1.

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Cont
entt
heor
iesofmot
ivat
ionf
ocusmor
eont
her
elev
anceofi
ntr
insi
cneedsi
nthe
pr
ocessofmot
ivat
ion.Var
iousr
esear
cher
sli
keMasl
ow,Al
der
fer
,Her
zber
gand
McCl
ell
andpoi
ntedoutt
her
eal
i
tyofhumanneedsandt
hei
rrol
einact
ivat
ingand
ener
gizi
ngt
hehumanbehav
ior
.But
,sadl
yal
lcont
entt
heor
iest
reat
edal
lempl
oyees
al
i
ke,al
lsi
tuat
ionsal
i
keandassumedt
hatt
her
eisonl
yonebestwayt
omot
ivat
e
t
heempl
oyees.Thecont
entt
heor
iesdi
dnott
akei
ntoconsi
der
ati
oni
ndi
vi
dual
di
ff
erencesandhence,uni
quenessofi
ndi
vi
dualneeds.I
nrecenty
ear
s,adi
ff
erent
appr
oacht
ounder
standt
heconceptofmot
ivat
ionhasemer
gedout
.Thi
sappr
oach
const
it
utespr
ocesst
heor
iesofmot
ivat
ionwhi
chv
iewmot
ivat
ionasani
ndi
vi
dual
’
s
deci
siont
oacti
napar
ti
cul
armanner
.Pr
ocesst
heor
iesofmot
ivat
iont
ryt
oident
if
y
t
hev
ari
abl
est
hati
nfl
uenceani
ndi
vi
dual
’
slev
elofmot
ivat
ionandr
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weensuchv
ari
abl
es.

2.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPr
ocesst
heor
iesofmot
ivat
ion
Ther
ear
efourpr
ocesst
heor
iesnamel
y:
 Expect
ancyt
heor
y
 Equi
tyt
heor
y
 Per
for
mance-
sat
isf
act
ionmodel
 Goal
set
ti
ngt
heor
y

3.Expect
ancyt
heor
y
Theexpect
ancymodelofmot
ivat
ionwaspr
opoundedbyVi
ctorH.Vr
oom.Thi
s
t
heor
yiscl
assi
fi
edaspr
ocesst
heor
ybecauset
het
heor
yat
tempt
stoi
dent
if
ythe
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween t
he v
ari
abl
es whi
ch af
fecti
ndi
vi
dualbehav
iour
.Vr
oom’
s
expect
ancymodelest
abl
i
shedt
hatmot
ivat
ionofani
ndi
vi
dualdependsupont
he
st
rengt
hofhi
sexpect
ati
ont
hatacer
tai
nactwi
l
lleadt
oadesi
rabl
eout
comeandt
he
degr
eet
owhi
cht
hatout
comei
spr
efer
redbyt
hati
ndi
vi
dual
.Maj
orcont
ri
but
ionof
t
hist
heor
yint
heconceptofmot
ivat
ioncanbedescr
ibedi
nter
msofi
dent
if
icat
ionof
v
ari
ousf
orcest
hatmot
ivat
eani
ndi
vi
dualt
oper
for
m ont
hej
ob.Ther
ear
ethr
ee
v
ari
abl
eswhi
char
eexpl
ainedbyt
heexpect
ancymodel
:Val
ence,Expect
ancyand
I
nst
rument
ali
ty.Thi
smodelpost
ulat
est
hatmot
ivat
ioni
smul
ti
pli
erofal
loft
hese
t
hreev
ari
abl
es.Ther
efor
e,i
n or
dert
o mot
ivat
ean i
ndi
vi
dual
,al
loft
heset
hree
v
ari
abl
esmusthav
eposi
ti
vev
alue.I
fanyoneoft
heset
hreev
ari
abl
esbecomeszer
o,
mot
ivat
ionwi
l
lal
sobezer
o.
Thet
hreev
ari
abl
esar
eexpl
ainedasf
oll
ows:
a)Val
ence:I
tref
erst
oat
tract
ionoft
heout
comet
oani
ndi
vi
dual
.Val
encei
sthe
st
rengt
hofani
ndi
vi
dual
’
spr
efer
encef
orapar
ti
cul
arout
comeorr
ewar
d.Val
ence
i
sasubj
ect
ivephenomenonandt
her
efor
eitv
ari
esf
rom per
sont
oper
son.Val
ue
ofv
alencer
angesbet
ween-
1to+1.I
fani
ndi
vi
dualpr
efert
oachi
evesome
out
come,v
alencei
nthatcasewi
l
lbeposi
ti
ve.I
fani
ndi
vi
dualdoesnotpr
efert
o
achi
evecer
tai
nout
come,
int
hatcasev
alencewi
l
lbenegat
iveandv
alencewi
l
lbe
zer
oifani
ndi
vi
dual
expr
essesi
ndi
ff
erentat
ti
tudet
owar
dsachi
evi
ngt
heout
come.
Ther
efor
e,i
tcan be sai
dthati
n or
dert
o mot
ivat
e an i
ndi
vi
dualf
orcer
tai
n
out
come,
val
enceoft
her
ewar
dassoci
atedwi
tht
heout
comemustbeposi
ti
vef
or
t
hati
ndi
vi
dual
.

