CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The wireless field has been experiencing an immense progression in the past three
decades. Over the decades great advances in network infrastructure can be seen, nascent
availability of wireless applications and the advent of ubiquitous wireless devices such as
transportable or handheld computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and cell phones
all are getting more powerful in their capabilities. These devices are now singing an ever
progressively important role in our daily lives. For example, mobile users can rely on
their cellular phones to check the e-mail and browsing the internet; travelers with handy
laptops can surf the internet from airports, railway stations, bus stands and other public
locations; vacationers can use global positioning system (GPS) depots which is installed
inside the rental cars in order to get the route maps and tourist spots near the geographical
area and in an organization the important files or other information can be exchanged by
connecting portable laptops via Local Area Networks (LANs). Mobile devices getting
smaller, cheaper, more convenient, more powerful and also involved in more applications
and network services.
1.1. Wireless Networks Evaluation
The wireless communication is motivated by the rapid advances in technology, greater
selection of new wireless services and applications which leads greater improvements in
technology from last two decades. The emerging cellular networks have greatly improved
data transmission speed, which leads a variety of high speed mobile data services. New
standards for the short range communication such as Bluetooth, 802.11, HiperLAN, and
infrared transmissions helps to create a wide range of innovative applications for
enterprise, home networking and multimedia. The wireless communications have some
peculiar characteristics like: higher interference results in lower reliability, low
bandwidth availability and much lower transmission rates, highly variable network
conditions, limited computing and energy resources, limited service coverage and limited
transmission resources with weaker security. Many types [1] of wireless networks exist,
depending upon the criteria chosen which are categorized as based on:
 Communication Coverage Area
 Access Technology

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  Network Applications
 Mobility
 Message Delivery
 Network Type
 Size
 Network Formation and Architecture
1.1.1. Based on Communication Coverage Area
Coverage area can be defined as the geographical area in which a wireless
network organization or a company offers a cellular service for their own
mobile subscribers without any fail or a wireless networks provide services to
the mobile users up to some extent of the geographical area called as a
coverage area of that network. The communication coverage areas of various
wireless networks are shown in Fig.1.1. The wireless networks are categorized
into five different types depending upon the communication coverage area as
given below -
 Wireless Body Area Network (BAN)
 Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Wireless Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wireless Wide Area Network (WAN)

Fig: 1.1. Communication Coverage Areas of Various Networks

 Wireless Body Area Network

Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) is also referred as a Body Sensor Network
which is composed of wearable computing devices. WBAN devices may be
embedded inside the body, implants, may be surface mounted on the body in a

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 fixed position wearable technology or may be accompanied devices which
humans can carry in different positions, in clothes pockets, by hand or in various
bags. A Body Area Network is formally defined by IEEE 802.15 as a
communication standard optimized for low power devices and operation on, in or
around the human body (but not limited to humans) to serve a variety of
applications including medical, consumer electronics, personal entertainment etc.
The Wireless BAN operates with in 5m range.
 Wireless Personal Area Networks
The wireless PAN can establish ad hoc, wireless communication among personal
wireless devices such as PDAs, cellular phones or laptops that are used within a
personal operating space, typically up to 10 m range. Bluetooth and Infrared Light
technologies come under the key wireless PAN technologies. Wireless PANs
attaining momentum because of its low complexity, low power consumption and
interoperability with 802.11 networks [2, 3].
 Wireless Local Area Network
Wireless LANs enable users to establish wireless connections within a local area
i.e., corporate or a campus building or public place such as airports railway
stations etc. The wireless LAN operates with in 100 m range. Wireless LAN can
be operating in infrastructure mode or in ad hoc mode. In the infrastructure mode
the wireless stations connect to wireless access points that functions as a barrier to
the base station and existing network backbone. In the ad hoc mode, several
wireless stations within a limited area, such as a conference room, can form a
temporary network without using access points, if they do not requires access to
networks resources. Typical wireless LAN implementation include 802.11 (Wi-
Fi) and Hiperlan2. The LANacquires a speed of 11 Mbps to 54 Mbps under
802.11 and 802.11b [3].
 Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
The Wireless MAN is referred as fixed wireless networks or infrastructure based
networks that enable users to establish broadband wireless connection among
multiple locations within a geographical area. The connection made between the
various offices buildings in a town or in a university are the examples for the

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 MAN. The transmission of data in WMAN is accomplished either through radio
waves or infrared light. The MAWNs include popular technologies like Local
Multipoint Distribution Services (LMDS) and Multichannel Multipoint
Distribution Services (MMDS). IEEE has setup a specific 802.16 working group
on broadband wireless access standards that support the development and
deployment of broadband wireless MAN [4].
 Wireless Wide Area Networks
The wireless WANs are infrastructure based networks that rely on the base
stations to enable mobile users to establish wireless connections over remote
public or private networks. These connections can be made over large
geographical areas, across cities or even among countries. Networks like GPS and
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) networks are good examples for the
WMANs [4].
1.1.2. Based on Access Technology
Access Technology can be defined as the methods of gaining access to
networks (dial-up modem, cable modem, and digital subscriber link, satellite
and wireless networks) or a computer system. The wireless networks can be
categorized on the basics of accessing technology depending upon the specific
standard, frequency and spectrum usage. Those are: GSM networks, TDMA,
CDMA, Satellite, Wi-Fi (802.11), HiperLan2, Bluetooth, Infrared, OFDM,
MIMO networks [5, 6, 7].
1.1.3. Based on Network Applications
The wireless networks can also be categorized based on the specific usage and
application they support. Those are; Enterprise Networks, Home Networks,
Tactical Networks, Sensor Networks, Pervasive Networks, Wearable Networks
and Automated Vehicle Networks.
1.1.4. Based on Mobility
The wireless networks are broadly classified as two types based on mobility.
Those are:
 Static Networks
 Dynamic Networks

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  Static Networks
A network in which the mobile nodes are immovable and its topology is not
changing time to time (fixed topology) is called as static network. In static
networks the mobile nodes are never crashed because there is no mobility
between the mobile nodes and the edges maintained operational status forever
because the connection among the nodes is established with in the coverage
area. The networks which are established in the computer laboratory of an
organization or an educational institute are the examples of static networks.
 Dynamic Networks
A network in which the mobile nodes are moving and its topology is changing
time to time (dynamic topology) is called as dynamic network. In dynamic
networks the mobile nodes are crash each other because of the mobility and
the edges maintained operational status for specific time duration. The
networks which are established in the railway stations or bus stands are the
examples of dynamic networks [8].
1.1.5. Based on Message Delivery
The wireless networks are classified as two types based on the message
delivery. Those are:
 Synchronous Networks
 Asynchronous Networks
 Synchronous Networks
The networks which maintain the same clock information at the transmitter
(source) and receiver (destination) over a communication system are called
synchronous networks. Mobile nodes in the synchronous networks have a
common clock to access and the message delivered within one time unit.
 Asynchronous Networks
The networks which maintain the dissimilar clock information at the
transmitter (source) and receiver (destination) over a communication system
are called asynchronous networks. Mobile nodes in the asynchronous
networks have no common clock to access and the message delays are
arbitrary [8].

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1.1.6. Based on Network Type
The wireless networks are classified as two types based on the network type.
Those are:
 Homogeneous Networks
 Heterogeneous Networks
 Homogeneous Networks
A homogeneous network is a computer network comprised of computers or
nodes using similar configurations and protocols. Using Microsoft Windows
over TCP/IP is a good example for homogeneous network. The architecture of
homogeneous network is illustrated in Fig.1.2.

Fig.1.2: Homogeneous Network Architecture [8]

 Heterogeneous Networks
A heterogeneous network is a network connecting computers and other
devices with different operating systems and/or protocols. For example, Local
Area Networks (LANs) that connect Microsoft Windows and Linux based
personal computers with Apple Macintosh computers are heterogeneous. The
scenario of the heterogeneous networks is illustrated in Fig.1.3.
A typical example of heterogeneous networks as illustrated in Fig.1.3
composed of different wireless network devices (having different operating
systems, access technology and protocols) which are connected to the
common source (Internet).

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 Fig.1.3: Example of a Heterogeneous Network [8]

1.1.7. Based on the Network Size

The wireless networks are classified as three types based on the network size.
Those are:
 Small Scale Networks
 Medium Scale Networks
 Large Scale Networks
 Small Scale Networks
Wireless networks composed with the minimum number of nodes (5-10) are
treated as a small scale networks. Wi-Fi used in the home is the best example
of small scale network.
 Medium Scale Networks
Wireless networks composed with the medium range of nodes (10-100) are
treated as a medium scale networks. Networks installed in the computer labs
of an organization are the best example of medium scale network.
 Large Scale Networks
Wireless networks composed with the wide range of nodes (>500) are treated
as a large scale networks. Practical implementations of these networks are
quite imposable because the installation cost and maintained cost is high.
Generally, large scale networks are used in simulation purpose only [8].

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1.1.8. Based on Network Formation and Architecture
The wireless networks are broadly classified into two types depending upon
how the network is constructed and the underlining networks architecture.
Those are:
 Infrastructure based Networks(cellular)
 Infrastructureless Networks
 Infrastructure based Networks
The infrastructure based networks contains access point between the routers
(see Fig.1.4) and this access point controls the entire communication access
between the source and destination. A network with preconstructed
infrastructure that is made of fixed and wired network nodes and gateways,
typically networks services delivered through this preconfigured
infrastructure. For example, cellular networks are infrastructure based
networks built from Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) backbone
switches, Mobile Switching Centers (MSCs), base stations and mobile hosts.

Fig.1.4: General structure of infrastructure based network

Each node (computer) has its specific responsibility in the network, and
connection establishment follows a static signaling sequence among the
nodes. Wireless Local Area Networks are fall into this category. The access
point controls wireless communication and offers several important
advantages over ad hoc networks and supports increased level of security,
potentially faster data transmission speeds and integration with a wired

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 network. The basic principle operation in infrastructure based networks
depends upon the accessing point. The Fig.1.5depicts how the mobile devices
are accessing information from access points such as base stations. The
mobile stations (see Fig.1.5) can access information from the cellular
infrastructure and the connection established between the nodes with use of
backbone. Currently deployed cellular wireless networks such as Global
System for Mobile Communication (GSM)/ Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)/ Long Term Evaluation (LTE) are infrastructure type. Cellular
network consists of central entity known as base station and mobile devices as
Mobile Subscribers (MS). If MS-B wants to communicate with MS-C,
communication happens via Base Transceiver Station (BTS) [9].

Fig.1.5: Concept of infrastructure based networks

 Infrastructureless Networks
In the infrastructureless networks the communication between the nodes
established independently without any access points. The network is formed
through the cooperation of arbiter set of mobile nodes whose movement is
independent. The nodes in the network makes its decision independently,
based on the network situation and requirement without ant preexisting
infrastructure like base stations. These are called self-organizing networks. It
utilizes the multi-hop relay concept and hence these networks are also called
as multi-hopped networks. Fig.1.6 shows the general structure of
infrastructureless networks.

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 Fig.1.6: General structure of infrastructureless network

The cell boundary as shown in the Fig.1.7 tells how the mobile nodes
establishing the connection among themselves without any base station or
backbone. The connection between MS-A to MS-C is established through
MS-D. Consider MS-A is a source terminal and MS-B is the destination
terminal (see Fig.1.7), the connectivity between the source and destination is
established either directly (MS-A to MS-B) or indirectly (through
intermediate nodes).

Fig.1.7: Concept of infrastructureless networks

So there are so many difference, advantages and applications for the both
infrastructure and infrastructureless networks depending upon the various
network parameters. Table 1.1 gives the fundamental differences between the
infrastructures (cellular) based and infrastructureless (ad hoc) networks [9].

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 Table 1.1: Fundamental difference between cellular and ad hoc networks

S. No Parameter Cellular Networks Ad hoc Networks

1 Network Routing Centralized, all the traffic Distributed, no base station
goes through the base station needed for connection
2 Switching type Circuit switching Packet switching
3 Number of hops Single hop Multiple hop
4 Topology Star Mesh
5 Application Designed and developed for Designed to meet best effort
voice traffic data traffic requirements
6 Cost Higher cost Less cost
7 Time for installation Takes more time for takes less time for
deployment deployment
8 Call drops Low call drops during
mobility due to seamless Higher breaks in the path
connectivity across region during mobility
9 Network maintenance Requires periodic
maintenance Nodes are self-organizing
10 Frequency re-use
It utilizes same frequency Dynamic frequency re-use is
channels in the nearby cells employed using carrier sense
with proper RF planning and mechanism.
antenna placement. This is
known as static frequency re-
use.
11 Bandwidth mechanism The allocation of bandwidth The allocation of bandwidth
is guaranteed and easy is based on shared channel
using complex MAC
algorithms
IS-95, IS-136, GSM, Mobile
12 Technologies WiMAX, CDMA, LTE
WLAN 802.11e

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1.2. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET)
The word ad hoc comes from Latin language which means for this purpose only. The ad
hoc networks are small area especially designed to communicate wirelessly through radio
waves or temporarily connected to the different computer assisted nodes. The mobile
nodes that are in radio range of each other can directly communicate, where as other
nodes which are not in the radio range (propagation range) need the aid of intermediate
nodes to route their packets. MANETs are fully distributed, and can work at any place
without any fixed infrastructures such as access points or base stations. The basic
structure of mobile ad hoc networks is as shown in Fig.1.8 and it can be observe that the
source and destination are not in the transmission range of each other but the connection
is established between source and destination through the intermediate nodes [10].

