................................ 179
11.6 Time-Delayed (Zone 2 or Zone 3) Impedance Relays.............. 180
11.7 Instantaneous Frequency Relays................................................ 180
11.8 Time-Delayed Frequency Relays................................................ 181

12. Distribution-Line Protection: Radial Lines...................................... 183

12.1 Distribution-Line Protection Philosophy.................................. 184
12.1.1 Time Overcurrent Phase Relays.................................... 185
12.1.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relays.................... 185
12.1.3 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays................................. 185
12.1.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays................. 186
12.2 Setpoint Margin Considerations................................................. 186
12.3 Distribution-Line Protection....................................................... 188
12.4 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 191
12.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 191
12.6 Low Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup
Setting............................................................................................. 192
12.7 Low-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay
Pickup Setting............................................................................... 192
12.8 High-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup
Setting............................................................................................. 193
12.9 High-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay
Pickup Setting............................................................................... 196
12.10 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 197
12.11 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 197
12.12 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 204
12.13 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 205
12.14 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 206
12.15 Time Overcurrent Relay Ground Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 207

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13. Distribution-Line Protection: Network Lines.................................. 213

13.1 Networked Distribution-Line Protection Philosophy..............214
13.1.1 Time Overcurrent Phase Relays.....................................214
13.1.2 Definite Time Overcurrent Phase Relays..................... 215
13.1.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relays.................... 215
13.1.4 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays................................. 215
13.1.5 Definite Time Overcurrent Ground Relays.................. 215
13.1.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays................. 215
13.2 Setpoint Margin Considerations..................................................216
13.3 Distribution-Line Protection....................................................... 218
13.4 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 218
13.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 221
13.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting........ 221
13.7 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting..... 224
13.8 Definite Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting......... 225
13.9 Definite Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting..... 225
13.10 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 226
13.11 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 226
13.12 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 227
13.13 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 229
13.14 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 231
13.15 Time Overcurrent Relay Ground Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 231

14. Transmission-Line Protection.............................................................. 235

14.1 Phase Distance Relays.................................................................. 236
14.2 Ground Distance Relays............................................................... 246
14.3 Overcurrent Ground Relays........................................................ 247
14.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays.............................. 250
14.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays.............................................. 251
14.6 Directional Unit Sensitivity for Ground Faults........................ 254
14.7 Current-Polarized Ground Relays.............................................. 254
14.8 Voltage-Polarized Ground Relays............................................... 255
14.9 High-Speed Relaying Schemes................................................... 255
14.9.1 Permissive Overreaching Scheme................................. 256
14.9.2 Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme.................. 257
14.9.3 Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip Schemes............. 258
14.9.4 Direct Transfer Trip Schemes......................................... 259

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14.10 Line Differential Scheme............................................................. 260

14.11 CT Saturation................................................................................. 261

15. Transformer Protection......................................................................... 263

15.1 Transformer External Fault Protection...................................... 271

16. Bus Protection......................................................................................... 275

16.1 Overcurrent Bus Differential...................................................... 275
16.2 Bus Differential—Quick Trip Settings....................................... 276
16.3 Bus Differential—Time Overcurrent Settings.......................... 277
16.4 High-Impedance Bus Differential.............................................. 279
16.5 Sensitivity for Bus Faults.............................................................. 284

17. Breaker Failure Relaying...................................................................... 285

17.1 Remote Breaker Failure Protection—Phase Distance
Relays.............................................................................................. 285
17.2 Remote Breaker Failure Protection—Overcurrent Ground
Relays.............................................................................................. 286
17.3 Remote Breaker Failure Protection—Watt-Type Ground
Relays.............................................................................................. 287
17.4 Local Breaker Failure Protection—Traditional......................... 287
17.5 Control Elementary Diagram...................................................... 291
17.6 Control Elementary Diagram...................................................... 293
17.7 Local Breaker Failure Protection for Transformer
Protection....................................................................................... 296

18. Capacitor Protection............................................................................... 299

18.1 Neutral Current Monitoring........................................................ 301
18.2 Midpoint Voltage Monitoring..................................................... 303

19. Shunt and Series Reactor Protection.................................................. 307

20. Grid Protection........................................................................................ 315

20.1 Voltage Issues................................................................................. 315
20.2 Undervoltage Protection—Grid Protection................................316
20.3 Undervoltage Protection—Load Protection.............................. 317
20.4 Overvoltage Protection—Grid Protection................................. 319
20.5 Overvoltage Protection—Load Protection................................ 320
20.6 Frequency Control........................................................................ 322
20.7 Underfrequency Relaying............................................................ 324
20.8 Overfrequency Relaying.............................................................. 329