b)Expect
ancy
:Expect
ancyi
sal
socal
l
edef
for
t-
per
for
mancepr
obabi
l
ity
.Itr
efer
sto
t
heext
entani
ndi
vi
dualbel
i
evest
hatcer
tai
nlev
elofef
for
tsmadebyhi
m wi
l
llead
t
othe achi
evementofdesi
red l
evelofout
come orcompl
eti
on oft
he t
ask.
Expect
ancyi
sthepr
obabi
l
ityt
hatapar
ti
cul
aramountofef
for
twi
l
lleadt
odesi
red
l
evelofper
for
mance(
fi
rstl
evelout
come)
.Si
ncei
tisapr
obabi
l
ity
,it
sval
uewi
l
l
v
aryf
rom 0t
o1.I
fani
ndi
vi
dualbel
i
evest
hatpr
obabi
l
ityofachi
evi
ngt
hedesi
red
l
evelofper
for
mancei
szer
oi.
eifani
ndi
vi
dualf
eel
sthathewi
l
lnotbeabl
eto
achi
evecer
tai
nlev
elofper
for
mancenomat
terhow har
dhewor
ks,hewi
l
lnot
ev
ent
ryt
oputef
for
ts.Ont
heot
herhand,i
faper
sonbel
i
evest
hatpr
obabi
l
ityof
achi
evi
ngt
hedesi
redl
evelofper
for
mancei
sposi
ti
ve,
hewi
l
ltr
yhar
dert
oachi
eve
t
hedesi
redout
come.
Forexampl
e,asal
esagentwhohasbeenassi
gnedat
askofsel
l
ing100uni
tsof
cel
lphones i
n a mont
h wi
l
lputmor
e ef
for
tst
o achi
eve desi
red l
evelof
per
for
mancei
fhebel
i
evest
hathewi
l
lbeabl
etosel
l100cel
lphonesi
namont
h.
But
,ifhebel
i
evest
hati
tisi
mpossi
blet
osel
l100mobi
l
ephonesi
namont
h
i
rr
espect
iveoft
hel
evelofef
for
tsheputi
nthedesi
reddi
rect
ion,hewi
l
lnott
ryt
o
compl
etet
het
ask.