Fig.1.8: General ad hoc network architecture

Mobile ad hoc networks have no fixed access points while every node can be a router/
host/ or destination. All the nodes are capable of movement and can establish connection
dynamically in an arbitrary manner and constrained in power consumption, bandwidth
and computational power. Thus a MANET is a short-duration, self-creating network
built-up of wireless nodes/mobile nodes (MN) which communicate (single hop/multi
hop) on each other to maintain network connectivity infrastructureless and arbitrarily
without any central administrator. These networks can be found in situations where it is
formidable to install/deploy a network. Mobile nodes (MN) must collaborate and
organize themselves to offer routing and management service in MANET. Wireless

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mobile ad hoc networks are more economical, highly robust short-lived communication
network for specific application which is formed by group of independent mobile devices
[11]. The rapid moving pattern of the mobile radios creates a time varying topology,
whose nodes communicate directly or indirectly (through intermediate nodes) through a
wireless medium (see Fig.1.8).
Each node (source, destination, and relay) in an ad hoc network is equipped with a
radio transmitter and receiver which allow nodes to communicate each other over
wireless channel. Ad hoc networks are generally thought of as a group of people with
laptops that wish to exchange files and data without mediation of any additional
infrastructure networks to establish connectivity among all the household appliances. Ad
hoc networks are suitable to be used in areas where earthquakes or other natural disasters
have destroyed communication infrastructure. These networks are best suitable for
battlefield survivability, operation without pre-placed infrastructure and beyond Line of
Sight (LOS) connectivity. MANET’s flexibility cheaper coverage is a few of the
phenomenal characteristics that the favored solutions make it easy to attain the goals. In
other words, a MANET can be set-up even in situations where environmental conditions
have an impact on its transmission range. MANET has been profoundly used in areas
where fixed infrastructure deployed at cost-effective constraints, military because of its
special features [12, 13].
Specifically, the MANET has been deployed in applications of critical importance
including the tactical networks of the military and of first responders. As an example, Yi
Gerla and Obraczka [14] used a fleet of first responders (military application) to build a
rescue task force to show that the MANET performance improved because of its
extensibility. Freebersyser and Lenier developed [15] and implemented the first MAWN
for Department of Defense (DoD) applications for military use: the DARPA (Packet
Radio Network in 1972). In 1997, the taskforce XXI largest advanced war fighting
experiment was developed. Patel, Batta and Nagi reviewed that sensor data fusion was
possible by combining distributed battlefield sensors and a MAWN. Irrespective of the
radio technology or the mobility model used, a network can be modeled as a graph with
two entities - a set of vertices (nodes) and a set of edges (links) between the nodes at any
instant in time of the network. The link between the nodes fails due to several reasons

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like: when the MNs fall apart beyond the LOS of each other; moving patterns, obstacles,
changing topology and/or network traffic [16].
1.3.Advantages of MANET
The quick development in ad hoc technology is extensively used in portable computing
such as laptops, mobile phones used to access the internet services, telephone calls when
the user are in travelling. The ad hoc network is simple to design and install. Mobile ad
hoc networks have more advantages over cellular networks because of their special
features like: self-organizing, autonomous behavior, multi hop transmission, dynamic
topology etc,.The advantages of the MANET include:
 The mobile ad hoc networks are separated from central network
administration which enables the fast connectivity among the mobile nodes.
 The self-configuring nodes in the networks can act as both host as well as
routers
 The mobile nodes are self-healing though continuous re-configuration due to
mobility.
 Scalability incorporates the addition of more number of nodes.
 Mobility allows ad hoc networks created on the fly in any situation where
there are multiple wireless devices.
 MANETs are very flexible in nature so that these networks can set-up at any
time, any place irrespective of the environment conditions.
 The mobile ad hoc networks have lower getting started cost due to their
decentralization administration.
 The nodes in MANETs need not rely on any hardware and software. So these
networks are connected and communicate at a faster rate.
 Ad hoc networks can be attached to the WWW or internet, thereby
incorporating many different devices and making possible for other users to
use available services.
 Capacity, range and energy arguments promote their use in tandem with
existing cellular infrastructure as they can extend coverage and
interconnectivity.
 The MANETs are quickly installed with least possible user invitations.

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  MANET also fitted to use the future 4G architecture and their services, aims
to provide ubiquitous computer environment that supports users in
completing their tasks, accessing information and communicating in any
situations [17].
1.4.A Short History of MANET
Traditionally MANETs has been chosen for premeditated network associated
applications in order to improve arena communication and survivability of military
networks. Fundamentally the military operations in the battlefield are dynamic in nature
so that they cannot rely on access to a fixed preplaced communication infrastructure in
the war arena. Whereas the wireless communication has a limitation that the radio signals
are subjected to interference and frequencies higher than 100 MHz are infrequently
propagate beyond the Line of Sight (LOS). These limitations in the wireless technology
lead the research towards the ad hoc networks. A mobile ad hoc network creates a
suitable framework to address these difficulties (Mobility, LOS, QoS, Scalability,
Reliability, Security etc.,) by providing a multi hop wireless connectivity without any
preplace infrastructure and connectivity outside LOS. The entire evaluation of mobile ad
hoc networks could be considered into the first, second and third generation ad hoc
network systems.
Present ad hoc networks systems are considered as third generation MANETs.
Early in 1972 the ad hoc networking systems are considered as the first generation
networks and at that time the MANET applications can be traced back to the DARPA
Packet Radio Networks (PRNET) project [18]. The foremost intention of introducing
PRNET is to improve the packet switching technology, such as bandwidth sharing and
store and forward routing and its possible applications in mobile wireless environment.
PRNET contains a distributed network architecture that broadcast radios with minimal
central control and a combination of Area Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres
(ALOHA), Carrier Sense Medium Access (CSMA) channel access protocols are used to
support the dynamic sharing of the broadcast radio channel. The radio coverage
limitation was eliminated by using multi hop store and forward routing technology which
results a multi user communication is established within a very large geographical area.
MANET unification with ALOHA and CSMA approaches for medium access control and

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a kind of Distance Vector Routing PRNETs were used in experimental basis to provide
dissimilar networking capabilities in a battle environment.
The second generation of the ad hoc networks emerged in 1980s, when the
MANETs are further developed and implemented as a part of the Survivable Adaptive
Radio Networks program (SURAN). This program provides a packet switched network to
the mobile radio in the battlefield where the preplaced infrastructure is not possible. This
program proved to be beneficial in improving the radio performance by making them
smaller, cheaper and resilient to electronic attacks. In order to address the major issues in
the areas of network scalability, security, processing capabilities and energy management
of Packet Radio Networks the DARPA has developed SURAN in 1983. The main
objectives of the SURAN to develop network algorithm that support a network that can
scale more number of nodes and resist security attacks, and use of (small, low cost and
low power) radios that could support sophisticated packet radio protocols. This effort
leads the design of Low Cost Packet Radio (LPR) technology in 1987.
The LPR technology features a digitally controlled Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS) radio with an integrated Intel 8086 microprocessor based packet
switch. After that an advanced network management protocols was developed to support
MANET scalability and through the management of spreading keys improvements in the
radio adaptability, security and improved capacity was achieved. The concept of
MANETs introduced with laptops and other viable communication equipment in 1990s.
At present the information technology will be mainly based on wireless technology, the
conventional mobile network and cellular are still in some sense, limited by their need for
infrastructure for instance based stations, routers etc,.Although military tactical
communication is still considered as the primary application for ad hoc networks and
commercial interest for these networks are continuously growing. Some situations like:
rescue mission at the time of natural disasters, law enforcement operations are established
using MANETs.
The invitation of the Packet Radio Network ideas in 1990s is further applicable
and feasible through the evolution of the internet and microcomputer revolution. In 1994
the Department of Defense (DoD) initiated DARPA Global Mobile (GloMo) information
system program in order to influence the global information infrastructure into the mobile

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wireless environment. This technology aimed to support Ethernet type connectivity
among the wireless devices irrespective of the geographical area or surrounding
environment. Meanwhile several networking designs such as: Wireless Internet Gateways
(WINGs) at UCSC deploys flat peer to peer network architecture and Multimedia Mobile
Wireless Network (MMWN) project from GTE internetworking uses a hierarchical
network architecture which is based on clustering techniques were explored [19].
Ad Hoc network research stayed long time in the realm of the military. In the
middle of 1990s with advice of commercial radio technology and the wireless became
aware of the great advantages of Mobile Ad Hoc networks outside the military battlefield
domain, and then became so active research work on ad hoc network start in 1995 in the
conference session of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The large scale
implementation of mobile multi hop packet radio networks of Tactical Internet (TI) was
implemented by US Army in 1997. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS), Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) radio is used with data rates in tens of kilobits per
second ranges, while modified commercial internet protocols are used for networking
among nodes. It emphasizes the perception that commercial wire line protocols were not
good at coping with topology changes, as well as low data rates and high bit error rate
wireless links.
In 1999, MANET positioned additional equipment assessment to determine the
feasibility of Marine Crops War Fighting concepts by extending the Littoral Battle Space
Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration (ELB ACTD) which requires Over the
Horizon (OTH) communication from ships at sea to marines on land via an aerial relay.
The access and backbone connections for these networks are Lucent’s Wave LAN and
VRC-99A. The ELB ACTD was successful in signifying the use of aerial relays for
connecting users beyond LOS. In the middle of 1990, with the definition of standards
(IEEE 802.11), commercial radio technologies have begun to appear on the market and
the wireless research community became aware of the great commercial, potential
advantages of the mobile ad hoc networking outside the military domain [20].

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1.5.Characteristics of MANETs
The typical characteristics of the mobile ad hoc networks include:
 Autonomous behavior
 Multi hop transmission
 Distributed nature of operation
 Dynamically changing topology
 Inferior link capacity
 Symmetric environment
 Light weight features
 Absence of infrastructure
1.5.1. Autonomous behavior:
Mobile ad hoc networks are basically a self-oriented network composed with
transportable devices (nodes) that can make connectivity among themselves
dynamically at any place and time irrespective of the ecological conditions. In
this type of networks the mobile nodes can perform host as well as router and
also exhibit switching functions. The routing switches and endpoints are
indistinguishable in the mobile ad hoc networks because of autonomous
behavior of the mobile nodes in the network. The link establishment between a
pair of nodes takes less time because of autonomous behavior of the mobile
and hence, the network architecture is formed very quickly [21].
1.5.2. Multi-hop transmission:
In the MANETs the transmission of a message involved either a single hop
communication or a multi-hop communication. When a source and destination
terminals in a communication network are not in the range of wireless
transmission range then the mobile nodes communicate in multi hop fashion.
MANETs are more capable of multi-hop communications and overcome
the use of base stations and access points over a communication channel in
order to deliver a message over wireless medium. The concept of the multi-hop
transmission in mobile ad hoc networks is illustrated in Fig.1.11. Assume
node1 to be the source and node5 to be the destination. From Fig.1.11, it is
clear that the source and destination nodes are not in wireless transmission

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 range of each other. Under this condition the transmission happens through
intermediate nodes (node2, node4). This feature of ad hoc network reduces the
administrative cost for the network

Fig.1.9: Concept of Multi-hop Transmission

1.5.3. Distributed nature of operation:

In the mobile ad hoc networks the centralized control (base stations, switches)
is absent due to autonomous behavior and multi-hop transmission capability of
the mobile nodes. The network operation and control is distributed among the
mobile nodes. The mobile nodes in the network involves in the operations like:
security and routing.
1.5.4. Dynamically changing topology:
The network topologies of MANETs are dynamic in nature because of mobility
of the mobile nodes in the network. The connectivity among the nodes may
vary with time and dynamically establish routing among the nodes with respect
to their movements.
1.5.5. Inferior link capacity:
In MANET wireless links are incapable of maintaining the reliability,
scalability, efficiency and capacity when compared with wired links. The
connectivity between the any two nodes in a network is not secure and it is
affected due to dynamically changing topology and multi-hop transmission. In
mobile ad hoc networks the path from source to destination can be shared by
more number of nodes. The terminal communicate through which channel is

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 subjected to noise, fading interference and has a limited bandwidth than a
wired network. This shows the fluctuating link bandwidth of wireless links.
1.5.6. Symmetric environment:
In the mobile ad hoc networks, all the nodes have indistinguishable features
with comparable responsibilities and abilities. The mobile nodes can function
as a router or host and hence these networks forms symmetric environment.
1.5.7. Light weight features:
The MANET nodes have less CPU processing capabilities, small memory size
and low power storage.
1.5.8. Absence of infrastructure:
Ad hoc networks are not depends upon the any fixed infrastructure to maintain
the connectivity of mobile nodes in a network. The network topology is
dynamically changing time to time [21].
1.6. Research challenges of MANET
The mobile ad hoc network architecture has many benefits, such as self-oriented,
dynamic topology, ease of deployment, and so on. However, this flexibility and
convenience of ad hoc networks involved in various research challenges. These networks
inherit the traditional problems of wireless communications, such as bandwidth
optimization, power control and transmission quality enhancement. The concept of
mobility, multi-hop nature, dynamic topology, and distributed nature of mobile nodes and
the lack of infrastructure creates a number of design issues, complexities, researches
challenges in MANETs. The research challenges of mobile ad hoc networks include [22]:
 Restricted wireless transmission range
 Time varying wireless link characteristics
 Medium access scheme
 Routing
 Multicasting
 Transport layer protocol
 Reliability
 Packet losses due to transmission errors
 Security

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  Addressing & service discovery
 Scalability
 Pricing scheme
 Energy management
 Battery constraints
 Quality of service
 Deployment consideration
1.6.1. Restricted wireless transmission range
In the mobile ad hoc networks the mobile radios (nodes) are not able to
communicate beyond its transmission range and involve a multi-hop
transmission for maintaining a wireless link among them. This result the data
amounts it can provide much slighter than what a bound network can provide.
The restricted transmission range of mobile ad hoc networks forces the routing
procedure of networks must be use bandwidth in ideal way. Particularly in
MANETs because of consistent dissimilarity of network topology, conserving
the topological data for every radio includes more controller overhead which
results in additional bandwidth depletion.
1.6.2. Time varying wireless link characteristics
In MANETs the wireless channel is responsible to a wide range of broadcast
complaints such as path harm, declining, intervention, obstruction and
interference. These features of wireless channel resist the series, data rate and
consistency of the mobile transmission. The wireless link characteristics are
affected due to atmospheric situations and flexibility of transmitter and
receiver.
1.6.3. Medium access scheme
The principal responsibility of a Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is
the distributed arbitration for the shared channel for transmission of packets in
mobile ad hoc networks. The performance of the MANETs are highly depends
up on the MAC protocol. While designing a MAC protocols for ad hoc
wireless networks there are some issues to be considered those are:
 Distributed operation

21
  Synchronization
 Hidden terminals
 Exposed terminals
 Throughput
 Access delay
 Fairness
 Real-time traffic support
 Resource reservation
 Ability to measure resource availability
 Capability of power control
 Adaptive rate control
 Use of directional antennas
 Distributed operation
MANETs are needed to operate in environments where no centralized
coordination is possible. The MAC protocol design should be fully
distributed, involving minimum control overhead.
 Synchronization
The MAC protocol design in ad hoc networks should follow the time
synchronization between the transmitter and receiver for proper
communication among the nodes. For example; in TDMA based systems for
the management of transmission and reception slots synchronization is
mandatory.
 Hidden terminals
The hidden terminal problem occur when two (or more) stations, say A and
C(see Fig.), cannot detect each other’s transmission (due to being outside of
each other transmission range) but their transmission ranges are not disjoint.
As shown in the Fig.1.10, a collision may occur, for example, when the station
A and station C start transmitting towards the same receiver, station B [23].

22
 Fig.1.10: Concept of Hidden Terminals

 Exposed terminals
The nodes which are prevented from making a transmission in communication
network are termed as exposed terminals and these are present in the
transmission range of the sender of an ongoing session. Fig.1.11 shows the
concept of exposed terminals.

Fig.1.11: Concept of Exposed Terminals

 Throughput
To maximize the throughput of the system in mobile ad hoc networks a MAC
protocol is employed. The fundamental requirements of a network should
enhance the throughput; minimum occurrences of collision, maximum
channel utilization and minimizing the control overhead.
 Access delay
The time taken for a packet to reach the destination in a communication
network treated as access delay. The protocols designed for the routing
packets in networks are capable of minimize the access delay.
 Fairness:
The ability of a MAC protocol to provide an equal shared or weighted share of
the bandwidth to all mobile nodes referred as fairness and it can be a node
based or flow based.

