Enough To Transportation Engineering I

enough to 2013
Transportation Engineering - I
nissan
URL: www.sentientsep.wordpress.com
Email: passurexam@yahoo.com
First edition: 11/13/2013
enough to Transportation Engineering - I nissan
Contents
[1] INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 3
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION 3
ROLE OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEPAL 5
[2] HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAY 6
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS IN NEPAL 6

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION 7
ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN NEPAL 9
[3] HIGHWAY PLANNING 10
OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY PLANNING 10

PLANNING SURVEYS 10
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT 11
ENGINEERING SURVEYS AND ITS STAGES 13
[4] GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY 15
INTRO 15
BASIC DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA 15
ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAY CROSS-SECTION 16
[5] HILL ROADS 47
SPECIAL CONSIDERATION IN THE ALIGNING OF HILL ROADS 47

HILL ROAD DESIGN 48
DESIGN OF HAIR PIN BEND 49
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HILL ROADS 51
CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS IN HILL ROADS 52
DRAINAGE IN HILL ROADS 53
STRUCTURES IN HILL ROADS 54
PASSING LANE IN HILL ROADS 55
[6] HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 56
IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 56

REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE SYSTEM 56
CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE SYSTEM 56
EROSION CONTROL AND ENERGY DISSIPATING STRUCTURE 60
[7] HIGHWAY MATERIALS 63
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS 63
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OR ROAD AGGREGATES 63
TEST FOR ROAD AGGREGATES 64
GRADATION ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATE 67
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS 68
[8] GREEN ROADS 76
2 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

[1] INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Transportation
A transportation system may be defined as consisting of the fixed facilities, the flow
entities and the control system.
- Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any
country.
- Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every commodity
produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs transport at all
stages from production to distribution.
- The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social
development.
Advantages
The advantages of transportation may be summarised as follows:
i) It is for advancement of the community.
ii) It is essential for the economic prosperity and general development of the country.
iii) It is essential for strategic movement in emergency for defence of the country and to
maintain better law and order.
iv) It is essential for the improvement of rural areas by improving facilities for education,
health, business and other social needs in villages.
Modes of transportation
Following are the major modes of transportation.
A. Primary Modes B. Secondary Modes
1. Roadways or Highways 1. Ropeways
2. Railways 2. Pipelines
3. Waterways i) Water
i) Inland ii) Gas
ii) Coastal iii) Sewer
iii) Ocean 3. Canals
4. Airways i) Irrigation Canal
i) Domestic ii) Storm water drainage ditch
ii) International 4. Belt conveyers
(a) Roadways or Highways

The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one
and all.
- This mode has also maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time and
speed of travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle.
- It is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport.
- The other three modes, viz. airways, waterways and railways have to depend on transportation
by roads for the service to and from their respective terminals, airports, harbours or stations.
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- The roads or highways not only include the modern highway system but also to provide
independent facilities for road travel by a well-planned network of road throughout the country,
feeder roads, city roads, village roads and pedestrians. But other modes do not provide such
type of more facilities.
(b) Railways
The transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railway between
the stations both for the passenger and goods, particularly for longer distances.
- The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance by railway is only a fraction (¼th -
⅙th) of that required by road.
- Hence full advantage of this mode should be taken for the transportation of bulk goods along
land where the railway facilities are available.
(c) Waterways
Transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes; but this mode needs
minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance.
- The transportation by water is possible between the parts on the sea routes or along the rivers
or canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
(d) Airways
The transportation by air is the fastest among four modes.
- Air travel also provides more comfort apart from saving in transportation time for the
passengers and the goods between airports.
Advantages and Limitations of Highway over other Modes

Advantages
i) Roads are used by various types of vehicles; like passenger cars, buses, trucks, two and
three automobiles, cycles etc. But railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives and
wagons; waterways are used only by ships and boats.
ii) Road transport requires relatively small investment, since motor vehicles are much
cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers.
iii) Construction and maintenance of roads are also cheaper than that of railway tracks, docks,
harbours and airports.
iv) Road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one
lane to another. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed and timing of travel
is not available to other modes of transport.
v) In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time.
Disadvantages
i) Road transport is subjected to a high degree of accidents due to flexibility of movements
offered to the road users, than other modes of transportation.
ii) It consist more land coverage and also takes more area for parking.
iii) It is more energy consuming and environmental polluting than other modes.

Role of Road Transportation in Rural Development of Nepal

Since, over 80% population of the country living in the villages, the development in
urban areas alone do not indicate the overall development of the country.
- Only with the improvement in transportation facilities in rural areas, there could be faster
development of rural centres.
- The fertilizers and other inputs for agriculture and cottage industries could reach the rural
population easily and similarly the products can be sold at the nearest marketing centres for
more remunerative price resulting in faster economic growth and decreased wastage.
- Through the proper facility of transportation, the education, health care and other social needs
in the village are increased and hence migration to urban centres decreases. Due to increase of
such facilities helping in balance development of the country.
[2] HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAY
Classification of Roads in Nepal

According to Nepal Road Standard (NRS), the roads are classified as:
1. Classification by traffic flow 2. Classification by service
1. Classification by Traffic flow

Traffic
Class Types of Carriageway Types of category volume /
day
4-lanes divided by 2x2x3.5m with a) Level 7000
Class IAA central median, b) Rolling 5000
Asphalt concrete or cement concrete c) Mountainous 3000
a) Level 3000
2-lanes 3.5m width with bituminous
Class IA b) Rolling 2500
premixed wearing course
c) Mountainous 1500
a) Level 1500
2-lanes 2x3.5m width with surface
Class I b) Rolling 1000
treatment
c) Mountainous 300
a) Level 300
Single lane 3.5m width with surface
Class II b) Rolling 150
treatment
c) Mountainous 75
Class III Single lane 3.5m width with gravel Any topography 75
2. Classification by Services
i) National Highways (NH) ii) Feeder Roads (FR) iii) District Roads (DR)
iv) Urban Roads (UR) v) Village Roads (VR)
(i) National Highways

National Highways are main highways connecting East to West and North to South of
the country. The road connecting National Highways to regional headquarters shall also be
classified as National Highways.
- These serve directly the greater portion of the longer distance travel, provide consistently higher
level of service in terms of travel speeds and bear the inter-community mobility.
- These roads shall be the main arterial routes passing through the length and breadth of the
country as a whole.
(ii) Feeder Roads

Feeder Roads are important roads of localised nature, which connect district
headquarters and/or zonal headquarters to National Highways.
- Feeder roads are of secondary nature in the hierarchy of the road network.
- It is further classified into: (a) Feeder Roads Major (FRN)
(b) Feeder Roads Minor (FRO)

a) Feeder Roads Major

- Major Links (i.e. with an AADP of over 100 vehicles/day) between the National highways.
- Road linking district headquarters / zonal headquarters to the national highway.
- Links form National highways to the major places of industry, tourism, public utilities
and power generation (e.g. hydropower) etc.
b) Feeder Roads Minor

- Links from feeder roads (FRN) to the major places of industry, tourism, public utilities
and power generation.
- Links from urban roads to the major places of industry, tourism, public utilities and
power generation (e.g. hydropower).
(iii) District Roads