)I
c nst
rument
ali
ty:I
tisal
socal
l
edper
for
mance-
rewar
dpr
obabi
l
ity
.Inst
rument
ali
tyi
s
t
heexpect
ati
onofani
ndi
vi
dualt
hathi
sper
for
mancewi
l
lleadt
odesi
redr
ewar
d
associ
ated wi
tht
he per
for
mance.I
tis pr
obabi
l
ityt
hatf
ir
stl
evelout
come
(
per
for
mance)wi
l
lleadt
othesecondl
evelout
come(
rewar
d).Thei
nst
rument
ali
ty
al
sov
ari
esf
rom 0t
o1.I
nst
rument
ali
tywi
l
lbeposi
ti
ve,i
fani
ndi
vi
dualbel
i
eves
t
hataf
terachi
evi
ngdesi
redl
evel
ofper
for
mance,
hewi
l
lget
 r
ewar
dsassoci
atedwi
thi
t.Wher
eas,
inst
rument
ali
tywi
l
lbezer
oifaper
son
bel
i
evest
hatdesi
redl
evel
ofper
for
mancewi
l
lnotl
eadt
odesi
redr
ewar
ds.

Aspert
heVr
oom’
sexpect
ancymodel
:

Mot
ivat
ion=Val
ence*
Expect
ancy
*Inst
rument
ali
ty

Thi
srel
ati
onshi
pexpl
ainst
hatmot
ivat
ionl
evel
ofani
ndi
vi
dual
wil
lbehi
gheri
fal
lof
t
heset
hreeel
ement
sar
ehi
gherandmot
ivat
ionl
evelwi
l
lbedecr
easedi
fanyof
t
heseel
ement
swi
l
lbel
ower
.Thi
smodelcanhel
pthemanagementt
odet
ermi
ne
t
hebehav
iourofempl
oyeesandt
akenecessar
yst
epst
omodi
fyt
hesame.

Vr
oom’
sexpect
ancymodel
isdescr
ibedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngf
igur
e:

I
nst
rument
ali
t

Secondl
evel
Fi
rstlevel outcomes
outcomes

Expect
ancy Out
come
Out
come

Out
come1B

Moti
vat
iona
l
For
ce
Out
come

Out
come

Out
come2B

Sour
ce:
Aswat
happa,
K.,
“Or
gani
sat
ional
Behav
iour
”,Hi
mal
ayaPubl
i
shi
ngHouse,
pp.218.
 Cr
it
ical
anal
ysi
sofVr
oom’
sExpect
ancyModel
:

Vr
oom’
sexpect
ancymodel
wasappr
eci
atedont
hef
oll
owi
nggr
ounds:

a)Thismodelisveryusefuli
nunder
standingorgani
sat
ionalbehavi
our
.Themodel
explai
nshowindivi
dual’
sbehavi
ourisinfl
uencedbyhisgoals.
b)Thisisacogni
tiv
et heorywhi
chassumest hathumanbeingsarerat
ional
.They
canant
ici
pat
ethei
rgoal
achi
evementandamountofef
for
tsr
equi
redt
o
achi
evet
hegoal
s.
c
)Thi
stheor
ysay
sthatmot
ivat
ioni
snotj
ustaboutt
hesat
isf
iedandunsat
isf
ied
needsofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Ef
for
tsmadebyani
ndi
vi
dualcanr
esul
tinachi
evementof
desi
rabl
erewar
dswhi
chi
ntur
nwi
l
limpr
ovet
hemot
ivat
ion.
Despi
teoft
heabov
ement
ionedadv
ant
ages,
themodel
wascr
it
ici
sedbecause:
a)Thi
stheor
yisv
erycompl
exandhencedi
ff
icul
ttopr
act
ice.
b)Thet
heor
yassumest
hehumanbei
ngt
ober
ati
onal
whomakesal
ldeci
sions
consci
ousl
y.But
,inr
eal
i
tysomanydeci
si
onsar
etakenwi
thoutconsci
ous
t
hought
s.
c
)Manager
sdon’
thav
eenought
imei
mpl
ementsuchacompl
exmodel
ont
hej
ob.