23
 Real-time traffic support
In a connection oriented channel access environment, without any central
coordination, with limited bandwidth, support time-sensitive traffic such as
voice, video requires explicit support from MAC protocol. In addition, MAC
protocol should provide resource reservation, ability to measure resource
availability, capability of power control and adaptive rate control in order to
achieve reservation of resources like bandwidth, buffer space, processing
power, making congestion control decisions, frequency reuse respectively.
 Resource reservation
The provisioning of QoS defined by parameters such as bandwidth, delay and
jitter requires reservation of resources such as bandwidth, buffer space and
processing power. The inherent mobility of mobile nodes in ad hoc networks
makes such reservation of resources a difficult task. A MAC protocol should
be able to provide mechanism for supporting resource reservation and QoS
provisioning.
 Ability to measure resource availability
The MAC protocol should be able to provide an estimation of resource
availability at every node in order to handle the resources such as bandwidth
efficiently and perform call admission control based on their availability. This
procedure can also be used for making congestion-control decisions.
 Capability of power control
The transmission power control mechanism at the nodes reduces the energy
consumption in the network and causes decrees in interference at neighbor
nodes, increase frequency reuse. The support for power control at the MAC
layer is very important in the ad hoc networks.
 Adaptive rate control
The variation in the data bit rate achieved over a wireless channel referred as
adaptive rate control. A MAC protocol that has an adaptive rate control can
make use of high data rate when the source and destination are nearby and
adaptively reduces the data rate as they move away from each other.

24
  Use of directional antennas:
The use of directional antennas at the transvers sections of a communication
system has many advantages that include increased spectrum reuse, reduction
in interference and reduced power consumption. Most of the existing MAC
protocols that use ominidirectional antennas do not work with directional
antennas.
1.6.4. Routing:
In mobile ad hoc networks exchange the route information and provide a
feasible path from source to destination is the responsibilities of routing
protocols. Finding a feasible path from source to destination in a multi-hop
networks based on a criteria such as; hop length, minimum power required, life
time of the wireless link, gathering information about the path breaks and
bandwidth. The major challenges faced by routing protocol include:
 Mobility
 Bandwidth constraints
 Error-prone and shared channel
 Location dependent contention
 Other resource constraints
 Mobility:
The major important property of the wireless mobile ad hoc networks is the
mobility associated with the nodes. The concept of mobility in ad hoc
networks results in repeated path breaks, packet collisions, transient loops,
stale routing information and difficulty in resource allocation.
 Bandwidth constraints:
In the MANETsthe wireless channel is shared by all mobile nodes within the
broadcast region. So the bandwidth availability of wireless links depends upon
the node traffic in the network. Thus only a fraction of the total bandwidth is
available for every node.
 Error-prone and shared channel:
The Bit Error Rate (BER) in a wireless channel is very high (of the order of
10−5to 10−3) compared to that in wired systems (of the order of 10−12 to

25
 10−9 ). The wireless networks can improve the efficiency of the routing
protocols by considering the state of the wireless link, signal-to-noise ratio
and path loss parameters.
 Location dependent contention:
The load on the wireless channel is a function of number of nodes present in a
given geographical area. The contention for the channel increases when the
number of nodes increases in a network. This result is collisions and
subsequent wastage of bandwidth.
 Other resources constraints:
The capacity of the routing protocol is influenced by computing power,
battery power and buffer storage. In MANETs the routing protocol requires
minimum route acquisition delay, quick route configuration, loop free routing,
distributed routing approach, minimum control overhead, scalability, security
and privacy to sustain a successful transmission between source and
destination. The major requirements of a routing protocol in the ad hoc
wireless networks are mentioned as follows:
 Minimum route acquisition delay
 Quick route reconfiguration
 Loop free routing
 Distributed routing approach
 Minimum control overhead
 Scalability
 Provisioning of QoS
 Support for time-sensitive traffic
 Security and Privacy
1.6.5. Multicasting:
In wireless communications, multitasking displays an important role in
emergency search, rescue operation and military communication. In military
arena, the nodes from groups to carry out certain tasks which requires point-to-
point and multipoint-to-multipoint voice and data communication. Due to the
mobility of nodes changes the topology dynamically in an unpredictable

26
 manner. The multicast routing in the wireless ad hoc networks is a challenging
task because of the node mobility along with the constraints of power sources
and bandwidth. Core Based Trees (CBT), Protocol Independent Multicast
(PIM), Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) are traditionally
used in the wired networks. These protocols are not efficient for the wireless ad
hoc networks because a CBT structure is highly unstable and needs to be
frequently readjusted to include broken links [24]. The application of single
link connectivity among the nodes in a multicast group results in a tree shaped
multicast routing topology. Such a topology provides high multicast efficiency,
with low packet delivery ratio due to the frequency tree breaks. The foremost
concerns in designing multicast routing protocols include:
 Robustness
 Efficiency
 Control overhead
 Quality of service
 Efficient group management
 Scalability
 Security
 Robustness:
The multicast routing protocol must be able to recover and reconfigure
immediately from potential mobility (link breaks) thus making it suitable for
use in high dynamic environments.
 Efficiency:
A multicast protocol should make a least number of broadcasts to deliver a
data packet to all the group members.
 Control overhead:
The mobile ad hoc networks demands minimal control overhead of bandwidth
availability for multicast sessions.

27
  Efficient group management
The process of accepting multicast session members and maintaining the
connectivity among them until the session expires is referred as efficient
group management.
 Scalability
The multicast routing protocols should be able to scale for a network with a
large number of nodes.
 Security
In the military communications, verification of session members and
prevention of non-members from gaining unofficial information played an
impertinent role.
1.6.6. Transport layer protocol
The transport layer protocol in the wireless ad hoc networks performs certain
crucial things (setting up and maintaining end-to-end connections, reliable end-
to-end delivery of data packets, flow control and congestion control) in order to
maintain the flawless transmission between source and destinations. The User
Datagram Protocol is a simple connectionless protocol, which neither perform
flow control and congestion control nor provide reliable data transfer. The
throughput of such networks depends on the congestion at the intermediate
links, the rate of collision. Existence of unreliable connectionless transport
layer protocol in ad hoc networks generates the source for congestion and the
collisions among the nodes. This behavior of the transport layer protocols
increases the connection of the already-choked wireless links. For example, in
an ad hoc wireless network that employs a contention-based MAC protocol,
nodes in a high-contention region experience several back off states, resulting
in an increased number of collisions and a high invisibility. Connectionless
transport layer protocols, oblivious of this situation, increases the load in the
network, degrading the network performance [24].
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) in an ad hoc wireless network
arises due to various factors (frequent path breaks, presence of stale routing
information, high channel error rate, and frequent network partitions) is the

28
major performance degradation faced by the reliable connection-oriented
transport layer protocol. Further discussion of each of the above properties and
their on the performance of the transport layer protocol assumes TCP as the
transport layer protocol. The path from source to destination exhibit frequent
path breaks due to the mobility of the nodes and limited transmission range.
Each path break results in route reconfiguring that depends on the routing
protocol employed. The process of finding a replacement path or reconfiguring
the broken path might take longer than the retransmission time out of the
transport layer at the sender, resulting in retransmission of packets and
execution of the congestion control algorithm. The congestion control
algorithm produces the low throughput by decreases the size of the congestion
window. In an environment where path breaks are frequent, the execution of
congestion control algorithms on every path break affects the throughput
drastically.
In the mobile ad hoc networks the stale route information is available at
the nodes because of the latency associated with the reconfiguration of a
broken path and the use of route caches. This result a multipath routes from
source to destination and number of out-of-order packets at the destination.
The multipath routing protocols such as Temporally-Ordered Routing
Algorithm (TORA) and Split Multipath Routing (SMR) protocols employ
multiple paths between a source–destination pair. Out-of-order packet arrivals
force the receiver of the connection to generate duplicate acknowledge
(ACKs). On receiving duplicate ACKs, the sender invokes the congestion
control algorithm. Due to the high probability of errors caused by interference
the wireless channels are inherently unreliable. The channel noise and hidden
terminals in the wireless networks contributes to the increased loss of TCP data
packets or ACKs. When the TCP ACK is delayed than the round-trip time out,
the congestion control algorithm is invoked.
The mobile ad hoc wireless networks frequently experience isolation of
nodes from the rest of the network or occurrence of partitions in the network
because of the mobility of nodes. If a TCP connection spans across partition,

29
 that is the sender and receiver of the connection spans across multiple
partitions, that is, the sender and receiver of the connection are in to different
partition, All the packets get dropped .this tends to be more serious when the
partition exist for a long duration, resulting in multiple retransmission of the
TCP packets and subsequent increase in the transmission timers. Such a
behavior causes long periods of inactivity even when a transient partition in the
networks lasts for a short while. Adaption of the existing transport layer
protocols should attempt to handle the above issue for performing efficiently in
ad hoc wireless networks [24].
1.6.7. Reliability
Reliability is concerned with the ability of a network to carry out a desired
operation such as communication. The performance measures of the ad hoc
wireless networks are highly dependent up on the reliability of the network.
Since, in ad hoc wireless networks the mobile nodes are highly dynamic and
are moving randomly within the geographical area. This results in changing
topology continuously in the network and causes difficulty while modeling ad
hoc networks. Because of the mobility in ad hoc networks, the routing
protocols and medium access schemes are varying time to time. These factors
make the reliability estimation of ad hoc networks is a challenging task. The
fundamental scenario metrics that are affecting the network reliability in ad hoc
network include network size, node density, transmission range etc.
1.6.8. Packet losses due to transmission errors
Ad hoc wireless networks executes unconventional packet damage due to
reasons such as extraordinary Bit Error Rate (BER) in the wireless channel,
enlarged crashes because of the existence of unseen terminals, occurrence of
interventions, position relevant controversy, single direction association,
regular pathway breakage due to device movements and the integral declining
characteristics of wireless passage.
1.6.9. Security
Security is an important issue in ad hoc networks as the information can be
hacked. The security issues happened in the wireless networks due to passive

30
 and active attacks. The passive attacks are made by malicious nodes to obtain
information transmitted in the network without disturbing the operation. The
active attacks that are executed by nodes belong to either outside networks or
to the same networks. The attacks executed by the mobile nodes which are
belongs to outside network are called external attacks and the attacks executed
by the mobile nodes belongs to same network are called internal attacks. The
major security threads that exist in ad hoc networks are listed as follows:
 Denial of service
 Resource consumption
 Host impersonation
 Information disclosure
 Interference
 Denial of service
The attack affected by making the network resource unavailable for service to
other nodes, either by consuming the bandwidth or by overloading the system,
is known as Denial of Service (DoS).A simple scenario in which a DoS attack
interrupts the operation of ad hoc wireless networks is by keeping a target
node busy by making it process unnecessary packets.
 Resource consumption
In mobile ad hoc networks the limited availability of resources leads for
internal attacks, especially pointing at consuming resources available in the
network. Energy depletion and buffer overflow are the main types of resource
consumption attacks. The major types of the resource consumption attacks are
the following:
 Energy depletion
 Buffer overflow
Energy depletion
These types of attacks are raised due to the nodes in the ad hoc networks are
highly constrained by the power source and basically aimed at depleting the
battery power of a critical nodes by directing unnecessary traffic through
them.

31
 Buffer overflow
The buffer overflow attack is carried out either by filling the route table with
unwanted routing entries or by consuming the data packet buffer space with
unwanted data. The large number of data packets is being dropped; loss of
critical information is occurring with these types of attacks. Preventing the
nodes from updating the route information for important destinations and
filling the routing table with route for non-existent destinations are the
problems occurred from routing table attacks.
 Host impersonation
In mobile ad hoc networks due to the multi-hop transmission a cooperated
internal node has an ability to control over the data packets to create the
wrong route to the destination this will lead some vulnerable attacks.
 Information disclosure
Malicious nodes present in the networks can act as informer nodes to reveal
confidential information to unauthorized nodes.
 Interference:
The major drawback in the MANET which reduces the system capacity and
efficiency is interference which is the common attack in the defense
applications to jam the wireless communication by introducing a wide
spectrum noise.
1.6.10. Addressing & service discovery
MANETs has significance in addressing and service discovery due to the
absence of centralized coordinator. The mobile nodes which involved in data
transmission must require its address in order to make a perfect
communication. Auto configuration of the address is required to allocate non-
duplicate addresses to the mobile nodes. The topology of the wireless mobile
ad hoc networks is highly dynamic, frequent portioning and merging of
network components require duplicate address-detection mechanism in order to
maintain unique addressing throughout the connected parts of the network.
Nodes in the network should be able to locate the services that other nodes

32
 provide. Hence the efficient service advisement mechanisms are necessary.
Provisioning of certain kinds of services demands authentication, billing and
privacy that in turn require the service discovery protocols to be separated from
the network layer protocol [23, 24].
1.6.11. Energy management
The process of handling the sources and consumers of energy in a node or in
the network in order to enhance the lifetime of the network is called Energy
management. Enhance the battery life by shaping the energy discharge pattern
of node’s battery; Acquiring minimum total energy consumption in the
network by finding appropriate routes; improve battery life by using distributed
scheduling schemes; and minimize power consumption by handling the
processor and interface devices are some of the functions of energy
management. Energy management can be classified into the following
categories:
 Transmission power management
 Battery energy management
 Processor power management
 Device power management
 Transmission power management
The state of operation, transmission power and the technology used for the RF
technology are the power consuming determining factors for the radio
frequency (RF) module in wireless ad hoc networks. The state of operation
refers to the transmit, receive and sleep modes of the operation. The
reachability requirement of the networks, the routing protocol, and the MAC
protocol employed in the wireless ad hoc networks determine by the
transmission power. In all the three state of operation, the RF hardware design
should ensure minimum power consumption. Going to the sleep mode when
not transmitting or receiving can be done by additional hardware that can
wake up on receiving on reception of control signal. Power conservation
responsibility lies across the data link, network, transport, and application
layers. The design of data link layer protocol reduces unnecessary

33
 retransmission, by preventing collision, switching, power management can be
performed at data link layer.
The use of a variable power MAC protocol can lead to several advantages
that include energy-saving at nodes, increase in band width reuse, and
reduction in interference. Also, MAC protocol for directional antenna are at
their infancy the network layer routing protocol can consider battery life and
relaying load of the intermediate nodes while selecting a path so that the load
can be balanced across the network in addition to optimizing and refusing can
be balanced across the network in addition to optimizing and reducing the size
and frequency of control packets. At the transport layer, reducing the number
of retransmission, recognizing and handling the reason behind the packet
losses locally, can be in cooperate to the protocols. At the application layer,
power consumption varies with application. In a mobile computer, the
image/video processing/play back software and 3D gaming software consume
high power than other applications. Hence application software developed for
mobile compute should take to account to aspect of power consumption as
well.
 Battery energy management
The battery management is aimed at extending the battery life of a node by
taking advantage of its chemical properties, discharge patterns and by
selection of a battery from a set of batteries that is available for redundancy.
Pulsed discharge of the battery gives longer life than continuous discharge
proved by recent researches. In order to avoid the early charging to the
maximum charge or full discharge below the minimum threshold it is
necessary to control the charging rate and discharge rate of the battery. This
can be achieved by means of embedded charge controllers in the battery pack
and also, the protocols at the data link layer and network layer can be
designed to make use of the discharge models. Monitoring of the battery for
the voltage levels, remaining capacity and temperature so that proactive
actions (such as incremental powering off of certain devices or shutting down

34
 of the mobile node when the voltage across a threshold) can be taken is
required.
 Processor power management
The processor parameters that are influence the power consumption of the
wireless ad hoc networks are the clock speed and number of instructions
executed per unit time. During the low processing load conditions the CPU
can be put into different power saving modes. If the machine is idle for a long
time then the CPU power can be completely turned off. In such cases,
interrupts can be used to turn on the CPU upon direction of user interaction or
other events.
 Devices power management
The power consumption of a mobile node can reduced significantly by an
intelligent device management mechanism. This can be done by the operating
system (OS) by selectively powering down interface devices that are not used
or by putting devices into different power saving modes depending up on their
usage.
1.6.12. Scalability
The ability of the routing protocol to scale a network with a large number of
nodes termed as scalability. Traditional applications such as military,
emergency operations and crowd control may not lead to big ad hoc networks.
Commercial deployments of ad hoc wireless networks that include wireless
mesh networks show early trends for a wide spread installation of ad hoc
wireless networks for mainstream wireless communication. For example, the
latency of a path- finding involved with an on-demand routing protocol in a
large ad hoc wireless network may be unacceptably high. Similarly, the
periodic routing overhead involved in a table-driven routing protocol may
consume a significant amount of bandwidth in such large networks. Hybrid
architecture that combines the multi-hop radio relaying in the presence of
infrastructure may improve scalability [25].