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

This introductory book for protective relay applications is based on notes

prepared for courses presented for the Lehigh Valley Section of IEEE,
for the Center for Power System Study at Lehigh University, and for the
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee School of Continuing Education.
With the introduction of microprocessor-based relays, many traditional
application considerations are somewhat hidden in the hundreds of pages
of documentation that accompany new relays. The purpose of this book
is to provide a reference that can be used to understand basic protective
relay setting considerations.
Short descriptions of key power system components have been included
to enable understanding of selected components. Sample calculations
have been provided to illustrate items that need to be considered when
developing settings for a wide variety of protective relay applications. My
goal was to develop a book that can be used by engineers and technicians
when selecting protective relaying schemes, specifying protective relay
setpoints, and reviewing protective relay actuations. This includes simple
overcurrent schemes, undervoltage and overvoltage schemes, underfre-
quency and overfrequency schemes, bus differential relaying, transformer
differential relaying, phase distance relay applications, and communica-
tion aided relaying.
During my professional career, I had the opportunity to work with
major investor-owned utilities in rural areas and in major metropolitan
areas, with rural electric agencies, with cooperative electric utilities, and
with railway systems, dredging operations, coal mines, and a wide vari-
ety of heavy power industrial systems. This book is an attempt to capture
salient protective relay considerations learned during a long and diverse
protective relaying career.

Anthony F. Sleva

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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Author

Anthony F. Sleva holds a BSEE from Penn State University. He worked

for Pennsylvania Power & Light Company in the relay section of System
Operations, where he developed settings for protective relays used for
distribution line, transmission line, transformer, bus, motor, generator,
and capacitor protection. He subsequently worked in substation engi-
neering, nuclear plant engineering, and drafting services at PP&L before
expanding his horizons and accepting employment with Altran Solutions
in Cranbury, New Jersey, where he worked as manager of electrical engi-
neering and directed the development of studies, drawings, and specifica-
tions for clients throughout the northeastern and middle Atlantic United
States. Sleva is currently employed by Pike Electric, where he directs the
development of studies, drawings, and specifications for clients through-
out the western United States.
Sleva has developed protective relay schemes and protective relay set-
points for high voltage, medium voltage, and low voltage systems and
equipment used in open air, enclosed, and underground applications.
He has developed specifications, procured, witnessed factory acceptance
tests, supervised installation, and approved field acceptance tests for a
wide variety of electrical components including circuit breakers, trans-
formers, switchgear, air break switches, and substations in addition to
his extensive experience with protective relaying systems. In addition
to his work with investor-owned electric utilities, rural electric utilities,
and cooperative electric utilities, Sleva has provided engineering ser-
vices for independent power generators, distributed generation providers,
dredging operations, mining operations, railway systems, and standby
generator vendors (emergency, standby, and peak shaving applications).
His experience also includes short-term assignments as a system opera-
tor in a power control center and as a substation repairman in distribu-
tion substations. He has extensive knowledge of power system operations,
power system security, and equipment performance characteristics.
Sleva is an ad hoc instructor at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee,
where he has been presenting courses in protective relaying applications,
understanding power systems, motor theory and applications, and sub-
station design since 1996. He is a senior member of IEEE, a member of
IEEE’s Power System Relay Committee, a former member of IEEE’s Nuclear
Power Engineering Committee, and a licensed professional engineer.

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Acknowledgments

During everyone’s professional career, some individuals are so helpful,

that they leave an indelible mark. I’d like to recognize the following peo-
ple for what they gave to me:

Phoebe Tomko, high school math teacher (deceased), for convincing

my parents that enrolling in electrical engineering at Penn State
University was a good thing.
Professor C. B. Holt (deceased), for lighting the spark by introducing
me to symmetrical components.
Raymond J. Fernandez, PE, for taking the time to develop my protective
relaying skills and for providing the inspiration for my life’s work.
Thomas J. Domin, PE, for taking the time to develop my under-
standing of power system design and operations, for working
with me to develop effective communication skills, and for con-
tinuous mentoring.
Donald A. Reimert, for taking the time to discuss every difficult
problem I’ve encountered and for providing practical insights to
obscure technical considerations.
Eileen Sleva, for sharing my life and my enthusiasm for electrical
power systems.

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