This class of roads consisting of all roads not defined as ‘National Highways’ or ‘Feeder’
and ‘City’ Roads.
- These roads should give access to one or more villages to the nearest market or to higher types
of roads.
- Moderate travel speeds are typical on such roads.
(iv) Urban Roads

These include roads within the urban limits except for the above classes, passing
through the city.
- These provide access to abutting residential, business or industrial properties.
(v) Village Roads

Village roads include short, non-through roads linking single village directly to the district
roads.
Note: There are 15 highways and over 51 feeder roads completed or under construction in
Nepal with a total length of over 5400 km. (as per NRS 2nd revision).
Historical Development of Road Construction

The Oldest mode of travel was on the footpaths. Animals were also used to
transport men and material. Later simple animal drawn vehicles were developed and
these become a common and popular mode of transportation for a very long period
after the invention of wheel.
The Romans constructed an extensive system of roads radiating in many
directions from Rome though the Empire mainly for military operations.
Following are historical road construction, which may have developed one after
another:
1. Roman Roads 3. Metcalf construction 5. Macadam construction
2. Tresagut construction 4. Telford construction
(a) Roman Roads
Construction steps
(i) A trench of width equal to that of the carriageway was dug along a straight path by removing
loose soil from top. The trench was cut up to a depth until a hard stratum was reached.
(ii) One or two layers of large foundation stones of thickness ranged from 10 to 20 cm were laid in
lime mortar at the bottom. Vertical kerb stone were placed along the edges of the pavement.
(iii) A second layer of lime concrete with large size broken stone of thickness 25 to 40 cm in lime
mortar was laid over the bottom course.
(iv) The wearing courses consisting of dressed large stone blocks set in lime mortar to a thickness
varied from 10 to 15 cm was provided.
(b) Telford construction

(e) Macadam construction
Construction steps
(i) Subgrade is compacted and prepared with cross slope of 1 IN 36 up to a desired width (about 9
m).
(ii) Broken stones of a strong variety, all passing through 5 cm size sieve were compacted to a
uniform thickness of 10 cm.
(iii) The second layer of strong broken stones of size 3.75 cm was compacted to thickness of 10 cm.
(iv) The top layer consisted of stones of sizes less than 2 cm compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm
and finished so that the cross-slope of pavement surface was also 1 in 36.
Road Construction in Nepal

Road construction in Nepal has been rather haphazard. The main reason of this is
probably that the responsibility of planning, construction and maintenance has been shared by
more than one agency such as VDC, DDC, DOR, municipalities etc.
- Construction and maintenance of major and important roads like National highways and Feeder
roads are carried out by DOR (department of road).
- Many wide roads with hard surface in Nepal (particularly in Kathmandu) may have been
developed during Malla’s period. These roads were basically intended to horse driven carts.
These roads consisted of hard broken brick over which flag stone slabs were laid over a base of
lime concrete.
- The Trubhuwan Rajpath connecting Kathmandu to Bhaise on the old BhimphendiAmlekhganj
was built under Indian government in 2013 B.S.
- Kathmandu was connected to the outside world by motor able road in the period of 2007 to
2024 B.S.
- In 2012 B.S., the 77 km HetaudaNarayangadh road was taken up and completed in 2015 B.S.
- In 2007 to 2032 B.S., the road development strategy was adopted for the country continues,
with the feeder roads to the interior mountain areas of the North and Terai towns in the south
expanding gradually.
- The eastern section of East-west highway was successfully completed on the mid of 2027 B.S.
and links to Pokhara from south as well as Ktm.
- In the following of East-west highway i.e. up to 2042 B.S., east of Nepalganj was completed with
significant section of North-south routes and connection with East-west highway.
[3] HIGHWAY PLANNING
Intro
Planning is the process of thinking before doing or simultaneously with the progress of
work.
- One of the main objectives of planning is to utilize the available resources in the best possible
way and in very systematic manner including project identification and decision of national
priority area.
Objectives of Highway Planning

(i) To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum cost.
(ii) To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads, this could provide
maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resources during the plan
period under consideration.
(iii) To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility of the project.
(iv) To plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated
developments.
Planning Surveys
Highway planning survey phases includes:
1) Assessment of road length requirement for an area
2) Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan in annual and or five year plans
The planning surveys consist of the following studies;
(a) Economic studies (b) Traffic or road use studies
(c) Financial studies (d) Engineering studies
a) Economic studies
It includes:
i) Population and its distribution in each village, town or other locality with the area classified
in groups.
ii) Trend of population growth.
iii) Agricultural and industrial products, their development and future trends.
iv) Per capita income.
b) Financial studies
It includes:
i) Source of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road transport.
ii) Living standards.
iii) Resources at local level, vehicle registration and fines.
iv) Future trends in financial aspects.
c) Traffic or Road use studies

It includes:
i) Traffic volume in vehicles/day, AADT (annual average daily traffic), peak and design hourly
traffic volume.

ii) Traffic flow patterns. iv) Accidents, their cost analysis and cause.
iii) Mass transportation facilities. v) Future trends and growth in traffic volume.
d) Engineering studies
It includes:
i) Topographic surveys iv) Road life studies
ii) Soil surveys v) Traffic studies
iii) Location and classification of vi) Special problems in drainage, construction
existing roads and maintenance of roads.
Highway Alignment
The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called
alignment.
- The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and curves.
- Vertical alignment includes change in gradient and vertical curves.
The improper alignment would result in one or more of the following disadvantages:
(i) Increase in construction cost (iii) Increase in vehicle operation cost
(ii) Increase in maintenance cost (iv) Increase in accident rate
Requirements of highway alignment

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations should be:
(i) Short (ii) Easy (iii) Safe (iv) Economical
1. Short
A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several practical
considerations which would cause deviations from the shortest path.
2. Easy
The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the road with
minimum problems. Also the alignment should be easy for the operation of vehicles with easy
gradients and curves.
3. Safe
The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view
point of stability of natural hill slopes, embankment and cut slopes and foundation of
embankments.
- Also it should be safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric features.
4. Economical
The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total cost including initial
cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost is lowest.
The alignment should be such that it would offer maximum utility by serving maximum
population and products.
Factors controlling highway alignment

The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as:
1. Obligatory points 3. Geometric design 5. Other consideration
2. Traffic 4. Economy
Additional cares for hill roads are:

1. Stability 2. Drainage 3. Geometric standard 4. Resisting length
1. Obligatory Points
There are control points governing the alignment of the highways. These control points
may be divided broadly into two categories:
(i) Points through which the alignment is to pass
(ii) Points through which the alignment should not pass
(i) Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass may cause the alignment to
often deviate from the shortest or easiest path. E.g. bridge site, intermediate town.
The road approaches at the bridge site should not be curved near the bridge and as far
as possible skew crossing should be avoided. Thus in order to locate a bridge across a river
the alignment may have to be changed.
(ii) Obligatory points through which the road should not pass also make it necessary to deviate
from the proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points which should be avoided while
aligning a road include religious places, very costly structures, unsuitable land etc.
A lake, pond or valley which falls on the path of a straight alignment will also necessitate
the alignment to deviate from the straight path and go round along the grade line.
2. Traffic
The alignment should suit traffic requirements. The new road to be aligned should keep
in view the desired lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
3. Geometric Design
Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also would
govern the final alignment of the highway. As far as possible while aligning a new road, the
gradient should be flat and less than the ruling or design gradient.
Thus it may be necessary to change the alignment in view of the design speed, maximum
allowable super-elevation and coefficient of lateral friction.
4. Economy
In working out the economics, the initial cost, the maintenance cost, the vehicle
operation cost should be taken into account. The initial cost of construction can be decreased if
high embankment & deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to
balance the cutting and filling.
5. Other considerations
Various other factors which may govern the alignment are drainage considerations,
hydrological factors, political considerations and monotony. The subsurface water level, seepage
flow and high flood level are the factors to be kept in view.