35
1.6.13. Pricing scheme
In ad hoc networks the price involved for installation of networks depends
upon the multipath and resource allocations. The functioning of the wireless ad
hoc networks depends up on the availability of communicating nodes and their
willingness to relay other nodes traffic. A relaying neighbor node may not be
interested and may just decide to power down when there is sufficient node
density to ensure a fully connected network. As the intermediate nodes in a
path that relay the data packets expend their resources such as battery charge
and computing power, they should properly compensate. Incorporation of the
service compensation or service reimbursements is required for the pricing
scheme in wireless ad hoc networks. The concept of pricing scheme in ad hoc
networks can be explained with the help of Fig.1.12.

Fig.1.12: Example for illustrating the pricing scheme in MANET

Assume that an optimal route from node A to node E passes through node D
and node D is not powered on. Then node A will have to setup an expensive
and non-optimal route to E and this consumes more resources, effects the
throughput of the system.
1.6.14. Battery constraints
The major limitation in mobile ad hoc networks because of limited resources.
The mobile nodes which are presented in these types of networks have a
restriction on the supremacy foundation in order to preserve movability,
dimension and capacity of the node. In ad hoc networks, accumulation of the
power and processing capacity make the nodes have heavier in weight and less
portable [25].
1.6.15. Self-organization
The very important property of wireless mobile ad hoc network is organizing
and maintaining the network by itself. The neighbor discovery is the

36
 fundamental activity of the wireless ad hoc networks to perform self-
organization. Every node in the network gathers the information about its
neighbors and maintains that information in appropriate data structures during
the neighbor node discovery phase. This may require periodic transmission of
short packets named beacons, or promiscuous snooping on the channel for
detecting activities of neighbors. Various MAC protocols permit varying the
transmission power to improve upon spectrum reusability. Every node in the
network gathers information about the entire network or a part of the network
in order to maintain topological information during the topology organization
phase.
The ad hoc wireless networks require updating the topology information
by incorporating the topological changes occurred in the network due to the
mobility of nodes, failure of nodes, or complete depletion of power sources of
the nodes during the topology reorganization phase. The periodic or aperiodic
exchange of topological information and the adaptability (recover from major
topological changes in the network) are the two major activates of the
reconfiguration mechanism in the wireless mobile ad hoc networks. In the
same manner, network partitioning and merging of two existing partitions
require major topological reorganization. Ad hoc wireless networks should be
able to perform self-organization quickly and efficiently in a way transparent to
the user and application.
1.6.16. Deployment consideration
The deployment of ad hoc wireless networks involves actions different from
wired networks. Ad hoc networks require a good amount of planning and
estimation of future traffic growth over any wireless link in the network. The
time-consuming planning stage is followed by the actual deployment of the
network. The cost and time required for laying copper cables or fiber cables
make it difficult to reconfigure any partial deployment that has already been
done. The deployment of commercial ad hoc networks has the following
advantages when compared to the wired networks. Those are:
 Low cost of deployment

37
  Incremental deployment
 Short deployment time
 Reconfigurability
 Low cost of deployment
The use of multi-hop wireless relaying essentially eliminates the requirement
of laying cables and maintenance in a commercial deployment of
communication infrastructure. Because of this feature the cost involved in
deploying a wireless ad hoc network is very low when compared to a wired
network.
 Incremental deployment
Based on the ad hoc wireless networks, the deployment can be performed
incrementally over geographical regions of the city in commercial wireless
Wide Area Networks. The deployment part of the network starts functioning
immediately after the minimum configuration is done.
 Short deployment time
The deployment time is considerable less when compared to the wired
networks due to the absence of any wired links. The wiring in the dense urban
region is extremely difficult and time-consuming in addition to the
inconvenience caused.
 Reconfigurability
The cost involved in reconfiguring a wired network covering a metropolitan
area network (MAN) is very high compared to that of an ad hoc wireless
network covering the same service area. Also, the incremental deployment of
ad hoc wireless networks might demand changes in the topology of the fixed
part of the networks at a later stage. The issues and solutions for deployment
of ad hoc networks vary with the type of application and the environment in
which the networks are to be deployed. The major issues to be considered in
deploying an ad hoc wireless network include:
 Scenario of deployment
 Required longevity of network
 Area of coverage

38
  Service availability
 Operational integration with other infrastructure
 Choice of protocol
1.6.17. Quality of service
The performance level of services offered by a service provider or network to
the user called as Quality of Service (QoS). In ad hoc networks quality of
service provisioning often requires, negotiation between host and internet,
resource reservation scheme, priority scheduling, call admission control.
 QoS parameters
There are different applications are exist in the wireless ad hoc networks, each
application have different requirements and their level of QoS and the
associated QoS parameters also differ from application to application. For
example, for multimedia applications, the bandwidth and delay are key
parameters, whereas military applications have the additional requirements of
security and reliability. In finding trustworthy intermediate hosts and routing
through them can be a QoS parameter for defense applications. The
applications such as emergency search-and-rescue operations availability is the
QoS parameter. Applications for hybrid wireless networks can have maximum
available link life; delay, channel utilization and bandwidth are the key QoS
parameters. Finally applications such as communication among the nodes in a
wireless sensor networks requires that the transmission among them results in
minimum energy consumption, hence battery life and energy conservation can
be the prime QoS parameters [26].
 QoS-aware routing
The routing mechanism use QoS parameters for finding a path from source to
destination is the first step towards the QoS aware routing protocol and the
parameters that are considered for the routing decisions include: Network
throughput, Packet delivery ratio, Reliability, Delay, Delay jitter, Packet loss
rate, Bit error rate and Path loss.
Decision makes on the level of QoS and related parameters for such services
are application specific in ad hoc wireless networks. For example, bandwidth is

39
 the QoS parameter in such case, the routing protocol utilize the available
bandwidth at every link to select a path with necessary bandwidth. This also
demands the capability to reverse the required amount of bandwidth for that
particular connection.
 QoS framework
The complete system that attempts to provide the promised services to each
user or application is called as a framework for QoS. All the components
within this subsystem should cooperate in providing the required services. QoS
service model is the key component of QoS framework, which defines the way
user requirements are served. The QoS framework offers service to user on
pre-session basis or pre-class basis, which is the key design issue. The other
key components of this framework are QoS routing to find all or some feasible
paths in the network that can satisfy the user requirements, QoS signaling from
resource reservation required by the user or application, QoS medium access
control, connection admission control and scheduling schemes pertaining to
that service model. The QoS modules such as routing protocol, signaling
protocol and resource management should react promptly according to changes
in the network state (topology change in ad hoc networks) and flow state
(change in end-to-end view of service delivered).Some of the QoS parameters
and the corresponding area of applications are tabulated in Table 1.3.
Table 1.2: QoS parameters and corresponding area of application

Application QoS Parameter

Multimedia Bandwidth & Delay
Military Security & Reliability
Finding trustworthy intermediate hosts &
Defense
routing
Emergency search & rescue operations Availability
Hybrid wireless networks Maximum available link life, delay, bandwidth
Minimum energy consumption, battery
Communication in a sensor networks
conservation

40
1.7.Typical applications of MANETs
The mobile ad hoc networks have wide range of applications due to their peculiar
characteristics like; dynamic topology, mobility, multi hop transmission, distributed
nature, autonomous behavior, inferior link capacity, light weight, less price features and
network scalability features makes the MANETs applicable in various fields. Some
specific applications of mobile ad hoc networks include industrial and commercial
applications involving corporative mobile data exchange. There are many existing and
future military networking requirements for robots, IP complaint data services within the
mobile communication networks. The typical applications of MANETs include [27]:
 Military applications
 Collaborative and distributed computing
 Emergency operations
 Wireless mesh networks
 Wireless sensor networks
 Hybrid wireless networks
1.7.1. Military applications
Mobile ad hoc networks are very useful in creating communication among a
group of soldiers for strategic operations. It is very difficult to setup a fixed
infrastructure for communication among group of soldiers in enemy territories
or imposable in terrains that are inhospitable. In such difficult situations, ad
hoc networks provide required communication mechanism quickly. The major
requirements of communication in military environment are; reliability,
efficiency, security, multicast routing.
1.7.2. Collaborative and distributed computing
Mobile ad hoc networks established a temporary communication for quick
transmissions with nominalalignment among a group of people in a conference
in order to improve the collaborative computing. Reliability is the
extremelysignificance factor in distributed file sharing applications which is
provided by ad hoc networks. In some applications such as streaming of
multimedia objects among contributing nodes in an ad hoc wireless networks
necessitateprovision for soft real-time communication and the devices used for

41
 such applications include; laptops with add-on wireless interface cards,
enhanced personal digital assistants (PDA) or the mobile devices with high
processing power.
1.7.3. Emergency operations
The mobile ad hoc networks played an important role in the management of the
emergency operations like search & rescue, crowd control and commando
operations. The special features of ad hoc networks like; self-configuration of
the system with minimal overhead, independent of fixed or central
administrator, flexibility, mobility, unavailability of conventional
communication infrastructure favors the ad hoc networks in emergency
operations. MANETs are best suitable networks where the environment is
disturbed by the natural calamities like earthquakes, floods. In the battlefield
the immediate deployment of the networks required because the soldiers in the
arena moved randomly to face the opponent at that situations ad hoc networks
are first prioritized. The military operations required networks with minimum
initial network configuration with no delay. MANETs done exactly what the
military operations required in the arena.
1.7.4. Wireless mesh networks
Wireless mesh networks are one type of ad hoc networks which are formed to
provide an alternate communication infrastructure for mobiles or fixed
nodes/users, without the spectrum reuse constraint & requirement of network
planning of cellular network. Wireless mesh networks implement a quick
reconfiguration of the path from source to destination when the existing path
failed due to node failure by allowing many transmission paths from source
terminal to destination terminal with in a network.
The installation cost of the wireless mesh networks are very less compared
to the cellular systems due to the infrastructure built in the form of small radio
relaying devices. The infrastructure requirement of a mesh networks is less
than cellular networks. The wireless mesh networks are deployed at residential
zones, highways, business zones, important civilian zones and university
campuses. These networks provide high data rate, quick and low cost of

42
 deployment, enhanced services, high scalability, easy extendibility, high
availability and low cost per bit.
1.7.5. Wireless sensor networks
The wireless sensor networks are special category of ad hoc networks that are
used to provide a wireless communication infrastructure among the sensors
deployed in a specific application domin.in this type of networks the sensors
nodes have a capability of sensing physical parameters, processing the data and
communicate to the monitoring system. The major issues that make the sensor
networks a distinct category in ad hoc networks include:
 Mobility of nodes
 Size of the network
 Density deployment
 Power constraints
 Data/information fusion
 Traffic distribution
 Mobility of nodes
In wireless sensor networks the mobility of nodes is not a mandatory
requirement. For example, the nodes used for the periodic monitoring of soil
properties are not mobile nodes and the nodes that are fitted on the bodies of
patient in a post-surgery ward of a hospital are designed to support limited or
partial mobility. In general all the sensor networks need not be support
mobility of sensor nodes and it is depends upon application.
 Size of the network
The network size of the wireless sensor networks is high when compared to ad
hoc networks.
 Density of deployment
In sensor networks the node density varies with the domain of application. For
example, military applications require high availability of network nodes in
order to make high priority redundancy.

43
 Power constraints
The sensor nodes are expected to operate in harsh environmental conditions
without help of human supervision and maintenance hence the power
constraints in the sensor networks are much more stringent when compare to
the ad hoc networks. In sensor networks it is impossible to recharge the
energy source and demands very efficient protocol at network, data link and
physical layers. The power sources used in sensor networks can be classified
into three types:
 Replenishable power source
 Non-replenishable power source
 Regenerative power source
Replenishable power source
The power source can be replaced when the existing source is fully drained.
Non-replenishable power source
The power source cannot be replenished once the network has been deployed.
Regenerative power source
The power source employed in wireless sensor networks has the capability of
regenerating power from physical parameter under measurement.
 Data / information fusion
In sensor network, the data fusion refers to aggregation of multiple packets
into one before relying it. The data fusion reduces the bandwidth consumed by
redundant headers of the data packets and reducing the medium access delay
involved in transmitting multiple packets. Information fusion aims at
processing the sensed data at the intermediate nodes and relaying the
outcomes to the monitor node.
 Traffic distribution
In the sensor wireless networks the communication traffic varies with the
domain of application. For example, the environmental sensing application
generates short periodic packets indicating the status of the environmental
parameters under observation to a central monitoring system and these kind of
traffics required low bandwidth. Whereas ad hoc networks carry user traffic

44
 such as digitized and packetized voice stream or data traffic which demands
high bandwidth.
1.7.6. Hybrid wireless networks
The hybrid wireless architectures such as Multi hop Cellular Networks (MCN)
and Integrated Cellular Ad hoc Relay (iCAR) are the important application
areas of mobile ad hoc networks. The geographical channel reuse is the main
concept behind the cellular networks and several techniques like cell sectoring,
cell resizing and multi-tier cells increase the capacity of the cellular networks.
MCNs combine the reliability & support of fixed base station of cellular
network with flexibility and multi-hop relying ad hoc networks. The major
advantages of the hybrid wireless networks include:
 Higher capacity when compared to the cellular networks because
of better channel reuse
 Increased flexibility and routing
 better coverage and connectivity
In addition to the above, the ad hoc networks have the applications in the
commercial communication sectors and Personal area networks. Ad hoc networks
application area and the service offered by the application in various fields have
been summarized in Table 1.4.
Table 1.3: Ad hoc network applications:

Application Description / service

Military communication, operation
Tactical networks
Automated battle fields
Home applications: smart nodes and actuators can be
buried in appliances to allow end users to manage home
devices remotely.Environmental applications include
Sensor networks tracking the movements of animals, chemical / biological
detection, precision, agriculture, etc.Tracking data highly
correlated in time and space like; remote sensors of
weather and earth activities.

45
 Application Description / service
Search and rescue operations, disaster recovery.
Emergency services Replacement of fixed infrastructure in case of
earthquakes, hurricanes
E-Commerce: electronic payments from anywhere (i.e.,
booking taxi)
Business: dynamic access to customer files stored in a
central location on the fly, provide consistent database for
Commercial
all agents
Vehicular service: transmission of new roads, road
condition, weather, music, local ad hoc network with
nearby vehicles for road / accident guidelines.
Home and office wireless networking (WLAN) eg.
Shared whiteboard application; use PDA s to print
Home & enterprise
anywhere; trade shows.
Personal Area Networks (PAN)
Setup virtual classrooms or conference rooms
Education
Setup ad hoc communication during conference, meeting

Multi-user games
Entertainment Robotic pets
Outdoor internet access

Location aware Follow-on services, like automatic call-forwarding,

service tracing location, information services.

