Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Network Architectures, Topologies, Protocols and Standards PDF
Network Architectures, Topologies, Protocols and Standards PDF
Session
Establishment and maintenance of sessions
Network
Delivery of packets of information, which includes routing
Physical
Transmission of binary data of a medium
Layer 1 - presents application to users; Layers 3-6 - provides Common Language for
communication; Layers 1-2 - provides the physical connection.
OSI Model Layers
Protocols and Layers
Multiple protocols and processes work
together in a layered arrangement
In computer networking terms, a layer is a
process (or set of processes) that provides
services to the next higher layer and uses the
services of the next lower layer.
Cooperating layers of protocols are called a
"protocol stack" or a "protocol suite."
Protocols and Layers
In a protocol stack, the services offered by
each layer progress from abstract, higher
level services in the top layers, to more
concrete, transmission-oriented services in
the bottom layers.
Thus, a program that resides at the highest
layer typically provides many sophisticated
services to the user.
However, most of these services are actually
implemented, directly and indirectly, by the
lower layers.
Protocols and Layers
Because a program provides services only to the
layer above it and uses services only of the layer
below it, a change to any given layer affects only
the layer above it.
Layering breaks a single large program into parts
isolated from one another according to function,
making the program easier to write and change.
Layering does, however, extract a performance
penalty.
There is some overhead associated with moving
data through multiple layers of protocols;
however, the benefit is generally worth the
performance price.
Protocols and Layers
Layering applies to protocols as well as services.
In a system that has a layered architecture, each
process communicates only with its peer process.
Otherwise, as with services, a change to one
process would affect many other processes.
Each pair of peers communicates with a
common protocol that is appropriate to the
services they provide.
Therefore, each layer of processes uses a
corresponding layer of protocols.
Protocols and Layers
For example, in a Web interaction, TCP on
the client communicates with TCP on the
server.
HTTP on the client communicates with HTTP
on the server, and so forth.
Protocols and Layers
When different layers of protocols work
together, they use the following basic
techniques:
Encapsulation--On the sending node, each
protocol adds its own header to a message as it
moves downward through the stack. Each header
contains information that is useful to the receiving
process. Thus, peer processes communicate
through their respective protocol headers.
Layer 0
connection
OSI Model Layers
Physical Layer
The Physical Layer provides the service of
transmitting a signal, across a physical
communication medium, that represents binary
bits.
That medium can be a copper cable (coaxial or
twisted pair), a fiber optic cable, or a radio
channel.
Thus, the Physical Layer includes the following
types of hardware devices that send and receive
signals over each type of physical medium:
NICs
Fiber optic transceivers
Radio transceivers
Modems
Physical Layer
Physical Layer processes are concerned only with
the physical signals that represent data bits.
Thus, they are only "aware" of signals over the
medium, and are not concerned with any device
that may be at the other end of the wire or
channel.
This also means that Layer 1 processes cannot
detect errors in data transmission.
Most error detection, and all error correction, are
the responsibility of higher layers.
Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer addresses groups of bits to a device
located across a single physical transmission path, called
a link.
Each group of bits that the Data Link Layer transmits is
called a frame.
To form a frame, the Data Link Layer encapsulates a
Network Layer packet within a header and trailer.
The header contains the hardware address of the
destination node.
The trailer contains a Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
value that the receiving node uses for error detection.
The Data Link Layer is the only OSI layer that adds a
trailer to the data it transmits.
Data Link Layer
Each frame carries a packet of data across a single
physical link.
The encapsulated packet does not change, but a new
frame is built around the packet for the trip across each
link.
Thus, we often say that the Data Link Layer is concerned
with transmitting data to the next node in the network.
Popular Data Link protocols include:
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)
Link Access Procedure for D channel (LAPD), used in ISDN
LAN protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI
WAN protocols such as frame relay, ATM, and ISDN
Network Layer
The Network Layer is responsible for
transmitting data packets between source and
destination nodes that may not be connected
by the same physical link.
The Network Layer addresses a data packet to
the logical description of a computer that may
be located several links away from the source.
If the source and destination nodes are not
directly connected, then the Network Layer
must use intermediate nodes, when necessary,
to get a packet to its destination.
Network Layer
The Network Layer is responsible for
transmitting data packets between source and
destination nodes that may not be connected
by the same physical link.
The Network Layer addresses a data packet to
the logical description of a computer that may
be located several links away from the source.
If the source and destination nodes are not
directly connected, then the Network Layer
must use intermediate nodes, when necessary,
to get a packet to its destination.
Network Layer
Unlike a Data Link address, which is globally
unique, a Network Layer address is a logical
identifier.
Each Network Layer address is only unique
within a single network.
If a packet's source and destination are in
different networks, the Network Layer may have
to resolve different addressing conventions and
duplicated node addresses used in different
types and versions of networks.