Engineering Surveys and Its Stages

Engineering surveys are to be carried out in following four stages:
1. Map study 3. Preliminary surveys
2. Reconnaissance 4. Final location & Detailed surveys
1. Map Study
With the help of topographic map, the possible route of road can be aligned.
Topographic map provides the details of rivers, hills, valleys etc.
- The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the
map:
i) Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.
ii) When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through a mountain pass.
iii) Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river (if any).
iv) When a road is connected between two stations, one of the top and other on the foot of the
hill then alternative routes can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient say
ruling gradient.
2. Reconnaissance
The second stage of survey for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the
general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.
Some of the details collected during reconnaissance are given below:
i) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy lands, hills, permanent structures and other obstructions along
the route which are not available in the map.
ii) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curves of alternate alignment.
iii) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground water
level along the probable routes.
iv) Soil type along the routes geological features.
v) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.
3. Preliminary Survey
It is a large scale study of one or more feasible routes.
Objectives
The main objectives of preliminary survey are:
i) To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance.
ii) To collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and soil.
iii) To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
iv) To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction aspects and to work out
the cost of alternate proposals.
v) To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
Methods of Preliminary Survey

The preliminary survey may be carried out by only one of the following methods:
A. Conventional Method
In this method, a survey party carries out surveys using the required field equipment,
taking measurements, collecting topographical & other data and carrying out soil surveys.
Following procedure is done in the conventional method:

(i) Primary traverse (v) Soil survey
(ii) Topographical features (vi) Material survey
(iii) Levelling work (vii) Traffic survey
(iv) Drainage studies and Hydrological data (viii) Determination of final centre line
B. Aerial Method
Aerial photographic surveys are very much suited for preliminary surveys, especially
when the distance and area to be covered are vast.
The survey may be divided into the following steps:
(i) Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed, with the required longitudinal
and lateral overlaps.
(ii) The photographs are examined under stereoscope and control points are selected for
establishing the transverse of the alternate proposals.
(iii) Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour lines may be
obtained.
(iv) Photo-interpolation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions,
drainage requirements etc.
4. Final Location and Detailed Survey

These serves dual purposes i.e. first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information necessary for the
preparation of plan and construction details for the highway project.
Location
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be translated on the ground
during the location survey. This is done by using a transit theodolite and by staking of the centre
line.
- Major and minor control points are established on the ground and centre pegs are driven,
checking the geometric design requirements.
- The centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say 50m in plain and rolling terrain and
20m in hilly terrain.
Detailed survey
Temporary Bench Marks are fixed at intervals of about 250m and at all drainage and
under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all staked points.
- Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earthwork calculations and
drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.
- The cross-section levels are taken up to desired width, at intervals of 50 - 100 m in rolling terrain
and 20 m in hilly terrain.
- All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional signs.
- Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded.
- A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile.
- The depth up to which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 - 3 m below the ground level or the
finished grade line of the road whichever is lower.
- CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pavement.

[4] GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY
Intro
The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway such as alignment, sight distance and intersections.
- The geometry of highway should be designed to provide optimum efficiency inn traffic
operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
Geometric design of highway deals with following elements:
i) Cross section elements
ii) Sight distance consideration iv) Vertical alignment details
iii) Horizontal alignment details v) Intersection elements
Basic Design Control and Criteria

The geometric design of highway depends on several design factors. The important of
these factors which control the geometric elements are:
i) Design speed
ii) Topography iv) Design hourly volume and Capacity
iii) Traffic factors v) Environmental and Other factors
(i) Design Speed

It is the maximum permissible safe speed of light vehicle on a given road considered for
the design of road elements.
factors affecting choice of design speed
 Type of highway  Speed capabilities of vehicle
 Nature of terrain  Ability of person driving the vehicle
 Traffic volume  Level of economic development of the Nation
Various geometric designs i.e. cross section element, horizontal alignment elements,
vertical alignment elements etc. all mainly depend upon design speed.
(ii) Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway
significantly. The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the
alignment, as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep terrain.
- In hilly terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to
the construction problems.
(iii) Traffic Factors

The traffic factors that affect the geometric design of roads are the vehicular
characteristics and human characteristics of road users.
- It is difficult to decide the design vehicle or the standard traffic lane due to mixed traffic flow
conditions.
- The different vehicle classes such as passenger cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles etc. have
different speed and acceleration characteristics.
- The important human factors which affect traffic behaviour include the physical, mental and
psychological characteristics of driver and pedestrians.
(iv) Design Hourly Volume and Capacity

The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during off-peak
hours to the highest value during the peak hour.
- It will be uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow or the highest
hourly traffic volume.
- Hence, a reasonable value of traffic volume is decided for the design and this is called the design
hourly volume.
(v) Environmental and Other Factors

The environmental factors such as landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and other
local conditions should be given due consideration in the design on road geometrics.
Elements of Highway Cross-section

The elements of geometric design include:
1. Elements of Cross-section 2. Elements of horizontal 3. Elements of vertical
alignment alignment
1. Elements of Cross section
The main x-sectional elements are:

i) Traffic lane vi) Side slope of fill or cut
ii) Carriage way or width of pavement vii) Lay bays
iii) Shoulder viii) Right of way or land width
iv) Road way ix) Camber
v) Width of formation x) Super-elevation
(i) Traffic Lane

The carriage way intended for one line of traffic movement may be called a traffic lane.
- The lane width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side
clearance which may be provided for the safety.
- A width of 3.57 m is considered desirable for a road having single lane for vehicles of
maximum width 2.44 m.
- The number of lanes required in a highway depends upon the predicted traffic volume and
the design traffic volume of each lane.