1.8. Summary
In this chapter, a brief overview of the concept of mobile ad hoc networks which
deals with the fundamentals, basic difference with cellular networks, advantages,
peculiar characteristics, research challenges, and applications of mobile ad hoc
networks. The reliability fundamentals, system reliability evaluating methods,
fundamentals of interference, and literature survey described in succeeding chapter.

46
 CHAPTER 2
RELIABILITY AND INTERFERENCE

2.1.Definition
Reliability is the probability that a product or service will operate properly for a specific
period of time (design life) under the design operating conditions (such as temperature or
voltage) without failure [28].In other words; reliability may be used as a measure of the
system’s success in providing its function properly. Consider the following illustration
Suppose n0 identical components are subjected to a design operating conditions test.
During the interval of time (t-∆t, t), we observed nf (t) failed components and ns (t)
surviving components [nf (t) + ns (t) =n0 ]. Since reliability is defined as the cumulative
probability function of success, then at time t, the reliability R(t) is as given in (1.1)
ns (t)
R(t) = (n = ns (t)/n0 (1.1)
s (t)+nf (t))

For example, if the time to failure distribution is exponential with parameter λ, then
f(t) = λe−λt (1.2)
The reliability function is represented as shown in (1.3)
1
R(t) = 1 − ∫0 λe−λt dξ = e−λt(1.3)
2.2.System Reliability Evaluation
The construction of a reliability block diagram is the fundamental stage in evaluating
system’s reliability, which is a graphical representation of the components of a system
and how they are connected. A block (rectangle) does not show any details of the
component or the subsystem it represents. The second stage is to create a reliability graph
that corresponds to the block diagram. The reliability graph is a line representation of the
blocks that indicates the path on the graph. The following figures (see Fig.2.1) show the
reliability block diagram and reliability graph of a computer tomography system.
After constructing both the reliability block diagram and the reliability graph of the
system, the next stage is to evaluate the complete system reliability. In series and parallel
systems the reliability graph can be as simple as pure and the reliability graph is complex
in between various systems, such as series-parallel, parallel-series and k-out-of-n-
systems. There are various ways to evaluate the system reliability, based on complexity

47
of the reliability graph the system reliability evaluations are divided into three
approaches. Those are:
 Evaluating simple systems reliability
 Evaluating complex systems reliability
 Evaluating the reliability of multistate models

.
Fig.2.1: Representation of Reliability Block Diagram and Reliability Graph

2.2.1. Simple Systems Reliability Evaluation

The simple systems reliability evaluation can be divided into many approaches
based on the block arrangements in the system. Those are: Series Systems,
Parallel Systems, Parallel-Series Systems, Series-Parallel Systems, Mixed-
Parallel Systems, Consecutive-k-out-of-n:F Systems, Consecutive–k-out-of-n
Systems. The reliability evaluation and their corresponding representation of
various simple systems are depicted in Table.2.1.

48
Tabel.2.1: Reliability evaluation and corresponding block diagrams of various systems

System type Reliability block diagram Mathematical equation

Series system 𝑅 = 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , … , 𝑅𝑁 = ∏ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1

R = 1 − P(x̅1 )P(x̅̅̅/x
2 ̅1 )P(x
̅̅̅3
/x̅1 ̅̅̅)
x2
Parallel system
R=1−∏ni=1 P(x̅i )
R = 1 − (1 − p)n

Pi = ∏ P(xij )
j=1

Parallel-series m n

R = 1 − ∏ [1 − ∏ P(xij ) ]
i=1 j=1

R = 1 − (1 − P n )m

n m

R = ∏ [1 − ∏(1 − P(xij ))]

Series-parallel i=1 j=1

R = [1 − (1 − p)m ]n

𝑅 = 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , … , 𝑅𝑁 = ∏ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1
Mixed-parallel

R=1−∏ni=1 P(x̅i )

49
2.2.2. ComplexSystemsReliability Estimation
Telecommunication systems, computer networks, electric power utility systems,
and water utility distribution systems are typical examples of complex networks.
Some of the networks are referred to as directed networks when the flow from one
node to another is unidirectional. When the flow is bidirectional we refer the
network as undirected [28].

Fig.2.2: A Complex Reliability System

Consider the network shown in Fig.2.2. This network is a more complex system
than simple systems, since it cannot be modeled (or is difficult to model) as series,
parallel, parallel-series, series-parallel, or k-out-of-n systems. The reliability of
such systems can be determined using any of the following methods.
 Decomposition method
 Tie-set and cut-set methods
 Event-space method
 Boolean truth table method
 Reduction method
 Path tracing method
 Factoring algorithm
All the above mentioned methods are best suitable for fixed networks or
infrastructure networks. Moreover theirs methods are not applicable for MANET.
Hence, the modeling of MANET can be done as discussed in the following
subsequent sub-section. 2.1.5.

50
2.2.3. Multistate models Reliability Estimation:
The components of the system fundamentally involved in one of two states:
operational and failure. In many situations, a component may experience more
than two states, for example; a three state component may operate properly in its
normal mode but may fail in either of two failure modes. Typical examples of
three-state components are transistors and diodes. A transistor may operate
properly or fail open or short. A diode is a device that passes current in the
reverse direction. When operating properly, the resistance in the forward direction
is zero, whereas the resistance in the reverse direction is essentially infinite. The
diode may operate properly or may fail in either state: it may open circuit (that is,
resistance in both directions is infinite), orit may short circuit (resistance in both
directions is zero).
In complex systems, Redundancy is one of the means of increasing system
reliability. Increasing the number of redundant components in a system whose
components have only two states (operational or failure) increases the reliability
of the system. Unlike the two state components, adding multistate components
may either increase or decrease the system reliability. This is due to depends on
the dominant mode of component failure, configuration of the system and the
number of redundant components. The reliability expressions of the various
system configurations composed entirely of multistate models.
2.3.Modeling Ad Hoc Networks:
In wireless multi-hop ad hoc networks any node may have direct radio links with some
other nodes within the geographical region and each node can behaves like a relay station
in order to route the information to its final destination. Regardless of the radio
technology used, the ad hoc networks at any instant of time can be represented as a graph
a set of vertices consisting of the nodes of the network and set of edges consisting of the
links between the nodes. The ad hoc networks are commonly modeled by using following
graph models depending upon applications [29].
 ErdősandRényirandom graph model
 Regular lattice graph model
 Scale-free graph model

51
  Geometric random graph model
2.3.1. Erdős–Rényi model random graph model
The random graph of ErdősandRényi is one of the best studies models of a
network. This model is exactly solvable for many of its average properties. A
random graph with N vertices and L edges can be constructed by starting with
Nvertices and zero edges. Then L edges are chosen randomly and independently
𝑁(𝑁 − 1)/2
from the 𝑁(𝑁 − 1)/2 possible edges. In total, there are ( )
𝐿
equiprobable random graphs with N vertices and L edges. Another way of looking
at random graphs is the assumption that any pair of vertices in random graphs is
connected with the probability P. The number of edges L in the random graphs is
𝑁(𝑁−1)
then a random variable with the expectation 𝐸[𝐿] = 𝑝 .Hence, this
2

describes that the random graph model is not a realistic representation of ad hoc
networks because of the fact that any two nodes at close range has higher
probability of connectivity than the nodes at farther range.
The random graphs are denoted by 𝐺𝑝 (𝑁) , where N is the number of
nodes in the graph and p is the probability of having a link (edge) between any
two nodes. The fundamental assumption in random graph is that the presence or
absence of a link between two nodes is independent of the presence or absence of
any other link. The degree of a node i, denoted as 𝑑𝑖 , is defined as the number of
nodes connected directly to node i. In other words, the degree of a node is the
number of neighbors of that node
2.3.2. Regular lattice graph model
A regular lattice graph is constructed with nodes (vertices) placed on a regular
grid structure. Adjacent nodes on the grid are all equidistant (although this
distance can be defined to be non-metric). The probability that two adjacent
nodes on the grid are connected is p. Non-adjacent nodes cannot be linked
directly. Links (edges) are then created independently and are all equiprobable.
In wireless ad hoc networks, nodes use radio communications to form
links with other nodes. Because radio signal powers decay with increasing
distance between nodes, the probability is bound to be a function of the distance

52
 between nodes. The lattice model and ad hoc networks both share the notion that
the distance between nodes influences the link probability. Hence, the lattice
model is more suitable to represent an ad hoc network than the random graph
model. However, the position of nodes in an ad hoc network (or even a sensor
network) is generally not fixed to a regular lattice. Further, in radio
communication the distance over which the nodes are vicinity to each other is
not a fixed value. A 2-dimensional lattice graphs are represented on a square grid
of size m x n with 𝐺𝑚,𝑛 . The number of nodes in this lattice graph is N = m x n.
2.3.3. Scale-free graph model
The real-world networks such as the Internet, social networks and biological
networks cannot be modeled as random graphs. The binomial degree distribution
in random graphs seems to be an unrealistic assumption for these network types
and the clustering coefficient in these networks is typically much larger than in
random graphs of equal number of vertices and edges. Based on experimental
studies, a more realistic model is suggested for the presentation of real-world
networks which assumes that the degree distribution has power-law tail.
𝑝𝑟 = [𝑑 = 𝑘] ≃ 𝑘 −𝛾 (1.19)
The value of 𝛾 is a constant, which is independent of the network size.
Because of the independence of the degree distribution from the network size,
these networks are referred as scale-free networks. The value of𝛾is found to be
different for various network types. A specific method for generating a scale-free
network is a process in which vertices are added to a graph one at a time and
joined to a fixed number of earlier vertices, selected with probabilities
proportional to their degrees. This process creates a scale-free network with 𝛾 =
3.
The power law degree distribution influences the way in which the
network operates, including how it responds to catastrophic events. A scale-free
graph, where a very small number of nodes (hubs) are far more connected than
other nodes, shows striking resilience against random breakdowns. In scale-free
networks, in spite of large sizes of the networks, the distance between most
vertices is short because these paths usually go through the hubs. The small-

53
 world property is more strongly present in scale-free networks than random
graphs.
The scale-free network model is suited for many social and man-made
networks, but it is not appropriate for modeling ad hoc networks. In an ad hoc
network where nodes are uniformly distributed over the service area, and radio
propagation conditions as well as radio transmit power and receiver sensitivity
are the same for all nodes and there is no reason to assume that some nodes may
have much higher number of neighbors than other nodes.
2.3.4. Geometric random graph model
The geometric random graphs are more realistic and commonly used models for
modeling ad hoc networks. A wireless ad hoc network consists of a number of
nodes (radio devices) spread over a certain geographical area. Each node may be
connected to other nodes in its vicinity. In wireless ad hoc networks, because of
node movements and radio signal fluctuations, the topology of the network can
change from time to time. However, at any instant in time, an ad-hoc network
can be considered as a graph with a certain number of nodes and link between
nodes.
Ad hoc networks cannot be modeled as pure random networks. In a
wireless ad hoc network the actual set of connections, in contrast to random
graphs or scale-free networks, depends on the geometric distance between nodes.
A direct consequence of the dependency of the links on the distance between
nodes is that in wireless ad hoc networks there is an increased probability of two
nodes to be connected when they have a common neighbor. In other words, in a
wireless ad hoc network links are locally correlated. Graphs with distance-
dependent links between nodes and correlated links are referred to as geometric
random graphs.
An undirected geometric random graph with N nodes byGp(rij ) (N)where,

p(rij ) is the probability of having a link between two nodes i and jat metric
distance rij . In a geometric random graphs N nodes are uniformly distributed
over the entire service area. The reliability of geometric random graph model
depends directly on the accuracy of p(rij ). In other words, for a reliable model

54
we need to have an accurate description of radio propagation characteristics that
determine the link probability between nodes in wireless environments.
 Radio propagation essentials:
Radio propagation characterization and modeling the radio channel has
always been one of the most difficult parts of the design of mobile ad hoc
networks. The accurate modeling of the radio channel is essential in ad hoc
networks when compared to wired networks. In ad hoc networks the
impairments over the radio link can affect the service quality, routing and
network topology. The wireless channel is generally hostile in nature and it is
very difficult to predict its behavior. Generally, a radio channel is modeled in
statistical way using real propagation measurement data. There are so many
measurements have been done to obtain information concerning propagation
loss and signal power variations (fading) in classical radio communication
system.
 Path loss geometric random graph model:
The realistic modeling of ad hoc networks is essential to have an accurate
model for the link probability between nodes. The geometric random graph
models in ad hoc networks are depends up on path loss radio propagation
models. Because of the dependency of link probability in the geometric
random graph model on the path loss radio propagation model, this model is
treated as path loss geometric random graph model.Let us assume that for
correct reception of radio signals it is required that the received power at the
receiver is more than a certain threshold value ρ. The coverage area of node I
in a wireless ad hoc network is the collection of all the pointsin the 2-
dimensional space where the received signal power from iis more than ρ. A
node can communicate directly with nodes that fall inside its coverage area
but not with other nodes.
r −η
If the path loss radio model is used, based onpa (r) = c (r ) , all nodes
0

1⁄
r η
within the range R = c (ρ) can communicate with each other. This means

that the necessary and sufficient condition for two nodes to be connected is

55
 that the distance between them is less than R. Depending on the value of
Rgraphs representing ad hoc networks can be dense or sparse, connected or
not connected.
The path loss geometric random graph model results into a perfect circular
coverage area around each node with radius R. The path loss geometric
random graph model resembles a highly clustered lattice network with the
difference that in the path loss geometric random graphs, due to strict distance
dependency, links between nodes are locally correlated.
 Log normal geometric random graph model:
The random graph model is not suited for modeling ad hoc networks because;
there is no correlation between the links and any two nodes have the same
probability of being connected. Then the focus shifted toward the path loss
geometric random graph model with very strict and deterministic view,
implying that every node with in a circle must be connected to the center
node. However, this model assumes the perfect circular coverage area for all
the nodes. It is not possible that the nodes having perfect circular coverage
area in ad hoc networks. The log normal geometric random graph model uses
more relaxed correlation among the links in order to overcome these
difficulties.
2.4.Interference:
As wireless systems proliferate worldwide, the number one opponent of wireless
systems designers and service providers is signal interference. Interference hampers
coverage and capacity, and limits the effectiveness of both new and existing systems.
The wireless communication system must be able to survive at extremely complicated
signal environments. These environments are comprised of multiple operating wireless
networks ranging from mobile communication services to specialized mobile radio and
paging or broadcast systems. At the same time, wireless local area networks (WLANs)
and digital video broadcasting are introducing new technologies and signal sources that
further threaten to disrupt wireless communication service. Compounding the problem
are regulatory and environmental restrictions which have effectively limited the number
of suitable new base station transceiver sites that can be put in place. Hence, many

56
wireless service providers are now faced with co-location issues further contributing to
the potential for signal interference as more antennae are placed on individual cell
towers. The typical sources of interference include another radio in the same cell, a call
progress in neighboring cell, other base stations operating in the same frequency band
etc.
Interference on voice channels causes cross talk, where the subscriber hears
interference in the background due to an undesired transmission. On control channels,
interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors in the digital signaling. The
two major types of system generating cellular interference are co-channel interference
and adjacent channel interference. The frequency reuse concept results several cells
operating at same frequency bands. Those cells are called co-channel cells and the
interference between these cells is treated as co-channel interference.