4.Equi
tyt
heor
yofMot
ivat
ion
Equi
tyt
heor
ypr
oposedbyJ.St
aceyAdam i
sthemostpopul
aranddev
elopedv
ersi
on
ofequi
ty.I
tisbasedont
hesi
mpl
eassumpt
iont
hatal
lindi
vi
dual
sexpectt
obe
t
reat
edf
air
ly.Accor
dingt
othi
stheor
y,equi
tyi
stheper
cept
ionofempl
oyeest
hatwe
ar
etr
eat
ed equal
l
y as compar
ed t
o ot
her
s and i
nequi
tyi
sthe per
cept
ion of
empl
oyeest
hatwear
etr
eat
edunf
air
lyascompar
edt
oot
her
s.Empl
oyeesassess
whatt
heygetf
rom t
hej
ob(
sal
ary
)agai
nstt
hei
nput
s(exper
ience,
educat
ion)t
heyput
i
ntot
hej
ob.Theycompar
ethei
rout
come-
inputr
ati
owi
thout
come-
inputr
ati
oofot
her
r
elev
anti
ndi
vi
dual
s.I
findi
vi
dual
sper
cei
vet
hei
rrat
iot
obeequalt
other
ati
oofot
her
s
i
.e.i
ftheyf
eel
thatt
heyar
eget
ti
ngsal
aryequal
toot
her
s,st
ateofequi
tyexi
sts.But
,if
ani
ndi
vi
dualper
cei
veshi
srat
iot
obeunequali
.e.i
ftheyf
eelt
hatt
heyar
eov
erpai
dor
under
pai
d,st
ateofi
nequi
typr
evai
l
s.Seet
hef
oll
owi
ngequat
ionst
ounder
standsuch
compar
isons:

′ St
ateofequi
ty
(
i) =
′
ℎ

′
(
ii
) ′
> ℎ
St
ateofi
nequi
tyduet
oov
erpai
d
(
ii
i) ′
< St
ateofi
nequi
tyduet
ounder
pai
d
ℎ ′

Asgi
veni
ntheabov
eequat
ionsaf
eel
i
ngofequi
typr
evai
l
swhenout
put
/i
nputr
ati
oof
t
hei
ndi
vi
duali
sequalt
otheout
put
/i
nputr
ati
oofot
her
stoassesst
hest
ateofequi
ty
ori
nequi
ty.Thet
heor
ysuggest
sthatt
her
ear
efourpossi
blecompar
isonswhi
chan
empl
oyeemakeswi
thot
her
s.Thesecompar
isonsar
edi
scussedasbel
ow:

(
i)Sel
f-
Insi
de:When an empl
oyee compar
es hi
msel
f wi
th hi
s own pr
evi
ous
exper
iencesatsomedi
ff
erentposi
ti
oni
nhi
scur
rentor
gani
sat
ion.
(
i)Sel
i f-
out
side:When an empl
oyee compar
es hi
msel
fwi
th hi
s own pr
evi
ous
exper
iencesatsomedi
ff
erentposi
ti
onout
sidehi
scur
rentor
gani
sat
ion.
(
ii
i)Ot
her
-I
nsi
de:Whenanempl
oyeecompar
eshi
msel
fwi
thanot
heri
ndi
vi
duali
nsi
de
hi
scur
rentor
gani
sat
ion.
(
ivOt
) her
-Out
side:When an empl
oyee compar
es hi
msel
fwi
th anot
heri
ndi
vi
dual
out
sidehi
scur
rentor
gani
sat
ion.

Peopl
ehav
ethenat
uralt
endencyt
ocompar
ethemsel
veswi
tht
hei
rfr
iends,
rel
ati
ves
andcol
l
eagueswor
kingi
ntheot
heror
gani
sat
ionsort
heymaycompar
ethei
rpr
esent
j
obswi
tht
hei
rownpastj
obs.Whi
chper
sonanempl
oyeewi
l
lsel
ectf
orcompar
ison
dependsupont
het
ypeofi
nfor
mat
ionempl
oyeehasaboutt
her
efer
entandt
he
at
tr
act
ivenessoft
her
efer
ent
.