(ii) Carriageway or Width of Pavement

The width of road on which the vehicles move is called pavement width or carriageway,
which depends upon the width of traffic lane and number of lane.
- The lane width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side
clearance which may be provided for the safety.
Carriageway width (as per NRS)
(a) Single lane → 3.75 m
(b) Intermediate lane → 5.5 m
(c) Two lane without raised kerb → 7.0 m
(d) Two lane with raised kerb → 7.5 m
(e) Multilane carriageway → 3.5 m (width per lane)
Notes:
(i) On district roads, the carriageway width of single lane may be restricted to 3 m normally.
Width greater than 3 m may however be adopted judiciously depending on the type and
intensity of traffic, cost and related factors.
(ii) Except on important Nation Highways, an intermediate carriageway width of 5.5 m may also
be adopted instead of regular two lanes if the same is considered advantages.
(iii) The carriageway width for intermediate lane shall vary from 5 - 6 m.
(iii) Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle
compelled to be taken out of the pavement or roadway.
- Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that have broken down.
- The width of shoulder should be adequate to accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away
from the edge of adjacent lane.
- The shoulders should have sufficient load bearing capacity to support loaded truck even in
wet weather.
- The surface of the shoulder should be rougher than traffic lanes so that vehicles are
discouraged to use the shoulders as a regular traffic lane.
- The colour of the shoulder should preferably be different from that of the pavement so as to
be distinct.
Shoulder width (as per NRS)
Types of carriageway Total shoulder width in m (both sides included)
i) Two & four lanes (black topped) 4–6m
ii) Single lane (surface dressed) 4–5m
iii) Single lane (gravelled surface) 3–5m
(iv) Width of Formation or Roadway

Width of formation or roadway is the sum of width of pavements or carriageway
including separators if any and the shoulders.
- Formation or roadway width is the top width of the highway embankment or the bottom
width of highway cutting excluding the side drains.
- In multilane highways, roadway width should be adequate for the requisite number of traffic
lanes besides shoulders and central median.
- The minimum roadway width on single lane bridge in 4.25 m.
(v) Lay-bays
Lay-bays are provided near public conveniences with guide maps to enable drivers to
stop clear off the carriageway.
- Lay-bays should normally be of 3 m width and at least 30 m length with 15 m end tapers on
both sides.
(vi) Right of Way or Land Width

Right of way is the area acquired for the road, along its alignment. The width of this
acquired land is known as land width and it depends on the importance of the road and
possible future development.
- The land width is governed by the following factors:
i) Width of formation, road margins
ii) Height of embankment or depth of cutting
iii) Side slopes of embankment or cutting
iv) Drainage system and their size
v) Rainfall, topography and runoff
vi) Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves
Right of Way (as per NRS)
Road Category Right of way Between building lines
a) Trunk Roads 50m (25m on either side of road centre line) 62 m
b) Feeder Roads 30m (15m on either side of road centre line) 42 m
c) District Roads 20m (10m on either side of road centre line) 32 m
(vii) Camber
Camber or cross slope is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface. Drainage and quick disposal of water
form pavement surface by providing camber is necessary for following reasons:
 To prevent the entry of surface water into the sub-grade soil through pavement; the stability,
surface condition and the life of the pavement get adversely affected if the water enters in the
subgrade and the soil gets soaked.
 To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as continued contact with
water causes stripping of bitumen from the aggregates and results in deterioration of pavement
layer.
 To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible to allow the
pavement to get dry soon after the rain; the skid resistance of the pavement gets considerably
decreased under wet condition, rendering it slippery and unsafe for vehicle operation at high
speed.
- Usually the camber is provided on straight roads by raising the centre of the carriageway w.r.t.
edges, forming a crown or highest point on the centre line.
Camber (as per NRS)
i) Earthen road : 5%
ii) Gravel road : 4%
iii) Bitumen (rural area) : 3%
iv) Bitumen (urban area) : 2.5 %

Shape of Camber
Following are the shapes of camber generally adopted:
a) Parabolic Shape b) Straight line camber c) Combination of Straight

or Elliptic shape and Parabolic Shape
Parabolic or Elliptic shape is given so that the profile is flat at the middle and steeper
towards the edges, which is preferred by fast moving vehicles as they have to frequently cross
the crown line during overtaking.
When very flat cross slope is provide as in cement concrete pavements, straight line
shape of camber may be provided.
Disadvantages of too steep cross slope (Heavy Camber)

Too steep cross slope is not desirable because of the following reasons:
 Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing the crown during overtaking operations.
 Problems of toppling over of highly laden bullock carts and trucks.
 Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
 Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line.
(viii) Super-elevation
The transverse inclination throughout the length of horizontal curve by raising outer
edge counteract w.r.t. inner edge, in order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force, is known
as super-elevation (or cant or banking).
The super-elevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of height of outer edge w.r.t. the
horizontal width, i.e.
or, e =
is very small and value of 0.07 (7 %)
Analysis for Expression of Super-elevation

Consider a vehicle moving at a speed of v m/s on a circular curve having radius ‘R’.
The following forces acting on the vehicle:

i) Centrifugal force (P) acting horizontally through the centre of gravity (CG) of vehicle
ii) The weight (W) of the vehicle action vertically downwards through the C.G. of the vehicle
iii) The frictional force (FA & FB) developed between the wheels and pavement, transversely along
the pavement surface.
and
Where,
or = frictional resistance between wheel and pavement
f = coefficient of friction
Considering equilibrium, the component of centrifugal force parallel to the pavement

(pcosθ) is opposed by component of weight parallel to the pavement and frictional force and
, i.e.
Here, Coefficient of lateral friction ( f ) = 0.15

Maximum value of super-elevation (tanθ) = 0.07 (7 %)
Here, e = rate of super-elevation = tanθ
If the speed of vehicle is represented as V kmph then,
Note:
If coefficient of lateral friction is ignored,

Types of Super-elevation
There are two types of super-elevation:
i) Minimum Super-elevation
If the value of super-elevation required from equation, , comes out to be less
than the usual camber provided to the road surface, the super-elevation provided will be
equal to amount of camber so as to facilitate the drainage of surface water. This lower limit
of super-elevation is referred as minimum super-elevation.
ii) Maximum Super-elevation

In a highway with mixed traffic the maximum value of super-elevation (7 %) so as to
avoid the danger of overturning is known as maximum super-elevation.
Steps for Super-elevation Design

Following are the steps for designing super-elevation:
Step (i): The super-elevation for 75 % of design speed (v m/s or V kmph) is calculated
neglected the friction.
Step (ii): If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7 % or 0.07 the value so obtained is
provided. If the value of ‘e’ as per equation (i) exceeds 0.07 then provide the
maximum super-elevation = 0.07
Step (iii): Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of e = 0.07 at the
full value of design speed.
If value of ‘f ’ thus calculated is less than 0.15, the super-elevation of 0.07 is safe
for the design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as given in Step (iv).
Step (iv): As an alternative to Step (iii), the allowable speed ( m/s or kmph) at the curve is
calculated by considering the design coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum
super-elevation.
Calculate the safe allowable speed,

√ √
√
If the allowable speed, as calculated above is higher than the design speed, then
the design is adequate and provides a super-elevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
Method of Obtaining Super-elevation

Introducing super-elevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important feature in
construction. The full super-elevation is attained by the end of transition curve or at the
beginning of the circular curve.
The attainment of super-elevation may be split up into two parts:
i) elimination of crown of the cambered section
ii) Rotation of pavement to attain full super-elevation
i) Elimination of crown of the cambered section

This may be done by two methods:
Method 1
In this method, the outer half of the cross-slope is rotated about the crown at a desired
rate such that the surface falls on the same plane as the inner half and the elevation of the
centre line is not altered.
- The outer half of the cross-slope is brought to level or horizontal at the start of the transition
curve or at tangent point (T.P.). Subsequently the outer half is further rotated so as to obtain
uniform cross-slope equal to the camber.
- This method has a drawback that the surface drainage will not be proper at the outer half.
Method 2
In this method, the crown is progressively shifted outwards, thus increasing the width of
the inner half of cross-section progressively.
- This method is not usually adopted as a portion of the outer half of the pavement has increasing
value of negative super-elevation.
ii) Rotation of pavement to attain full super-elevation

When the crown of the camber is eliminated, the super-elevation available at this
section is equal to the camber.
There are two methods of rotating the pavement cross-section to attain the full super-
elevation after the elimination of the camber.
(a) By rotating the pavement cross-section about the centre line, depressing the inner edge and
raising the outer edge each by half the total amount of super-elevation.
(b) By rotating the pavement cross-section about the inner edge of the pavement section such
that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of super-elevation.