Fig.2.3: Communication system subjected to variety of interference signals

The interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to desired
signal is called adjacent channel interference [30]. Whether licensed or unlicensed,
sources of interference cause the same results-impaired system performance. The only
difference is that there are more potential uncontrolled sources of interference in the
unlicensed bands. Fig.1.24 shows a variety of possible interferers. The affected system,
a microwave link for an Ethernet data bridge in the 2.4-2.5 GHz ISM band, is shown in
the center. When signals from other systems (shown in Fig.1.24 [a], [b], [c], [d], [e] and

57
[f]) reduce the affected system’s carrier or interference ratio(C/I) below its specification
margins, the mobile node data processing fails.
2.4.1. Sources of interference
There are varieties of sources which causes interference in a communication
system that includes not only the physical parameters but also the design
constraints of the communication systems such as:
 Out-of-band emitters
 In-band emitters
 Overlap of antenna patterns
 Receiver design contain vulnerabilities
 Out-of-band emitters
In the communication systems, even though the affected system is designed
to reject signals outside its assigned band, there are effects caused by out-of-
band emitters which can impact the in-band performance. The factors which
are effect the in-band performance of the communication systems include;
 Desensitization
 Intermodulation signals from non-linear power amplifiers
 Inter modulation from non-linear external elements
 Desensitization:
The receiver of a communication system is affected and driven into RF
overload (even though its signal is well out-of-band) when a high-powered
transmitter, such as a UHF TV broadcast station, is nearby. This condition is
happened when the affected receiver pre-selection filter is not adequate. The
high power signal leaking into the affected receiver will drive the operating
point of the front-end amplifier up through its dynamic range characteristic.
This destroys the normally-required linear amplification process, introducing
intermodulation distortion and serious data errors.
 Intermodulation signals from non-linear power amplifiers:
In Contemporary wireless systems there are hundreds of channels of voice or
data are received, transmitted, and processed at a common base station.
Because of the effective cost gaining purpose most of those channels are

58
 processed via common antennas and broadband power amplifiers at the final
stage. The multiple channel signals are combined in front of the final power
stages and then amplified together. The linearity specifications of those final
power stage amplifiers are very tight since a non-linear characteristic can
cause cross-frequency signal products to be produced and emitted. Those
cross-frequency signals might cause interference with in their own system’s
operating band or cross over into other systems.
 Intermodulation from non-linear external elements:
The interference caused from non-linear external elements is termed as rusty
fence syndrome. If two high powered transmitted signals f1and f2 impinge on
some random rusty element such as steel fence, a rusty metal roof, or even
corroded coaxial cable elements, an electric effect sometimes takes place. The
corrosion junction acts like a rectifying diode and mixes all the transmit
signals hitting it. This results in a whole list of new signals, called
intermodulation products, which are re-transmitted. These signals are
mathematical combinations of the original transmitted signals, such as (f1- f2),
(2 f1- f2), (2f1-3f2), etc.
 In-band emitters:
The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) or Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS) techniques spread the useful data modulation over a wide
band by using non-licensed wireless local area network (WLAN). They
operate in the ISM band which is also the home frequency of the typical
microwave oven, as shown in Fig.1.24. Microwave ovens operate at the 2.4
GHz resonance frequency of the water molecule. Although the spread
spectrum modulation schemes defend against interference from the oven
leakage, the location and power level of the leakage may overcome the
interference resistance and consequently produce harmonics and parasitic
outputs.

59
  Overlap of antenna patterns:
Antenna pattern overlaps between communications systems frequently occur.
There are a variety of interference causes attributed to antenna pattern
conflicts. Such as:
 ISM system antenna alignment problems
 Back lobes and side lobes
 Reflections and fading
 Cellular antenna overlap
 Receiver designs contain vulnerabilities
The ideal receiver design and the modulation schemes it employs minimize
its susceptibility to sources of interference. Virtually many communication
systems composed of super-heterodyne receivers, which is relatively
inexpensive, highly sensitive to weak signals. The interference may occur in
the receivers due to the modulation and demodulation techniques employed,
spread spectrum frequency bands, antenna patterns.
2.4.2. Interference criteria in MANETs
Interference in mobile ad hoc networks has a significant importance while
designing or modeling a network. The network performance characteristics such
as throughput, capacity, reliability and security are highly depends on the level of
interference present in the network. The essential requirements of the interference
affected networks are; minimize the interference and modeling of interference
with proper models. The carrier to interference ratio (C/I) or signal to noise plus
interference (SNIR) ratios are commonly used measures for interference
estimation in ad hoc networks.
The fundamental features (mobility, dynamic topology, routing protocols and
medium access schemes) of the mobile ad hoc networks lead to the generation of
interference in the networks. Due to the mobility, the mobile node moves in a
geographical area and establishes a link among the nodes other than actual nodes
(destination). This leads unexpected links in the network and interrupts the actual
transmission of the network. The limited transmission range of the mobile ad hoc
networks initializes the multi hop connections among the nodes instead of direct

60
 connections. The multi hop links undergone by some environmental effects and
gets weaker when it reaches to the destination. If the mobile nodes use the same
frequency band for communication, any other transmission from source to
destination causes interference. The parameters which are strongly influences the
interference production in ad hoc networks are; variation in the network size
(number of nodes), network density (relative positions of the nodes) and traffic
per node [30].
2.5. Literature Survey
Researchinthefieldofnetwork reliability is predominant. Traditional fixed infrastructure
networkswherethe interest liesin communication betweenapairofspecifiednodes are
commonly known as two-terminal networks. These networksareconsidered operational
ifthereis apath between apairofnodesusuallylabeled:sourceand destination. As
anexample, in a communications network thesource node istheterminal that
sendsamessagewhilethe destination node, is the terminal intended to receive that
message. Thus,the probability ofamessagesuccessfullyreaching the destination
nodefromthesourcenodeis termed as 2-terminal reliability (2TR).
The mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) have some peculiar characteristics like;
dynamic topology, multi-hop routing, symmetric environment, scalability, etc. These
networks inherit the traditional problems of wireless and mobile communications, such
as bandwidth optimization, power control, and transmission quality enhancement. In
addition, their multi-hop nature and the possible lack of a fixed infrastructure introduce
new research problems such as network configuration, device discovery, and topology
maintenance, as well as ad hoc addressing and self-routing. These special features of
MANET bring wireless technology great opportunity together with severe challenges.
These challenges make the modeling and the reliability analysis of such networks a
challenging and formidable task.
Rai, Kumar and Prasad [31] proposed an approach which handles the imperfect
nodes and the dynamic network connectivity for determination of network reliability.
The concept of Boolean algebra and graph theories are utilized in the proposed
methodology to evaluate the network reliability and for modeling the network. The
methodology starts with the system success determinant obtained from the connection

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matrix. The methodology does not required any knowledge about path set or cut set and
it is recursive, straight forward and lacks computational complexity. There are various
algorithms are existed for evaluating the network reliability of mobile ad hoc networks,
but most of the algorithms are based on the assumption that all the nodes are perfect and
the links are static and irreplaceable. In the mobile ad hoc networks due to the mobility
(node movements) the communication links are involved in quick change and the
connectivity not maintained properly among the nodes. Thus the assumptions made in
[31] are not applicable for mobile ad hoc networks. Computation of reliability in ad hoc
networks should consider the failure of nodes and links in the network.
Kharbash and Wang [32] proposed an algorithm an extension of [31] for
computing the 2-terminal reliability of mobile ad hoc network. The algorithm overcomes
the limitations of existing techniques by considering the node failures, link failures and
connectivity change due to the nodes mobility and they showed that the reliability of
wireless network not only dependent on the component’s reliability but also on the
degree of redundancy in the network topology and the distribution of nodes in the
network.In mobile ad hoc networks modeling individual component failures and
reliability evaluations are the two important concerning parameters. Reliability
calculation in MANETs is an NP problem and the computational complexity of basic
network reliability calculation is O(g(2n)). Ahmad and Mishra [33] developed a
method based on efficient tree representation of network states and efficient calculations
based on memorization in order to provide a lower bound for the complexity of two
terminal reliability calculations of mobile ad hoc networks to an order of Ω(g(n!)). In
this approach they showed that the computational complexity of reliability has been
improved and proves equally effective for small-scale to large-scale ad hoc networks.
Most of the published algorithms for calculating the terminal-pair reliability are
based on the sum of disjoint products. In order to avoid the redundant computation due
to isomorphic sub-problems, this tree based partitions lack the capability of ad hoc
networks. To overcome these problems a method based on edge expansion diagrams
[34] using Ordered Binary Decision Diagram (OBDD) was proposed to determine the
terminal pair reliability. In this approach firstly, the success path function a given path is
built based on the OBDD by traversing the network with diagram based-edge expansion.

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Then recursively on this OBDD the network reliability is evaluated. The effectiveness of
this approach demonstrated by performing experiments on benchmarks collected by
previous works including large networks (4 to 299 paths). They showed that the number
of OBDD nodes only linearly proportional to the number of stages and it is much better
than previous algorithms which have exponential complexity by using sum of disjoint
products.
A Fratta and Montanari proposed a Boolean algebra method [35] to compute
theexact and approximate 2TR using symbolic expressions in a probabilistic network.
These authors give the expression for finding the upper bound to the error. The proposed
algorithms in [35] reduces the problem to the computation of a disjoint form of Boolean
function f , defined by the all set of simple paths from source to destination. The number
of variables of this function is the number N of arcs in the network. Since each step of
the algorithm computes a disjoint implicant of function f, the number of steps bounded
by the number m of fundamental products of f. The complexity of single step is
measured by the number of symbolic multiplications required; an upper bound can be
the number of all implicantes of f, which is smaller than 3N . Finally they found that
reduction of number of steps is important even without regard to the complexity; in fact,
the number of steps is equal to the number of terms in the final symbolic expression, and
thus a smaller number of steps imply a more concise form of the terminal reliability.
However, the same authors computed the terminal reliability assuming the network
nodes to be completely reliable using a recursive method [36]. They have presented and
motivated a particular policy (policy P) for selecting subcases and proved that it can be
implemented by computing minimum set among simple paths and prime cutsets and by
choosing a set of emd events with the conservative policy.
The two terminal reliability of a network is the probability that there exists an
operating path from source to destination. In wired point-to-point networks computing
2-terminal reliability is a difficult problem because the links and nodes in the networks
are fixed for entire mission duration and are mostly affected by environmental
conditions. AboEIFotoh and Colbourn proposed a new probabilistic graph model [37]
for the computation of the two terminal reliability of radio broadcast networks. Their
model represents the general case where the nodes and edges can fail and showed that

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the 2-terminal reliability problem for radio broadcast networks is computationally
difficult; in particular, #P-complete, even in two important restricted cases. Based on the
sub graph counts and vertex-packing methods they presented the efficient bounding
technique. The sub graph counting and vertex-packing bounds is the counterpart of the
sub graph counting and edge-packing bounds for point-to-point wired networks with
reliable nodes and unreliable links. Finally they developed and define series and parallel
node reduction for arbitrary networks with unreliable nodes and reliable edges, and
incorporate these reductions into a new polynomial time algorithm to improve the
vertex-packing bounds through approximation by series-parallel reducible graphs.
The unique features (decentralization, flexibility, mobility) of ad hoc networks
make existing methods insufficient for analyzing the network reliability. Cook and
Ramirez-Marquez proposed [38] a basic methodology that integrates node mobility and
evaluate the 2TR analyses for MANET. The node movements are modeled by using a
Random Waypoint Model and a Monte Carlo Simulation based algorithm is used to
evaluate the network reliability. A three node MANET is used to illustrate the approach
and calculate the MAWN terminal-pair reliability 2TRm. they showed that the network
reliability is gradually increasing with increase in number of nodes and illustrate the
effect of various network scenario metrics like; network size, different link probability
values on the network terminal-pair reliability. Majority of traditional terminal
reliabilities are based on theoretical analysis, but ignore the real influence of node
reliability of MANET. A Monte Carlo method for evaluation of 2TR was developed and
considers the node mobility effect and the node reliability based on real MANET
platform are modeled and analyzed. The authors provide an efficient algorithm to
compute the reliability of MANET, and the experiment results prove the correctness and
efficiency of the algorithm and also show that the node mobility of MANET causes
more impact on network reliability than link reliability.
The link existence in the mobile ad hoc networks is a function of geometric
distance between the nodes and the transmission range of the nodes and hence, the
MANET is modeled by using geometric random graphs rather than random graphs. The
reliability of the MANETs depends upon robustness of the link between mobile nodes in
the network. Recent past, the reliability of such networks has been evaluated for

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imperfect nodes with binary model of communication link based on transmission range
and distance between the nodes. The probability of a successful communication decrease
as the signal strength declines due to noise, fading, interference, environmental
conditions etc. Chaturvedi and Padmavathy proposed a method [39] to evaluate the
MANET reliability using propagation based link reliability model rather than a binary
model. The network can be modeled by using geometric random graph model and the
node movements are modeled by using random waypoint model. The nodes in the
network are not perfectly reliable and the failure probability of the nodes follows
Weibull distribution with certain shape (ɵ) and scale parameters (β). They examined that
how the link reliability is a function of propagation distance based on FS-TRG model
and evaluate the effect of various scenario metrics like; network size, network coverage
area and transmission range on MANET reliability. The same authors contribute a
reliability analysis method [40] that considers the effect of node mobility and continuous
changes in the network connectivity to evaluate the effect of scenario metrics on
network reliability of mobile ad hoc networks.
The mobile communication has achieved a tremendous growth in population in
past two decades. The performance parameters of wireless networks such as network
throughput, efficiency and cost are mainly depends on the network reliability. In the
mobile ad hoc networks the reliability has major significance while designing or
employing a network. Reliability evaluation in ad hoc networks depends upon
challenging factors like; node failure, link failure, network size, node density,
transmission range, mobility, routing protocols etc. In ad hoc networks many existing
routing protocols assumes the availability of reliable nodes. The dynamic nature of the
ad hoc network topology, which is composed of moving nodes, violates this assumption
in the evaluation of reliability of the network.
The nodes may or may not reliable (active throughout mission duration) in ad hoc
networks and hence, we must consider the effect of failure nodes while evaluating
network reliability. The factors that cause the node failure in ad hoc wireless networks
are; low transmission range, battery constraints, transmitted power and environmental
conditions. The node failure in the wireless ad hoc networks has a significant effect on
the network reliability and requires a realistic model which deals with these uncertainties