Thet
heor
ypost
ulat
est
hatwhenani
ndi
vi
dual
per
cei
vest
hef
eel
i
ngofi
nequi
ty,
hewi
l
l
bemot
ivat
edt
oreducei
t.Notonl
ythosewhoexper
iencei
nequi
tyf
eelmot
ivat
edt
o
r
educei
t,butev
ent
hosewhoexper
ienceequi
tywi
l
lbemot
ivat
edt
omai
ntai
nit
.In
or
dert
oreduce t
he f
eel
i
ng ofequi
ty,an i
ndi
vi
dualmaychoose t
he f
oll
owi
ng
al
ter
nat
ives:

a)Changei
nput
:Aper
soncanchanget
hel
evelofi
nput
shei
sput
ti
ngi
nhi
sjob
dependi
ngupont
hef
eel
i
ngofequi
tyori
nequi
ty.
b)Change out
come:A per
son may r
equestt
he managementt
oincr
ease hi
s
out
comesi
fhef
eel
siti
nequi
tabl
e.
c
)Change t
he per
cept
ion ofsel
f:I
nst
ead ofal
ter
ing t
he i
nput
s orout
comes,
i
ndi
vi
dual
smaychanget
hei
rper
cept
ionaboutt
hemsel
ves.I
ftheyar
eov
erpai
d,
t
heycanf
eelasi
ftheyar
epai
dmor
ebecauset
hei
rtasksandassi
gnment
sar
e
mor
echal
l
engi
ng.
 d)Changet
heper
cept
ionaboutot
her
s:I
nor
dert
oreducet
hef
eel
i
ngofi
nequi
ty,
peopl
ecanchanget
hei
rper
cept
ionaboutot
her
s.Forexampl
e:i
faper
sonf
eel
s
t
hathei
sget
ti
ngmor
esal
aryt
hanot
her
s,hemayst
artt
hinki
ngl
i
ket
heot
her
per
son’
sjobi
snotcont
ri
but
ingmuchi
ntheor
gani
sat
ion.
e)Chooseadi
ff
erentper
sonf
orcompar
isons:I
fcompar
ingonewi
thaspeci
fi
c
per
sonr
esul
tsi
nthef
eel
i
ngofi
nequi
ty,onemaychoosesomeoneel
sef
or
compar
isons.
f
) Leav
ethesi
tuat
ion:Aper
sonmaywi
thdr
aw f
rom t
hesi
tuat
ionwhi
chpr
oduces
t
hef
eel
i
ngofi
nequi
ty.

Cr
it
ical
anal
ysi
sofEqui
tyTheor
y:

Equi
tyt
heor
yadopt
ed t
her
eal
i
sti
cappr
oach ofmot
ivat
ion i
n an or
gani
sat
ional
cont
ext
.The t
heor
ypr
oposed t
hati
ndi
vi
dual
s ar
e notonl
yconcer
ned wi
tht
he
r
ewar
dst
heygetf
ort
hei
ref
for
tsbutal
sof
airt
reat
mentt
heygeti
ncompar
isont
o
ot
her
s.Thet
heor
yrecogni
sedt
hei
mpor
tanceofsel
fandsoci
alcompar
isonsi
nthe
pr
ocessofmot
ivat
ion.I
tassumest
hatmot
ivat
ioni
snotj
ustbasedont
heact
ual
ci
rcumst
ancesbut
,per
cei
vedci
rcumst
ancesal
somat
teral
ot.Thet
heor
yrev
olv
es
ar
oundt
hef
eel
i
ngofequi
tyandf
airt
reat
ment
.But
,inr
eal
i
tyt
hisconceptofequi
tyi
s
notpr
efer
redbyal
l
.Manydi
ff
icul
ti
esmayhav
etobecount
eredwhi
l
eimpl
ement
ati
on
ofequi
tyt
heor
y.Forexampl
e:How doesaper
sonwi
l
lchooser
efer
entper
sonf
or
compar
isons?How canmanagementev
aluat
eani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sper
cept
ionr
egar
ding
i
nput
-out
comer
ati
o?Duet
osuchdi
ff
icul
ti
est
hist
heor
ybecomesv
erycompl
exand
di
ff
icul
ttoi
mpl
ement
.