Method of Elimination of Camber

Following are the method of elimination of the camber and then introduction of the
super-elevation:
(i) By rotating the pavement cross-section about the centre line
By rotating the pavement cross-section about the centre line, depressing the inner edge
and raising the outer edge each by half the total amount of super-elevation, i.e. by ⁄ w.r.t. the
centre.
- In this method, the vertical profile of the centre line remains unchanged; the outer edge is
banked and the inner edge is depressed resulting in an advantage in balancing the earth work.
- The disadvantage of this method is the drainage problem due to depressing the inner edge
below the general level.
- The drainage problem is of greater significance in areas with high rainfall when the subgrade is in
cutting or in level terrain.
(ii) By rotating the pavement cross section about the inner edge of the pavement
section raising both the centre as well as outer edge
By rotating the pavement cross section about the inner edge of the pavement section,
raising both the centre as well as the outer edge of the pavement such that the outer edge is
raised by the full amount of super-elevation, i.e. ‘E’ with respect to inner edge.
- This method is preferable in very flat terrain in high rainfall areas, when the road is no taken on
embankment, in order to avoid drainage problem.
- The entire pavement width and outer shoulder should also be raised w.r.t. inner edge by
additional earth fill, which may alter the vertical alignment of road.
2. Design of Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal Curve
The curve used to change the path of highway in horizontal plane is called horizontal
curve. It may be divided into two groups: (i) Circular & (ii) Transition Curve
i) Circular Curve
It consists of a single or more than one arc of different circles connecting two straight
lines. It may be of:
a) Simple circular curve
Curve consists of single arc of a circle.
b) Compound circular curve
Curve consist two or more arcs of different circles.
ii) Transition Curve

A non-circular curve introduced between a straight and a circular curve is known as
transition curve.
- The radius is infinity at the junction of straight and transition curve while radius ‘R’ at the
junction of transition and circular curve.
- The curvatures of such curves vary from zero at its beginning to a definite value at its
junction with the circular curve.
When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the vehicle.
 The centrifugal force developed depends on the radius of horizontal curves and the speed of
vehicle negotiation the curve.
 Centrifugal force P is given by the equation: P=

where, P = centrifugal force (kg), W = wt. of vehicle (kg), v = speed of vehicle, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2 R = Radius of the circular curve, m
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects:
(i) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels (i.e. overturning
effect)
(ii) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outward (i.e. skidding effect)
Extra widening on Horizontal curve

On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very large radii, it is common to
widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width.
Following are the various reasons for providing the extra widening on horizontal curves:
i) An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front wheels can be turned; when the
vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheels do not follow the same
path as that of front wheels. This phenomenon is called off tracking. Due to this, the rear
wheels follow the inner path on the curve as compared to front wheels.
ii) At speed higher than the design speed, when the super-elevation and lateral friction
developed are not fully able to counteract the outward thrust due to centrifugal force and the
rear wheels may take paths on the outside of traced by the front wheels on horizontal curves.
iii) In order to take curved path with larger radius and to have greater visibility at curve, the
drivers have tendency not to follow the central path of the lane, but to use the outer side at
the beginning of a curve.
iv) While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is a psychological tendency to
maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles, than on straights for increase safety.
It has been a practise to provide extra

width of pavement on horizontal curves when
the radius is less than about 300m.

Types of Extra Widening

The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts:
i) Mechanical widening
The widening required to account for the off-tracking due to the rigidity of wheel based
is called Mechanical Widening.
where, n = number of traffic lanes = length of the curve
R = mean radius of the curve = mechanical widening
ii) Psychological Widening

The widening required due to various psychological reasons, i.e. clearance, confidence
etc. is called psychological widening.
where, V = design speed, kmph
√ R = radius of horizontal curve, m
Total Extra Widening
TRANSITION CURVE
A non-circular curve introduced between a straight and a circular curve is known as
transition curve.
- A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the tangent point to a designed
radius of the circular curve.
Objectives of providing transition curve

 To introduce super-elevation in proportion to the rate of change of curvature.
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and beginning of
the circular curve.
 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security.
 To introduce extra widening of pavement at desirable rate.
 To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Types of Transition Curve

(i) Spiral (or clothoid)
Spiral transition curve is a curve, at which radius is inversely proportional to its length.
(ii) Lemniscate
Bernoulli’s lemniscate curve is a curve at which radius varies inversely proportional as its
length of chord.
(iii) Cubic parabola
Cubic parabola curve is a curve, the radius of which varies inversely as its abscissa ‘x’.
Design of Transition Curve

Designing the transition curve means determining of its length. The length of transition
curve is designed to fulfil the following three conditions:
i) Rate of change of Centrifugal acceleration
At the tangent point the centrifugal acceleration ( ⁄ ) is zero as the radius ‘R’ is
infinity.
The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration: c = , [ 0.5 < c < 0.8 ]
Length of transition curve according to rate of change of centrifugal accln: =
ii) Rate of introducing super-elevation

Let, the rate of change of introducing super-elevation be 1 in N;
N = 150 (in plain and rolling) , N = 60 (for hilly area)
Also consider ‘ ’ be the extra width provided at the circular curve; then
 Pavement is rotated about inner edge.
= = = (W + )  Pavement is rotated about centre line.
where, = total extra widening =

√
iii) Minimum length by Empirical Formula
a) For plain and rolling terrain; =
b) For mountainous and steep terrain; =
 The length of transition curve for the design should be the highest of the three values
mentioned above.
SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that is visible to the driver at any
instant from normal height of the driver’s eye above road surface.
Following are the types of sight distances:
1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) 2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Other sight distances are:

(i) Intermediate Sight Distance (ii) Headlight Sight Distance
1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

The minimum sight distance available along the road to stop a vehicle travelling at
design speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction is called stopping sight
distance.
Factors affecting stopping distance

i) Total reaction time of the driver iv) Frictional resistance between the road and the tyres
ii) Speed of vehicle v) Gradient of the road
iii) Efficiency of brakes
i) Total Reaction Time

Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied.
- The stopping distance increases with increase in reaction time of the driver.
- It may be divided into two parts: (a) Perception time (b) Brake reaction time
a. Perception Time
Perception time is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied.
The perception time varies from driver to driver and also depends upon speed of vehicle,
distance of object and other environmental condition.
b. Brake Reaction Time