65
in order to evaluate the network reliability. Anil choudhary et al., proposed a node
failure model using Constant Hazard Model (CHM) [41] and illustrates the effect of
node failure on the network reliability. They evaluate and observe the MANET behavior
under the realistic scenario of momentary node failures and topology changes, which is
represented by a node failure model. They found that all the routes to destination might
not be available due to node failures and the data packets are routed through different
routes when some nodes are failed. The network throughput decreases because of these
uncertainties present in the network. They have observed that the network throughput
gradually decreases with increase in number of failed nodes.
The mobility in mobile ad hoc networks initiates the nodes to move around the
geographical area and results dynamic change in topology. The mobile nodes in wireless
ad hoc networks must be modeled in order to evaluate the accurate network reliability
and other network performance characteristics. B.Chenet al.,evaluates [42] the two-
terminal reliability in the mobile ad hoc networks under asymptotic spatial distribution
of the Random Waypoint Model (RWM). The RWM mobility model is the frequently
used in describing the movement patterns of the mobile users in MANETs. As the
asymptotic spatial distribution of the nodes under RWP model exhibits central tendency,
the two-terminal reliability of MANET is investigated as a function of source node
location. Under this observation, they have derived an analytical expression for one and
two hop connectivity and a simulation routine for accessing full two-terminal reliability
was developed. The simulation study determines the manner in which this measure is
positively correlated with the total number of nodes in the network, the transmission
range of the network and the proximity of the source node to the center of the topology.
Over the decades, researchers have critically studied the effect of interference on
the mobile ad hoc networks on issues other than reliability. Hekmat and Mieghem
proposed honey grid model [43] to calculate the interference levels in multi hop ad hoc
wireless networks. The honey grid model considers the effect of number of nodes,
density of nodes, radio propagation accepts, multi hop characteristics of the network and
the amount of relay traffic in order to evaluate the expected value of carrier to
interference ratio (C/I). The network capacity and data throughput per node are
determined by using the expected values of C/I. They calculate the expected values of

66
C/I, without having detailed information about movement patterns and exact locations of
all nodes at any movement by using a regular lattice model.
Same authors have also proposed an algorithm [44] using log normal model to
determine the intrusion effect in mobile ad hoc wireless networks (MAWN) andwireless
sensor networks (WSN). Usually the radio propagation conditions has been modeled by
using log normal shadowing radio model and based on this model their exists accurate
calculation methods for estimation of interference power sum statics in fixed-topology
wireless networks. the authors of [44] makes additional changes in log normal
shadowing radio model to expand their use to sensor networks and ad hoc networks with
changing-topology and present calculation method for estimating interference power
sum statistics in wireless ad hoc and sensor networks by taking into the effect of radio
propagation conditions, density of the nodes, size of the network, traffic load per node
and MAC protocol characteristics.
When evaluating the routes in mobile ad hoc networks, a node in the network can
make two sorts of errors. The first one is rejecting a reliable link on the basis of an
unusually weak signal-to-noise plus interference ratio (SNIR) and the second one is
accepting a link that is unreliable on the basis of an unusually strong one.Because the
SNIR of a link is a random variable, it is not possible for a node to anticipate, on the
basis of signal transmission, hoe suitable a link is likely to be. It is essential that some
sort of repeated measures be incorporated to achieve acceptable throughput levels in
MANET in which multi hop communications are required. Mullen proposed a simple
stochastic model [45] to estimate signal to noise plus interference levels in order to
improve the performance of mobile ad hoc networks and routing protocols. The
probability of successful transmission in an interference limited clustered wireless ad
hoc network is improved by using an investigated technique called a spatial interference
alignment among the finite number of users. The performance in terms of outage
probability of interference alignment among the finite number of users was proposed by
Mullen [45] and evaluated in large clustered ad hoc networks. This model shows the
significant increase in the probability of successful transmission when compared to non-
cooperative networks. The gain stems from the suppression of dominant sources of
interference in the vicinity of the intended transmitter and comes with the cost of

67
deploying multiple antennas per node. The proposed interference alignment [45] scheme
would be beneficially applied for networks with small cluster density and small clusters
that contain many nodes.
Suseendran and Chandrasekharan proposed a hidden Markov Model; an
interference reduction method [46] using a mathematical prediction filters for mobile ad
hoc networks and showed that through their approach they obtained best performance.
In this approach the initial transmission power is set by comparing the received power
with minimum and maximum values. The Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send
(CTS) messages are exchanged at initial transmission power values during the data
transmission and they include the interference values of source and destinations
respectively. The source uses the interference value of the destination to transmit the
data packets. The destination uses the interference value of the source to transmit the
ACK message. The interference estimation at the both ends reduces the interference.
The simulation results in [46] shows this technique is better when compared to Kalman
filter based on the prediction technique in terms of energy consumption, packet delivery
ratio and prediction accuracy.
Mawira [47] provides a theoretical estimate of the capacity of the interference
limited mobile ad hoc networks, without interference cancelation scheme. The
calculation carried out using a sound propagation model and statistical considerations on
mobile distance. This methodology presents and derived equations for analyzing the
bounds on the capacity of mobile ad hoc networks. This analysis shows that the
relationship between throughput and availability is not sensitive to propagation free
space range of environment and further it illustrates the tradeoff between throughput and
availability. The link reliability in the ad hoc networks is purely dependent on the
Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) or Signal-to-Interference-Plus-Noise Ratio
(SINR) and the external interference makes it unpredictable, but the unpredictability has
not been explained properly yet. Woo and Kim addressed an empirical study and
interference modeling [48] in order to estimate the causes of unpredictability of link
reliability in wireless networks. They are first configured anempirical testbed, performed
a measurement study and observed that the link reliability actually depends on an intra-
frame SNIR distribution. They examined the interference behavior in ad hoc wireless

68
networks through several testbeds in order to examine the issue why wireless link state
has time varying-FDR. The estimated results indicated that the interference duration in
addition to interference strength actually determines the loss probability for each frame.
The intra-frame SNIR distribution should be exploited to denote the link state instead of
using RSSI. The results confirmed that the intra-frame SNIR distribution determines the
irregular relationship between the FDR and average SNIR.
A model to study the impact of interference on connectivity in ad hoc networks
using percolation theory was proposed in [49]. They assume a bi-directional connection
can be setup between two nodes if the signal to noise ratio at the receiver is larger than
some receiver. The noise is the sum of the contributions of the interferences from all
other nodes weighted by a coefficient γ, and of a background noise. They have found
that there is a critical value of γ above which the network is made of disconnected
cluster of nodes and also proves that if γ is non-zero but small enough, their exists node
spatial densities for which a network consists a large cluster of nodes, enabling distant
nodes to communicate in multiple hops.Bruno reviewed [50] some of the existence
methods like; Greedy algorithms, Exponential node chains and the Highway models
designed for reducing the interference present in the wireless ad hoc networks and
proposed a model to expand upon previous algorithms designed for exponential node
chains so they may be usable in two dimensional topology.
The authors in [51] implemented their framework for incorporating the constraints
imposed by interference in a multi hop ad hoc wireless networks and presented the
methods for computing the bounds on throughput in which a network can support for a
given traffic workload. The authors in their proposed method could not consider any
assumption on the homogeneity of the nodes with regard to radio range or other
characteristics or regularity in communication pattern. They use a conflict graph to
model wireless interference under various conditions like; multiple radios, multiple
channels etc,. They have also consider the effect of new nodes on the per-node
throughput in multi hop wireless networks and observed that the addition of new nodes
can be beneficial for all nodes, under the realistic assumption that each node is active for
a small fraction of time. The better connectivity (and hence increased opportunities for
routing around interference hotspots in the network) contributed by new nodes more

69
than offset the increase in the traffic load they cause. Reducing the interference is one of
the main challenging tasks in wireless communication, and particularly in ad hoc
wireless networks. The amount of interference experienced by a node in the network
corresponds to the number of other nodes whose transmission range covers the
interfering node. The interference can be reducing the nodes transmission power in the
network. T. Moscibroda and R. Wattenhofer studied [52] the problem of minimizing the
average interference while still maintaining desired network properties, such as
connectivity, point-to-point connections or multicast trees and proposed a Greedy
algorithm that computes an O(log n ) approximation to the interference problem with
connectivity requirement. They showed that the algorithm to be asymptotically optimal
by providing a corresponding Ω(log n ) lower bound that holds even in a more restricted
interference model.
The authors in [53] presented an analytical model for the probability that a
transmission detained to an arbitrary network node is successful in the presence of
interference from other nodes in the network and introduce the concept of interference
areas and interference zones to express this probability as a function of network density,
node transmission probability, radio propagation environment and network card
reception sensitivity. The methodology includes a simple MAC model, which captures
the carrier sense function of many MAC protocols. They have setup a wireless mesh
network testbed in order to access the prediction capacity of the analysis under realistic
conditions and the measurements obtained from the testbed shows the close match
between the analytical predictions and experimental results. The analytical derivation in
[53] could eventually evolve to routing metric used by routing protocols to route packets
in the network and implemented an interference-aware routing metric based on the
analytical model and shows its performance compares favorably with ETX metric,
without the need for active probe measurement.
Generally an interference-aware routing metric using the proposed analytical
model in [54] can be refined and tailored according to the specific objectives of the
routing algorithm, such as robustness, scalability, low latency and high throughput or
energy efficiency.Interference in the wireless networks is characterized by using a
mathematical framework [54] was introduced by M.Z Win. They consider a network in

70
which the interferers are scattered according to the spatial Poisson process and are
operating asynchronously in wireless environment subjected to path loss, shadowing and
multipath fading.
The mathematical frame work is initialized by determining the statistical
distribution of aggregate network interference and investigates four applications of the
frame work such as:
 Interference in cognitive radio networks
 Interference in wireless packet networks
 Spectrum of the aggregate radio frequency emission of wireless
networks
 Coexistence between ultra wideband and narrowband systems
The physical parameters (the wireless propagation effects, the transmission
technology, the spatial density of interferers and the transmitted power of the interferers)
that affect the network interference are taken into the account in their frame work to
model the interference in the wireless networks.The recent research in the wireless
mobile ad hoc networks has driven the study and improvement of interference models
which are capable of capturing the intrinsic characteristics like lack of central
coordination and consequent nature of some of the network functions (medium access
control and routing protocol). This results the variety of interference models for ad hoc
networks in order to describe the effect of interference at different layers in the network.
Some of these models describe the interference as a random process whose statistics
depends mainly on physical layer parameters and are effectively suited for problems
related to the physical layer.
A comprehensive survey of interference models for wireless mobile ad hoc
networks, emphasizing their domain of applications and illustrative examples are
presented [55] by P. Cardieri.The author presented a survey of interference models for
ad hoc networks, using the radio capture phenomenon as the root of all modeling
approaches. The interference models are broadly classified into three types such as;
statistical models, models that describe the effect of interference and graph based
models. This work may helpful to understand the relationship among different models
and when selecting appropriate model for a given scenario.

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Implementation of large scale networks is highly impossible due to various reasons like;
cost and maintenance and security issues. Hence, simulation is the precious tool used to
model the complex systems where the desired network size is large in scale. Computing
interference and determining which receivers are in the range of a transmitter are the
most computation intensive task in simulation of large scale networks. The physical
layer calculations are required in both cases for a wireless system of N nodes, which
scales properly. A geometric model, minimal rectangular area is devised for the
optimization of complexity of ad hoc networks.
The proposed method [56] lenses the number of unaffected nodes by considering
less area as affected by transmission range, which exists outside the transmission range
of a transmitter. The experimental results suggested that this geometric model reduce the
affected coverage area 12.5% - 78.15% than existing grid based algorithm used in
present NS2 and also discussed about the efficiency considerations of algorithm.The link
capacity and co-channel interference are the important performance measures in wireless
mobile cellular networks which are mostly depend on the statistical distance between the
communicating nodes in the network. In order to estimate the capacity and interference
effect on the cellular network, an analytical model based on the geometric probability in
wireless systems.
The authors in [57] derived the closed-form distance distribution between cellular
base stations and mobile users, giving the explicit probability density functions of the
distance from a base station to an arbitrary user in the same hexagonal cell or to the
users in adjacent cell. Analytical results on pre-user link capacity and co-channel
interference are derived through simulation and the results show the higher accuracy and
promising potentials of this approach. H. Aslanyan and J. Rolim present an
approximation algorithm [58] for interference minimization problem in wireless sensor
and ad hoc networks withO(opt ∙ ln2 n)approximation ratio.The efficient and effective
MANET acquisition and deployment needs critical spectrum management. Interference
analysis is the technical basis for the tactical spectrum management process. The
interference analysis in ad hoc wireless networks are highly depends on the choice of
interference protection criteria (IPC).

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Mobile ad hoc network is the foundational technology for network modernization in the
army. J. Boksiner et.al, presented an approach [59] to derive co-channel and adjacent
channel IPC that results in efficient spectrum assignments. They derive general criteria
for signal-to-interference ratio and then use stochastic geometry to determine the
statistical distribution for the interference threshold and showed that the use of
Frequency-Dependent Rejection algorithm using appropriate filter characteristics can
provide appropriate correction factors for adjacent channel IPC. Majority of researches
ignores the temporal correlation inherent to wireless channels because it degrades the
tractability in wireless networks. Chun-Hung Liu introduced [60] a metric termed
Ergodic Transmission Capacity (ETC), which includes spatial and temporal ergodicity
in order to acquire an improved model and quantify the temporal variations of the
wireless network throughput. In this approach all transmitters in the network form a
homogeneous Poisson point process and all channels are modeled by a finite state
markov chain and the bounds on output probability and ETC are characterized, and their
scaling behaviors for their sparse and dense network are discussed.They showed that
ETC can be characterized by the inner product of the channel-state related vector and the
invariant probability vector of Markov chain.
2.6. Research Gaps
Over the decade, researchers critically studied on certain challenging issues like,
protocol studies, battery lifetime, mobility patterns, power consumption, capacity
calculations, network topology, etc. In addition to the above ,a substantial amount of
work in the direction of reliability evaluation of an ad hoc network is also available
which are addressed with the perspective of considering transmission range, network
size, coverage area, capacity, radio propagation parameters, and path loss parameters.
On the other hand the existing methods adopted for evaluation of the network reliability
of mobile ad hoc network failed to consider interference along with other input
parameters. Furthermore, interference has been incorporated to only study the network
performance not limited to throughput calculation, C/I ratio, connectivity studies, etc.
Nevertheless, few studies also do reveal the fact that interference has an explicit
consequence on the network performance i.e., the interference between the nodes in a
given geographical area increases with an increasing node density. Furthermore, no

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literature is available that address the effect of interference on the network reliability of
MANET.
2.7. Research objective:
The main theme of the work is to develop an algorithm which deals with the reliability
evaluation of mobile ad hoc networks: with and without consideration of interference.
2.8. Assumptions:
 Source and destination nodes are known and fixed
 All nodes in the network are assumed to be homogeneous with same reliability
 The links in the network are bidirectional and their probability of existence is
constant
 Interfering nodes are assumed within the normal nodes
2.9. Thesis organization:
The thesis organized as follows;
Chapter1 focuses on the basics of wireless communications, their evaluation,
fundamentals of ad hoc networks, advantages, applications and their research
challenges.
Chapter 2 deals with the basic definitions of reliability and details about system
reliability estimation methods, modeling of ad hoc networks, fundamentals of
interference and the criteria of interference in ad hoc networks along with some
published research works about network reliability evaluation, effects of interference on
ad hoc network performance other than reliability.
Chapter 3 describes the basic methodology for evaluating the network reliability
analysis of ad hoc networks in the presence of interference. An illustrative example has
been studied for the better understanding of proposed algorithm.
Chapter 4 describes the network reliability measures in the presence and absence of
interference for various network sizes has been derived and presented. In addition, a
comprehensive survey of network reliability measures for various network sizes and
varying interfering nodes are presented.
Chapter 5 concludes the work. It includes an overview of presiding chapters and
describes future area of interest for the researchers in this area.