5.Por
terandLawl
er’
sPer
for
mance-
Sat
isf
act
ionModel
ofMot
ivat
ion
Por
terandLawl
ergav
eani
ncl
usi
vet
heor
yofmot
ivat
ion.Thet
heor
yexpl
ainedt
hat
ani
ndi
vi
dual
’
smot
ivat
ion,per
for
manceandsat
isf
act
ionar
esepar
atev
ari
abl
esbut
ar
erel
atedt
oeachot
heri
ndi
ff
erentway
s.Por
terandLawl
er’
smodelofmot
ivat
ion
mat
cheswi
thVr
oom’
sexpect
ancymodelt
olar
geext
ent
.Themodeli
sexpl
ainedi
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngf
igur
e:
 Val
ueof Abil
i
tyand Perceiv
ed
Rewar
d Trai
ts equit
abler
ewar
ds

I
ntr
insi
c
r
ewards
Perfor
mance Sat
isf
act
ion
Ef
for
ts
Accompli
shment

Extr
insi
c
rewards

Percei
ved Rol
e
Ef
fortReward Per
cept
ion
Probabi
li
ty

Sour
ce:
Aswat
happa,
K.,
“Or
gani
sat
ional
Behav
iour
”,Hi
mal
ayaPubl
i
shi
ngHouse,
pp.227.

Thef
igur
egi
venabov
ecl
ear
lyshowst
hatt
hismul
ti
var
iat
emodelofmot
ivat
ion
expl
ainst
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenef
for
t,per
for
manceandsat
isf
act
ion.I
tisi
mpor
tant
t
opoi
ntouther
ethatef
for
tleadst
oper
for
mancebutt
hisr
elat
ionshi
pisnotdi
rect
.
Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenef
for
tandper
for
mancei
sinf
luencedbyi
ndi
vi
dual
’
sabi
l
iti
es,
t
rai
tsandhi
sper
cept
ionaboutt
her
olehei
sper
for
ming.Fur
ther
,thedesi
redl
evelof
per
for
mance r
esul
tsi
nthe i
ntr
insi
c and ext
ri
nsi
crewar
ds associ
ated wi
tht
he
per
for
mance.Butper
cei
vedequi
tabl
erewar
dsdet
ermi
net
hel
evelofsat
isf
act
ionof
ani
ndi
vi
dual
.Thi
smodel
isbasedont
hef
oll
owi
ngassumpt
ions:

a)Themodel
assumesempl
oyeest
ober
ati
onal
whot
akeconsci
ousdeci
sions
aboutt
hei
rbehav
iouri
ntheor
gani
sat
ions.
b)Al
lempl
oyeeshav
edi
ff
erentneeds,
desi
resandgoal
s.
c
)Indi
vi
dual
behav
iouri
sdet
ermi
nedbycombi
nat
ionofsi
tuat
ional
fact
ors,
env
ironmentandempl
oyees’
trai
tsandper
cept
ionaboutt
her
ole.
Thev
ari
abl
esexpl
ainedbyt
hismodel
aredi
scussedasf
oll
ows:

) Ef
1 for
t:Ef
for
tref
erst
otheener
gywhi
chani
ndi
vi
dual
putt
oper
for
m hi
sjob.
) Val
2 ueofr
ewar
d:Thi
siswhatwasexpl
ainedbyVr
oom’
sexpect
ancymodel
asVal
ence.I
tref
erst
othedegr
eeofat
tr
act
ivenessofr
ewar
dassoci
ated
wi
tht
heper
for
mance.
) Per
3 cei
vedEf
for
tRewar
dpr
obabi
l
ity
:Thi
sref
erst
othepr
obabi
l
ityt
hatcer
tai
n
l
evelofef
for
twi
l
lleadt
odesi
redl
evelofper
for
manceandf
urt
herpr
obabi
l
ity
t
hatt
heper
for
mancewi
l
lleadt
ocer
tai
nki
ndsofr
ewar
ds.I
fthepr
obabi
l
ityi
s
posi
ti
veonl
ytheni
ndi
vi
dual
swi
l
ldeci
det
oputcer
tai
nlev
elofef
for
ts.
) Per
4 for
mance:Per
for
mancei
stheout
comeofef
for
tsmadebyani
ndi
vi
dual
.
Thel
evelofper
for
mancei
sinf
luencedbyabi
l
iti
es,t
rai
tsandi
ndi
vi
dual
’
s
per
cept
ionabouthi
srol
e.Abi
l
iti
esofani
ndi
vi
duali
ncl
udeknowl
edge,ski
l
ls
andi
ntel
l
ectt
oper
for
mthej
ob.
) Rewar
5 ds:Per
for
mancel
eadst
otwot
ypesofr
ewar
ds:i
ntr
insi
crewar
dsand
ext
ri
nsi
crewar
ds.I
ntr
insi
crewar
disi
nnerf
eel
i
ng ofachi
evementand
accompl
i
shmentassoci
atedwi
tht
heper
for
mance.Ext
ri
nsi
crewar
dsar
e
gi
venbyt
heor
gani
sat
ioni
nthef
orm ofi
ncent
ives,r
ecogni
ti
on,pr
omot
ion
et
c.
) Sat
6 isf
act
ion:Sat
isf
act
ionwi
l
lresul
tfr
om bot
hint
ri
nsi
caswel
lasext
ri
nsi
c
r
ewar
ds.Butt
hel
evelofsat
isf
act
ionwi
l
lbedet
ermi
nedbyper
cept
ionofan
i
ndi
vi
dual
thathei
sget
ti
ngt
her
ewar
dswhi
chheact
ual
l
yval
uesorneeds.

Cr
it
ical
anal
ysi
sofPor
terandLawl
er’
smodel
:

Por
terandLawl
er’
smodel
isv
eryi
mpor
tantf
ormanager
sasi
tpr
ovi
desf
oll
owi
ng
gui
del
i
nest
omot
ivat
etheempl
oyees:

a)Bef
oreassi
gni
ngt
hej
obt
oani
ndi
vi
dual
,hi
sabi
l
iti
esandt
rai
tsmustbe
mat
chedwi
tht
her
equi
rement
soft
hej
ob.
b)Thi
smodelsuggest
sthatr
oleofani
ndi
vi
dualshoul
dbecar
eful
l
ydef
inedt
o
t
hem andensur
ethatt
heyunder
standt
hei
rrol
ecl
ear
ly.
c
)Thel
evelofper
for
manceexpect
edbyt
heempl
oyeeshoul
dbeconv
eyedt
o
hi
m i
n concr
etet
ermsand i
tshoul
d be ensur
ed t
hatexpect
ati
onsar
e
r
eal
i
sti
candat
tai
nabl
e.
d)Ensur
ethatr
ewar
dsassoci
atedwi
tht
heper
for
mancear
eval
uabl
etot
heempl
oyee.
 Por
terandLawl
ermodel
hassi
gni
fi
cant
lycont
ri
but
edt
othebet
terunder
standi
ng
ofmot
ivat
ionandt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenper
for
manceandsat
isf
act
ion.