It also depends upon various factors, i.e. skill of driver, type of problem and various
environmental factors.
PIEV THEORY
According to this theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts:
(a) Perception Time: It is the time required to perceive an object or situation.
(b) Intellection Time: It is the time required to understand the situation.
(c) Emotion Time: It is the elapsed time during emotional sensations and disturbance such as
fear, anger or any other emotional sensation.
(d) Volition Time: It is the time taken for final action.
ii) Speed of Vehicle

Higher the speed, higher will be the stopping distance.
iii) Efficiency of Brakes

The braking efficiency is said to be 100% if thee wheels are fully locked preventing them
from rotating on application of the brakes, which will result in 100% skidding.
iv) Frictional resistance between road and tyre

The frictional resistance developed between road and tyres or the skid resistance
depends on the type and condition of the road surface and the tyres.
v) Gradient of the Road

As the stopping sight distance required on descending gradient is higher, it is necessary
to determine the critical value of the SSD for the descending gradient.
2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

The minimum distance
open to the vision of the driver
of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead
with safety against the traffic
of opposite direction is known
as overtaking sight distance or
safe passing sight distance.
Factors affecting OSD

(i) Speeds of : (a) Overtaking vehicle
(b) Overtaken vehicle
(c) Vehicle coming from opposite direction
(ii) Distances between overtaking and overtaken vehicles.
(iii) Skill and reaction time of the driver.
(iv) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle.
(v) Gradient of the road.
Analysis of OSD
Here,
A = position of overtaking vehicle
B = position of overtaken vehicle or slow moving vehicle
C = position of vehicle coming from the opposite direction
= distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time ‘t’ sec. from to .
= distance travelled by vehicle A from to during actual overtaking operation in ‘T’ sec.
= dist. travelled by on-coming vehicle from to during overtaking operation of vehicle A.
Hence, overtaking sight distance is given by; OSD = + +

OSD = t + T + 2 s + v T
Where,
= speed of overtaken vehicle, m/s
t = reaction time of driver = 2 sec

V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed

s = spacing of vehicles (= 0.7 + 6, where, ‘6’ is wheel base)
2
a = acceleration, m/s
3. Design of Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line of the road.
- The vertical alignment consists of grades and vertical curves.
- It influences the vehicle speed, acceleration, deceleration, stopping distances, sight
distances and comfort in vehicle movement at high speed.
GRADIENT
Gradient is defined as the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road w. r. t. the
horizontal.
- It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in (1 vertical unit to horizontal units).
- It is sometime also expressed as a percentage, n (i.e. n in 100).
Factors affecting gradient Gradient = 1 in  tan

(i) Characteristic of the traffic. =n
(ii) Design speed
(iii) Physical features of the site (drainage, safety, appearance, access to adjacent property).
(iv) Topography of the country.
Types of Gradient
i) Ruling gradient ii) Limiting gradient iii) Exceptional gradient iv) Minimum gradient
i) Ruling Gradient
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to design
the vertical profile of a road.
- Gradients up to the ruling gradient are adopted as a normal course in design of vertical
alignment and thus the quantities of cut and fill are balanced.
- Hence ruling gradient is also known as design gradient.
- As per IRC, ruling gradient value is: (a) 1 in 30 (plain & rolling terrain)
(b) 1 in 20 (mountainous terrain)
(c) 1 in 16.7 (steep terrain)
ii) Limiting Gradient

Whenever the topography of a place has steeper gradients, then we provide limiting
gradient which is more than ruling gradient.
- But the length of limiting gradient is limited considering the safety.
- As per IRC, limiting gradient is given as: (a) 1 in 20 (plain and rolling)
(b) 1 in 16.7 (mountainous)
(c) 1 in 14.3 (steep)
iii) Exceptional Gradient

In some cases it may be unavoidable to provide steeper gradient at least for short
stretches and in such cases exceptional gradient may be provided.
- Exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for short stretches should not exceed about
100m at a stretch.
- As per IRC, exceptional gradient is given as: (a) 1 in 15 (plain and rolling)
(b) 1 in 14.3 (mountainous)
(c) 1 in 12.5 (steep)
iv) Minimum Gradient

It is desirable to have a certain minimum gradient on roads for drainage point of view.
- The minimum gradient would depend upon rainfall run off, type of soil, topography and other
site conditions.
- As per IRC, the minimum gradient of about 1 in 500 may be sufficient to drain water in
concrete drain but for Kucha drain, a slope of 1 in 200 (0.5%) is needed.
Compensation in Gradient on Horizontal Curves

At horizontal curves, due to turning angle ‘’ of vehicles, the curve resistance developed
is equal to T (1-cos).
- When there is a horizontal curve in addition to the gradient, there will be increased resistance to
fraction due to both gradient and curve.
- It is necessary that in such cases the total resistance due to grade and curve should not normally
exceed the resistance due to the maximum value of the gradient specified.
- For design purpose, this maximum value may be taken as the ruling gradient and in some special
cases as limiting gradient for the terrain.
- When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on road which has already the maximum
permissible gradient, then the gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss of
tractive effort due to the curve.
- This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called grade compensation. This is calculated
from the relation:
Grade compensation, percent , subject to a maximum value of 75/R, Where R is the
radius of the circular curve in metre.
VERTICAL CURVE
When two different gradients meet, they are connected by a curve in the vertical plane
known as vertical curve.
Following are objective of vertical curve:

 To obtain adequate visibility
 To secure comfort to the passenger

Types of Vertical Curves

1. Summit Curve 2. Valley Curve
1. Summit Curve
When the two grades meet at summit and the curve will have the convexity upwards is
called summit curve. It is also called crest curves.
- The deviation angle between the two interacting gradients is equal to the algebraic difference
between them.
case (i) : When a +ve grade meets with a –ve case (ii) : When a +ve grade meets with
grade. another +ve grade.
case (iii) : When an ascending (+ve) grade case (iv) : When a descending (-ve) grade
meets with zero grade. meets with another –ve grade.
N = – i 1 – ( – i 2)
= – ( i 1 – i 2)
Length of Summit Curve for Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

There are two cases: (I) When L > SSD (II) When L < SSD
In the diagram,
h1 = height of driver’s eye from road surface
h2 = height of the object lying on the road surface
Since, the curve is square parabola, offset from the line of sight are proportional to the square of
the distance from the point, where the curve is tangential to the line of sight.
h1 = k s12 ------- (i) and h2 = k s22 ------- (ii)

where, k = constant of parabola
Now,
( )
√ √
√ √
[√ √ ]
(√ √ )
(√ √ )
We have relation as, L = NR R= ⁄

Putting the value of R in equation (iii), we get;
[√ √ ]
This is the general equation for length of parabolic curve,
L = length of summit curve, m
S = stopping sight distance (SSD), m
N = deviation angle
(I) When L > SSD
As per IRC, h1 = 1.2 m & h2 = 0.15 m
Putting these values in equation (iv), we get
(II) When L < SSD

The general equation for the length of parabolic summit curve, when it is less than the sight
distance is given by:
[√ √ ]
Putting h1 = 1.2 m & h2 = 0.15 m, we get
Length of Summit Curve for Safe Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) or Intermediate
Sight Distance (ISD)
There are two cases:
(I) When L > OSD or ISD
The same general equation (iv) is used. By substituting h1 = h2. We get