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This work presents the contributions of the present work and the published paper
followed by references.
2.10. Summary:
The chapter describes the concept of reliability in MANET and basic reliability
evaluating methods along with modelingof ad hoc networks are discussed. The
interference fundamentals and sources of interference in wireless networks are
highlighted. The substantial amount of work done by various authors in the calculation
of two terminal reliability of mobile ad hoc networks and the effect of interference on
network reliability of MANETs are discussed. This chapter identifies the major research
gaps form the literature review and proposed research objective and also include the
assumptions that are made for evaluating algorithm in succeeding chapter. The
succeeding chapter deals with the algorithm for evaluating the network reliability
analysis of MANET in the presence of interference with the help of an illustrative
example.

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 Chapter 3
Network Reliability Analysis for MANET
Interference is the fundamental degrading factor for the reliability measures of mobile ad
hoc networks. The presence of interference in the ad hoc networks will cause the change
in path associated with source and destination. The interfering nodes present in the
network effect the normal node transmission by interrupting the actual path for
transmission. Interfering nodes will not affect the probability of existence of each
configuration because it is depends upon linked and unlinked node pairs in the networks.
Hence, the two-terminal reliability calculations of a MANET purely depended on the
path associated from source to destination and the associated reliability. The interfering
node will affect the path from source to destination; whenever the interfering node
connected with the source or destination or the path formed between source and
destination in a communication network (intermediate node). So the network reliability
analysis in the presence of interference is evaluated by considering the interfering nodes
within the normal nodes.
3.1. Network Reliability Analysis With Interference
In general, any complex system or network is traditionally represents as a graph G= (N,
L), with N as the number of nodes in a network that are connected with L number of
links. These networks are highly arbitrary in nature that is the topology of network
changes every time instant. Then the node reliability (ri) of the MANET is calculated
using (3.1)
𝑝(𝑛𝑖 ) = 𝑟𝑖 ⩝ 𝑖 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 (3.1)
Where, ni is the node with i=1, 2,…, n
Further, the number of links in accordance to number of nodes of the network is defined
by using (3.2)
n(n−1)
L= (3.2)
2

The link (Lij ) between (ni ) and (nj ) are assumed to be bidirectional for all i, j = 1, 2, … ,
n. A link is created, when two neighbor nodes are within its vicinity (i.e., lij = 1 ), else
no link exists and is mathematically represented as (3.3)
1 ; if link exists
Lij = { (3.3)
0 ; otherwise
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 For better understanding, the link existence is made probabilistic i.e., if exists, it takes
the value ‘λ’ and if not exists it is defined as 1 − λ . The probability of link existence
depends upon path between source and destination and hence number of potential
network configurations or topology can be defined using (3.4)
|C| = 2L (3.4)
The probability of each existing network configuration, in turn, is a function of link
probability of existence λ, the number of linked node pairs ηl and the number of
unlinked node pairs ηu in the configuration. The probability associated with each
possible configuration is given by (3.5)
p(αk = 1) = ληl × (1 − λ)ηu (3.5)
The 2TR αk defines the 2-terminal reliability of configurationαk , k=1, 2, … , |c|. It can be
expressed as shown in (3.6)
2TR αk = ri m (3.6)
Where; m is number of nodes associated with the path from source to destination with
interference. Finally the 2TR m can be obtained as a weighted average of the probability
of existence for each configuration and associated reliability. Mathematically, this can
be expressed as shown in (3.7)
|C|
2TR m = ∑k=1 2TR αk × p(αk = 1) (3.7)
3.2. Algorithm:
As in every other network applications where reliability needs to be computed, a
logical first step is to consider complete enumeration of possible states of the network.
The approach that follows, enumerates all possible configurations is assigned a
probability of existence is 0.7 and node reliability as 0.9.The method follows by:
 Initialization: define the number of nodes (N), node reliability (r i), link
probability of existence (λ).
 Enumerate all possible configurations of the network G= (N, L) and
stack them in a set C with the help of (3.4).
 Determine the probability (p(αk = 1)) associated with each
configuration using (3.5).

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  The two-terminal reliability (2TR αk ) of each individual configuration is
calculated using (3.6).
 Finally, the two-terminal reliability (2TR m ) of entire network in the
presence of interference can be evaluated by using(3.7).
3.3. Illustrative example:
To get the clarity of proposed approach an illustration has been considered, a four node
MANET reliability is evaluated in the presence of interference. The network is reliable
if a route is available between transmitter (1) and receiver (4). The nodes in G (N, L) are
assumed to be homogeneous with fixed node reliability (𝑟𝑖 = 0.9). Let the probability of
link existence between the nodes be a constant, say λ=0.7, then the non-existence would
be 0.3 i.e., (1 − 𝜆).

Fig.3.1: Fully connected MANET

3.4. Summary:
In this chapter, a methodology for evaluating the two-terminal reliability of mobile
ad hoc networks in the presence of interference is presented. The algorithm is
explained with the support of an illustrative example composed of 4 nodes. The
succeeding chapter containing the network reliability measures of various network
sizes for both the cases (with and without interference).

78
 Chapter 4
Results & Discussions
In mobile ad hoc networks, due to the dynamic topology the link existence among the
mobile nodes involved in multi hop connections in order to make a feasible path from
source to destination. The formation of link in the wireless ad hoc network is effected by
node failures, node movements (mobility), coverage area, protocol defects, medium
access schemes and interference. The presence of interfering nodes in ad hoc networks
causes the path change from source to destination. Hence, the reliability of the network is
affected by the change in path from source to destination due to interference. An
illustrative example has been taken (see Fig.3.1) for understanding the algorithm to
evaluate the network reliability for both the cases; with and without interference.
For the network as shown in the Fig.3.1; the total number of nodes (N) in the
network is 4. The number of links (L) for a fully connected network is calculated using
(3.2) as 6. Therefore, using (3.4), the total number of network configurations is obtained
as 64 networks (see Fig.4.1) from the case of no connection network (α1) to fully
connected network (α64).

Fig.4.1: all possible topologies of a 4-nodes MANET

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Table 4.1: Probability of existence of a 4-node MANET

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The possible path sets associated with each network topologies (see Fig.4.1) has been
estimated for both cases and finally the reliability of various network sizes has been
evaluated.The link connectivity between the nodes is binary in nature. For example, a 4-
node network (see Fig.3.1) has links represented as L12, L13, L14, L23, L24 and L34
respectively. If all links take a binary value ‘0’ then the network is unreliable. Similarly,
there may be links between nodes other than source and destination, in such case, the
network is evidently unreliable. It may be noticed that certain networks have direct links
(path between source and destination) or indirect links (path connecting source and
destination through intermediate nodes). Only the aforementioned networks are reliable,
i.e., network with direct connectivity; network having connectivity through intermediate
node whose source and destination nodes are active but not isolated.
This implies out of 64 topologies, 48 topologies are reliable irrespective of the
interference effect. For example, consider topology 46 (α46), (see Fig.2.2), total number
of link in this specific configuration is the number of nodes linked i.e., (ηl=4) and the
number of unlinked nodes (ηu=L-ηl=2).Using (3.5) the probability of existence of
topology 46 (α46) is calculated to be 0.0216109. Similarly for a fully connected topology
(see topology 64 (α64) in Fig.4.1) the number of linked nodes 6 (ηl=6), the number of
unlinked nodes 0 (ηu=L-ηl=0) and the probability of existence is 0.117649. Hence the
probability of existence of every topology is f (ηl, ηu, λ).After acquiring the set of
topologies; the probability ofexistence for each configuration is calculated using (3.5),
asprovided in Table 4.1.
After enumerating each individual topology and its equivalent successful
probability of existence, the 2TR of individual configuration, 2TR αk is estimated for both
the cases; with and without interference using (3.6). For the case of fully connected
network, the possible path sets of the network are 1-4, 1-2-4, 1-3-4, 1-2-3-4. Moreover
this path can change with the configuration at each time instant, say direct path (1-4)
from source to destination can exists when there are no interfering nodes or when
interfering nodes are active but isolated (see α10, α13, α35 of Fig.2.2). The same is
provided in Table 4.2 for the configuration depicted in Fig.3.1.

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Table 3.2: Variation of path set from source to destination in the presence and absence of interference

Normal nodes Interfering nodes path 2TR αk

14 0.81
124 0.729
4 0
1234 0.6561
1324 0.6561
14 0.81
1 (node 2)
1 (2) 4 0.729
3
14 0.81
1 (node 3)
1 (3) 4 0.729
14 0.81
1 (2) 4 0.729
2 2
1 (3) 4 0.6561
1 (2) (3) 4 0.6561
14 0.81
1 (2) 4 0.729
1 3
1 (3) 4 0.6561
1 (2) (3) 4 0.6561

It is observed from the Table 4.2 that the path from source to destination changes when
the interfering node (may be single / double / more) is directly connected to source node
(see α20) / destination node (see α27) / the path through intermediate nodes (see α60).

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Table 4.3: The path set and associated reliability of 4-node MANET

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Table 4.4: Two-terminal reliability calculations; with and without interference

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The detailed information about the path change due to interference and their associated
reliability is provided in Table 4.3. The two-terminal reliability of individual
configuration is derived using (3.6 &3.7) and the calculated results are tabulated in Table
4.4. Presence of interference in the network causes the path change from source to
destination and also their associated reliability. The reliability of a 4-node MANET varies
between ri 2 andri 4 . For example, let us consider the configuration (α12) as shown in
Fig.4.2, a direct path (1-4) exists between source and destination for the case of no
interference and hence the associated reliability is ri 2 , since the number of nodes
involved in the path from source to destination is 2, by using (3.6) the reliability is
evaluated (refer Table 4.2).
Whereas in the case of single node interference (say node 2 is an interfering node)
then the path is 1-2-4 because node 2 is directly connected to destination node (node 4)
and hence the associated reliability isri 3 . In this condition, even though the direct path
exists (1-4), the interfering node influences the destination, changing the direct path to 1-
2-4 path. Similarly if the node 3 is an interfering node then the path is 1-3-4 because node
3 is directly connected to destination node (α12) or connected to source node (α30) and
therefore the associated reliability isri 3 . However in the case of case α30, the possible
paths are 1-4 and 1-3-4. In this configuration, if node 2 is an interfering node, the
reliability of this configuration depends on the number of nodes connected with the direct
path which is ri 2 . In case, if nodes 2 & 3 are interfering then the path is 1-2-3-4 because
the nodes 2& 3 are directly connected to destination and the associated reliability is ri 4 .
In the same manner the associated paths and corresponding reliabilities has been
calculated for both cases; with and without interference. Hence it may be generalized
that, the maximum reliability of n node network with and without interference will never
exceed ri 2 .
Finally the two-terminal reliability of entire network (2TRm) is calculated by
using (3.7) in the presence of interference and the calculated measures are tabulated in
Table 3.4. From the Table 3.4, it can be clearly understood that 16 configurations out of
64 configurations are completely unreliable and hence the value appears to be zero. This
is justified by fact that the source is active and isolated (α17, α21, α33, α37, α49, α53) or
both source and destination are isolated (α1, α5) or source and destination are connected

85
with interfering nodes but both source and destination nodes are isolated (α19, α34).
There are cases where the interfering nodes arte also completely isolated (α9, α13) giving
a reliability of ri 2 . Reliability evaluation of MANET in absence and presence of
interference was also done for a large network (say, up to 5 nodes) as seen in Table 3.5.
Due to the complexity involved with calculating the reliability of large number of
configurations i.e., almost 35,000 topologies for 6 node network, 2,097,152
configurations for 7 node network, more computational time is needed to get the results.
The two-terminal reliability analysis of MANET has been evaluated and the results are
represented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Two-terminal reliability with and without interference

Reliability Reliability with interference

Network size without
interference Single node Two node Three node Four node

3 0.6742 0.6225 0.6225 - -

4 0.7409 0.6890 0.6282 0.6230 -

5 0.7705 0.7134 0.65158 0.5935 0.5933

After determining the reliability and probability of existence of individual configuration,

2TRm has been evaluated using (2.7) as tabulated in Table 3.5. The achieved result
tabulated in Table 3.5 clearly indicates that the reliability metric is highly influenced by
interference. The MANET reliability decreases gradually with increasing number of
interfering nodes. For a 3- node MANET the two-terminal reliability without interference
is 0.6742. The reliability decreases by 7.6% of its initial value in the presence of single
node interference. The reliability measure does not change when two nodes are
interfering because for a 3 node MANET there should be at least one normal node to
form a link between the source and destination. The influence of more than one
interfering node in the case of 3- node network shows negligible impact on the network
reliability. If all the nodes in the network are interfering nodes then the networks is
completely unreliable. Likewise, for a 4 node MANET the two-terminal reliability

86
without interference obtained as 0.7409. The reliability measures decreases by almost
16% of its initial values the number of interfering nodes increases for a 4-node MANET
and up to 23% for a 5 node. Finally we may observe from the above results that the
network becomes unreliable when the number of interfering nodes is increasing
gradually. It is noticeable that the reliability is always > 60%, which implies that
successful communication is possible between the source and the destination.
4.1. Summary:
The effect of interference on the network reliability analysis of ad hoc networks has
been studied andthe succeeding chapter concludes this work and provides future
areas of this work.

87
 CHAPTER 5
Conclusion & Future scope
5.1 Conclusions
This work presents a brief overview of wireless networks and their classifications. The
fundamentals of mobile ad hoc networks, advantages over cellular networks, peculiar
characteristics, applications and the research challenges are described. The concepts of
reliability, reliability evaluation techniques and modeling methods of ad hoc networks
have been discussed in detail. An insight on the interference criteria for mobile ad hoc
networks and the sources of interference in wireless networks are also provided. This
work summarizes on the existing research related to two-terminal reliability of ad hoc
networks which do not consider interference. Several authors have contributions towards
the study of interference on ad hoc networks performance issues other than network
reliability.
The proposed methodology considers the effect of interference on two-terminal
reliability of ad hoc networks.The methodology considers an illustrative example (4 Node
Ad Hoc Network) for the better understanding of the proposed method. The network
reliability analysis for both cases; with and without consideration of interference has been
performed. The proposed method evaluates the two-terminal reliability by varying the
interfering nodes. As the number of interfering nodes increases the reliability gradually
decreases for larger sized networks.
The MANET reliability can be improvised by deploying the network in a
geographical area with minimum interfering nodes; or by designing a network with a
normal node transmission power higher than the interfering nodes. But there is always a
trade-off between power and cost; the designers need to take care of the above issue to
get best reliable network with optimum network size. The network reliability measures
are highly influenced by the presence of interference in the network. The network
reliability increases by increasing the network size.
5.2 Future Scope of Work
In the present work, mobility has not been considered for the evaluation of the two-
terminal reliability of Ad Hoc network in presence of interference. Hence, the proposed
work can be extended by considering a suitable mobility model.

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 Contributions of the Present Work

1. Ch. VenkateswaraRao, Padmavathy N, SK Chaturvedi, Reliability Evaluation of

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks: With and Without Interference, In the proceedings of
7th IEEE International Advance Computing Conference (IACC-2017), IEEE
Computer Society; 2017

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