Network Layer
The Network Layer also moves packets to and from
node types that may use different Data Link protocols.
For example, when a router forwards a packet from an
Ethernet LAN to a frame relay network, it removes the
Ethernet header and trailer and builds a new frame
formatted for the frame relay network.
Common Network Layer protocols include:
X.25--X.25 is an older packet switching protocol that has
been largely replaced by faster protocols based on the same
basic approach.
IP--IP is the primary Layer 3 protocol used across the
Internet and in many LANs.
Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)--IPX is Novell NetWare's
proprietary Network Layer protocol.
Transport Layer
The Transport Layer, or Layer 4, addresses data to a
particular process running on a destination computer.
Peer software processes at either end of a connection
use the Transport Layer to carry on a conversation.
Processes in the Transport Layer act as if their nodes
are adjacent.
They rely on lower layers to handle the details of
passing data through intermediate nodes across the
network.
Thus, Layer 4 insulates the higher levels from all
concerns about the transportation of data.
Transport Layer
Application Protocols
Terminal Emulation (Telnet)
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Domain Name Service (DNS)
Example: DOST Network Design
and OSI Reference Model
Application
Intra/Inter- •WWW
Network •E-MAIL
Presentation
services and •FTP
applications •DB Server (SQL)
Session
•provides
Transport TCP, SPX reliable end-
to-end
Network IP, IPX, NetBEUI connection
Data Link
FDDI, Ethernet
Switched Ethernet
Physical
Intranet Applications
CD-ROM Servers
Database Servers
Workgroup Computing
Within each city, we may have LAN, campus, and MAN connectivity. The WAN
portions of the network are the connections that provide communication
between cities. Information travels across the WAN portion of the network
only when it is destined for another computer in another city.
Network Topologies
A topology is a generalized geometric configuration of
some class of objects that join together.
With respect to networks, topologies describe
different ways computers can be connected to make
networks.
Key Point
Star, ring, and bus are the most common LAN
topologies.
Networks can have several different arrangements of
links.
The choice of topologies is often a matter of the
technology being used for the network, or geographic
considerations.
Network Topologies
Topologies are the architectural “drawings”
that show the overall physical configuration
for a given communications system.
A topology will indicate the access methods
and will govern the rules that are used to
design and implement the communication
system.
Topologies represent the drawing of your
network cable plant.
There are three main types of network
topologies: star, ring, and bus.
Bus Topology
A bus is a single electrical circuit to which all
devices in the network are connected (although
the bus might be made up of many individual
pieces of wire).
A bus topology is a broadcast network.
When a node transmits data, the signal travels
down the bus in both directions.
Each node connected to the bus receives the
signal as it passes that connection point.
However, a node ignores any signal that is not
specifically addressed to it.
Bus Topology
When the signal reaches the end of the bus cable, a terminator (resistor)
prevents the signal from reflecting back from the end of the wire. If a bus
network is not terminated, or if the terminator has the wrong level of
resistance, each signal may travel across the bus several times instead of just
once. This problem increases the number of signal collisions, degrading
network performance. If the bus cable breaks, the entire network may be
disabled. In addition, it can be difficult to change the number and position of
nodes on a bus network.
Star Topology
By far, the most common network topology is
the star topology.
In a star network, individual computers are
connected to a central device, such as a hub
or switch.
When a computer sends information to
another computer, it is transmitted through
the central device.
Star Topology
If a ring node malfunctions or is shut down, the ring is broken, and data transfer
stops until the failed node is restored or removed from the ring. The ring can
also be broken if any cable between nodes is damaged or broken. Therefore,
some ring topologies such as Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) use a dual-
ring structure. If one cable link fails, the other can immediately take over. Ring
topologies are often used as network backbones. A ring backbone often connects
the floors of a multistory building or buildings in a campus network or MAN.
Star Ring Topology
A star ring topology combines a physical star
configuration with a logical ring of
information flow.
In a star ring topology, wires run from each
node to a central ring wiring concentrator,
also called a multistation access unit (MAU).
The star ring is a physical star configuration,
but information travels from node to node in
a logical ring as the MAU copies each signal
to each of its nodes in turn.
Star Ring Topology (cont’d)
The MAU performs two other important
functions:
It detects when a node is not responding and
automatically "locks it out" so that the ring can
continue to operate when a node fails.
It provides a "bridge" to other rings, sending
messages addressed to nodes on other rings across
the connection to those rings, and accepting
messages from other rings for its nodes.
Rings joined in this manner effectively become a single ring.
By connecting wiring concentrators, ring size is effectively
unlimited.
Star Ring Topology
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, point-to-point links
directly connect every site to every
other site.
Mesh networks are usually built over
time as new sites are added to the
overall network.
A mesh topology is often used for MAN
or WAN networks.
Mesh Topology
Peer-to-peer
Client/server