(II) When L < OSD or ISD

The same general equation (v) is used, by substituting = . We get;
2. Valley Curve
Valley curves or Sag curves are formed in any one of the following cases. In all the cases
the maximum possible deviation angle is obtained when a descending gradient meets with an
ascending gradient.
The most important factors considered in valley curve design are:

(i) Impact free movement of vehicles at design speed or the comfort to the passengers.
(ii) Availability of stopping sight distance under head lights of vehicles for night driving.
Length of Valley Curve

The length of valley curve is designed
based on the two criteria:
a) The length of the transition curve (LS)
for comfort condition
b) The length of valley curve for head light
sight distance
(a) The length of Transition Curve (Ls) for Comfort condition

It is given by,
Now equation (i) becomes;
Where,
N = deviation angle
⁄ V = speed (m/s)
C = allowable rate of change of
[ ]
centrifugal acceleration (taken
⁄ as 0.6 m/s3)
[ ]
If V is expressed in kmph, then

⁄
The minimum radius (R metre) of the valley curve for cubic parabola is given by;
(b) The Length of Valley Curve for Head Light Sight Distance
It may be determined for the two conditions: (i) L > SSD (ii) L < SSD
(i) When L > SSD
Consider the height head light is
h1 and the focussed portion of the beam
of light is inclined at an angle  upwards.
If the valley curve is assumed to be of
parabolic shape, with equation y = ax2,
where a = ⁄
So,
Where,
L = total length of valley curve
S = SSD (m)
If = 0.75 m and  = 10, then
N = deviation angle = i1 + i2
(ii) When L < SSD

Here,
( ⁄ )
When, h1 = 0.75 m &  = 10, when L < SSD;

Expression for Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Stopping Distance is the sum of Lag Distance and Braking Distance;
………… (i)
here,
= lag distance = distance travelled during total reaction time
= braking dist. = distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of brake
Here, …………. (ii) Where, = design speed

t = reaction time
If ‘F’ be the maximum frictional force developed and be the braking distance then the work
done against frictional force in stopping the vehicle is,
where, w = weight of vehicle
………… (iii) { F = f  w}
The kinetic energy at the design speed of (m/s) will be,
Equating equation (iii) and (iv), we get;
Substituting the value of lag distance and braking distance in equation (i)
If V is in kmph then,
In case of sloping road of a gradient of , the above equation reduces to;
Here, positive and negative sign with is applicable for ascending and descending gradient
respect.
Set-back Distance on Horizontal Curves

In the design of horizontal alignment, the sight distance along the inner side of the
curves should be considered; where there are sight obstructions like buildings, cut slopes, or
trees on the inner side of the curves.
The clearance distance or set back distance required from the centre line of a horizontal
curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight distance
depends upon the following factors:
(i) Required sight distance, S

(ii) Radius of horizontal curve, R
(iii) Length of the curve, which may be greater or
lesser than S.
(a)
From the figure;
( ) ( )
The distance from the obstruction to the centre is ⁄ . Therefore the set-back
distance, m required from the centre line is given by;
⁄
In the case of wide roads with two or more lanes, if d is the distance between the
centreline of the road and the centreline of the inside lane in metre, the sight distance is
measured along the middle of the inner side lane and the set-back distance, m’ is given by:
⁄
[ ]
(b)
If the sight distance required is greater than the length of curve , then the angle 
subtended at the centre is determined with reference to the length of circular curve, and
the set-back distance is worked out in two parts as given below:
⁄ ⁄
The clearance of obstruction up to the set-back distance is important when there is cut
slope in the inner side of the horizontal curve.
Solved Example
In a horizontal highway curve of radius 400m and length 200m existed. Compute
the set-back distances required from the centreline on the inner side of the curve
so as to provide for
(a) Stopping sight distance of 90m
(b) Safe overtaking sight distance of 300m
The distance between the centrelines of the road and the inner lane is 1.9m.

Solution:
(a) The stopping sight distance (SSD) of 90 m is less than the circular curve length of 200m.
Required clearance from the centreline to provide SSD is 90m is 4.4 m.
(b) The overtaking sight distance of 300 m is greater than circular curve of length which is
200m. therefore the required set-back distance is CF = (CG + GF)
S = 300 m, LC = 200 m, R = 400 m, d = 1.9 m
Set back distance m' = CF = CG + GF
⁄ ⁄
= 14.4 + 12.4
= 26.8
Minimum set-back distance required from the centre line of the road on the inner side of
the pavement to provide an OSD of 300 m is 27 m.
1) The radius of circular curve is 100 m. The design speed is 50 kmph and the design
coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
a. Calculate the super-elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
b. Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no super-elevation is provided.
c. Calculate the equilibrium super-elevation if the pressure on inner and outer wheels
should be equal.
Solution:
Here, R = 100 m V = 50 kmph f = 0.15
(a) Super-elevation, e = ?
we have,
= 4.7 % Ans.
(b) Coefficient of friction, ; when no super-elevation is provided, i.e.

Now, putting values in
(c) Super-elevation, ; for equilibrium condition, i.e.

again, putting values in
2) A two lane road with design speed 80 kmph has horizontal curve of radius 480m. Design
the rate of super-elevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the
pavement be raised w.r.t the centre line, if the pavement is rotated w.r.t. the centre line
and the width of the pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5 m?
Solution:
For mixed condition, the super-elevation should fully counteract the centrifugal force for
75 % of design speed.
this value is less than 0.07, so adopt e = 0.059

Here, width of pavement (B) = 7.5 m
Now, Raising of outer edge w.r.t. centre,
3) Design the rate of super-elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500m and
speed 100 kmph.
Solution:
For mixed traffic condition;

this value is greater than maximum super-elevation of 0.07, so adopt

Check
For coefficient of lateral friction,
This value is less than 0.15, the design is safe with a super-elevation of 0.07
4) The design speed of a highway is 80 kmph. There is a horizontal curve of radius 200 m
on a certain locality. Calculate the super-elevation needed to maintain this speed. If the
maximum super-elevation of 0.07 in not to be exceeded, calculated the maximum
allowable speed to increase the radius. Safe limit of transverse coefficient of friction is
0.15.
Solution:
The problem may be solved by considering 75% design speed,
Here,
but, Maximum allowable value of

Check for the value of friction developed;
Since this value is greater than maximum allowable safe friction coefficient of 0.15 and
also the radius can’t be increased, the speed has to be restricted.
Maximum allowable speed,
√ √
the speed may be restricted to less than 74 kmph 70 kmph. .
5) Calculate the super-elevation required on a road curve of 240 m radius. The road has
operation dominating in mixed traffic condition. The design speed is 80 kmph. The
coefficient of friction is 0.15. The road is passing through the rolling terrain.
Solution:
R = 240 m V = 80 kmph = 0.15
For mixed traffic condition:
So provide,
Check for friction:
So, provide 7 % super-elevation.
6) Find the total width of pavement on a horizontal curve for a new national highway to be
aligned along a rolling terrain with a ruling minimum radius. Assume necessary data.
Solution:
Assuming following data:
Design speed (V) = 80 kmph (for National Highway in rolling terrain)
Normal pavement width (W) = 7 m
Number of lanes (n) = 2
Length of wheel base ( ) = 6 m
and
We have, Ruling minimum radius (R) =
Total extra widening ( ) = mechanical widening ( ) + psychological widening ( )
√ √
Total extra widening = 7 + 0.72 = 7.72 m .
7) Calculate the length of transition curve and shift for the following data:
Design speed : 70 kmph
Radius of circular curve : 250 m
Allowable rate of introduction of super-elevation : 0.07
pavement rotated about centreline : 1 in 140
Pavement width including extra widening : 7.5 m
Solution:
(a) Length of transition curve as per allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (C);
It lies between 0.5 & 0.8, (hence OK)
(b) by allowable rate of introduction of super-elevation;
So, adopt
Check for frictional resistance
The value of is safe for design speed 70 kmph.