6.Goal
Set
ti
ngTheor
y
Goalset
ti
ngt
heor
yofmot
ivat
ionwasgi
venbyEdwi
nLocke.Thi
stheor
ypr
oposed
t
hatan i
ndi
vi
dual
’
sint
ent
ionst
o wor
ktowar
dsagoalar
ethemaj
orsour
ceof
mot
ivat
iont
oani
ndi
vi
dual
.Goal
smot
ivat
eani
ndi
vi
dualt
oagr
eatext
entt
hanany
ot
herv
ari
abl
e.Goal
sdef
inei
nconcr
etet
ermswhatanempl
oyeei
ssupposet
odo
andhow muchef
for
tsar
erequi
redt
oput
.Thet
heor
ysuggest
sthatspeci
fi
cgoal
s
i
ncr
easet
heper
for
mancet
hangener
ali
sedgoal
s.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s,di
ff
icul
tgoal
sif
accept
edbyani
ndi
vi
dualr
esul
tinhi
gherl
evelofper
for
mancet
hant
heeasygoal
s.
Thi
stheor
y al
so r
ecommends t
hatf
eedback aboutt
he per
for
mance l
eads t
o
i
mpr
oved per
for
mance of an i
ndi
vi
dual
.Ther
efor
e,f
eedback const
it
utes t
he
si
gni
fi
cantel
ementi
ngoalachi
evement
.Goal
-set
ti
ng t
heor
yemphasi
sesont
he
f
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts:
a)I
fani
ndi
vi
dualaccept
sthedi
ff
icul
ttask,hewi
l
lwor
khar
dert
oachi
evehi
ghl
evel
ofper
for
mance.
b)I
ndi
vi
dual
sper
for
m bet
terwhenf
eedbacki
sgi
vent
othem r
egar
dinghow wel
l
t
heyar
epr
ogr
essi
ngt
owar
dst
hei
rgoal
s.Thi
sisbecausef
eedbackhel
psi
n
i
dent
if
yinggapbet
weent
hedesi
redper
for
manceandact
ual
per
for
mance.
c
)Ifempl
oyeesar
eal
l
owedt
opar
ti
cipat
eint
hepr
ocessofgoalset
ti
ng,
theywi
l
lbe
commi
tt
edmor
etot
hei
rgoal
s.Thi
sisbecausepeopl
eexpr
esshi
ghl
evelof
commi
tmentt
othet
askswhi
char
eassi
gnedt
othem wi
tht
hei
rconsentr
ather
t
hanar
bit
rar
il
y.

Thegoalset
ti
ngt
heor
yfur
thersuggest
sthati
naddi
ti
ont
othef
eedback,f
oll
owi
ng
f
act
orsi
nfl
uencegoal
-per
for
mancer
elat
ionshi
p:

a)GoalCommi
tment
:Goalset
ti
ngt
heor
yassumest
hatempl
oyeei
scommi
tt
edt
o
t
hegoali
.ehebel
i
evest
hathewi
l
lbeabl
etoat
tai
nthegoalandhewant
sto
at
tai
nthegoal
.Thecommi
tmentwi
l
lbehi
gherwhent
hegoal
sar
emadepubl
i
c
andwhengoal
sar
eassi
gnedwi
tht
heconsentoft
heempl
oyeer
athert
han
ar
bit
rar
il
yassi
gnedbyt
heboss.
b)Sel
fef
fi
cacy
:Itr
efer
stot
hebel
i
efofani
ndi
vi
dualt
hathei
scompet
entenought
o
per
for
mthet
ask.Mor
ewi
l
lbet
hesel
fef
fi
cacy
,mor
ewi
l
lbet
heconf
idenceofan
i
ndi
vi
dual
thathewi
l
lbeabl
etoaccompl
i
sht
het
ask.
)Taskchar
c act
eri
sti
cs:Thegoalset
ti
ngt
heor
ycannotbei
mpl
ement
edonal
lty
pe
oft
asks.Thegoal
ssubst
ant
ial
l
yaf
fectt
heper
for
mancewhent
asksar
esi
mpl
e,
wel
ll
ear
nedandi
ndependent
.

I
tmaybe summar
ised t
hatdi
ff
icul
tand speci
fi
c goal
s ar
e a good sour
ce of
mot
ivat
ionandcanl
eadt
ohi
gherl
evelofper
for
mance.But
,whi
l
eimpl
ement
ingt
he
t
heor
y,manager
smustensur
ethatgoal
sassi
gnedt
othei
ndi
vi
dual
sar
eal
i
gnedwi
th
t
heor
gani
sat
ional
goal
s.