Here, width of pavement (B) = 7.5 m
1 in N = 1 in 140 } (given)
Total raise of outer edge w.r.t. centre line;

(c) By empirical formula;
Adopt highest value of three;

Length of transition curve ( ) = 53.65 m 54 m .
8) A National Highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy rain fall area has a horizontal
curve of radius 500m. Design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
Solution:
Assume; V= 80 kmph , ⁄ ⁄ , W=7m
Given; R = 500 m
(a) Length of transition curve as per allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration;
It lies between 0.5 & 0.8, (hence OK)
(b) by allowable rate of introduction of super-elevation;
Extra-widening; (Assuming, n = 2 and = 6 m)
√ √
Total width of pavement, B = 7 + 0.45 = 7.45 m
= (rotating about the inner edge)
= 0.057  7.45  150 = 63.7 m
(c) By empirical formula;
Adopt highest value of three;

Length of transition curve ( ) = 63.70 m 64 m .
9) A clothoid is to be fitted in between the circular section and a straight section of

highway. If the design speed on the highway is 85 kmph and radius of the curve of the
circular section is 225m. Determine the length of clothoid for comfort condition and for
introducing maximum super-elevation @ 1 in 150. The width of pavement at the straight
section is 7m and the length of wheel base of the design vehicle is 6.1m.
Solution:
Here; V = 85 kmph R = 225 m W=7m = 6.1 m ⁄ = 1 in 150
Step 1 : To check super-elevation
Step 2 : To check friction coefficient
Step 3 : Allowable / comfort velocity

√ √
Now, for the comfort condition;
For e = 0.07
& f = 0.15 } V = 79.29 kmph
Step 4 : Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

⁄
Step 5 : Rate of introducing super-elevation
√ √
Step 6 : By empirical formula
Provide higher value of So, .
10) Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 50 kmph for:
(a) Two-way traffic on a two lane road (b) Two-way traffic in a single lane road
Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37 and reaction time of driver as 2.5 sec.
Solution:
Stopping distance = lag distance + braking distance
(a) Stopping sight distance when there are two lanes = stopping distance = 61.35 m
(b) Stopping sight distance for two way traffic with single lane = 2  SD
= 2  61.35 = 122.7 m
11) Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid head on collision with a car
approaching from the opposite direction if both the cars are speeding at 60 kmph. Use a
total perception and brake reaction time of 2 second, coefficient of friction and
brake efficiency . The section of the road under consideration has a
grade of 10%.

Solution:
V = 60 kmph, t = 2 sec, f = 0.40
= 50 % = 0.50, grade ( ) = 10% = 0.10
Stopping sight distance for ascending car,
Stopping sight distance for descending car,
Required minimum SSD = = 90.05 + 127.85 = 217. 90 m.
12) Calculate the values of:

(a) Head light sight distance
Assume suitably
(b) Intermediate sight distance for a highway
all the data required.
with a design speed of 65 kmph
Solution:
V = 65 kmph, Assume, t = 2.5 sec
f = 0.36
(a) Head light sight distance = SSD
(b) Intermediate sight distance = 2  SSD

= 2  91.38 = 182.76 m
13) Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for a vehicle in a descending section of road,
moving at a speed of 60 kmph.
(a) Two way traffic in two lane road (b) Two way traffic in single lane road
Given, t = 1 sec, = 0.4, grade = 5 %
Solution:
Stopping distance for descending section;
(a) Minimum stopping sight distance for two lane road = SD = 57.17 m.
(b) Minimum stopping sight distance for single lane road = 2  SD
= 2  57.17 = 144.34 m.
14) A vehicle moving at a speed of 90 kmph decided to overtake another slow moving
vehicle. Calculate safe overtaking sight distance. Consider:
(a) Two lane road with two way traffic (b) Two lane road with one way traffic
Assume all data suitably. Acceleration = 2.5 km/hr/sec
Solution:
V = 90 kmph, t = 2.5 sec
Speed of overtaken vehicle ( ) = V – 16 = 90 – 16 = 74 kmph
Now, Distance ( ) = 0.278   t = 0.278  74  2.5 = 51.43 m

Spacing between the vehicles (s) = 0.69  0.278 + 6.1
= 0.69  0.278  74 + 6.1 = 20.29 m
Overtaking time (T)
√ √
Distance ( ) = 0.278  T+2s = 0.278  74  10.81 + 2  20.29 = 262.96 m

Distance ( ) = 0.278  V  T = 0.278  90  10.81 = 270.47 m
(a) OSD = (b) OSD =
= 51.43 + 262.96 + 270.47 = 584.86 m. = 51.43 + 262.96 = 314.39 m.
15) The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles is 60 kmph and 30 kmph respectively
on a two way traffic road. If the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 3.6 kmph/sec.
(a) Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance
(b) Determine the minimum length of overtaking zone ( 3 to 5 times of OSD )
Solution:
Design speed (V) = 60 kmph
Speed of overtaken vehicle ( ) = 30 kmph
Acceleration of overtaking vehicle (a) = 3.6 km/hr/sec
Let, Reaction time (t) = 2.5 sec
Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle ( ) = 0.278 .t = 0.278 30 2.5 = 20.85 m
Minimum distance between two vehicles (s)
= 0.69  0.278 + 6.1 ( length of wheel base = 6.1 m)
= 0.69  0.278  30 + 6.1 = 11.85 m
Overtaking time (T)
√ √
Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle during actual operation of overtaking,

= 0.278   T + 2 s = 0.278  30  6.88 + 2  11.85 = 81.08 m
Distance ( ) = 0.278 V T = 0.278  60  6.88 = 114.76 m

(a) Safe overtaking sight distance, OSD =
= 20.85 + 81.08 + 114.76 = 216.69 m.
(b) Minimum length of overtaking zone = 4  OSD ( 3 – 5 times of OSD )
= 4  216.69 = 866.76 m.
16) A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients, +3.0 and – 5.0 %.
Design the length of summit curve to provide a stopping sight distance for a design
speed of 80 kmph. Assume necessary data.
Solution:
N =
= 0.03 – ( – 0.05 ) = 0.08

Let, t = 2.5 sec

= 0.35 for V = 80 kmph
Assuming L > SSD,
Length of summit curve = 298 m.
17) An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. A summit

curve is to be designed for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have an overtaking sight
distance of 470 m.
Solution:
N=
Here, OSD = 470 m

If L > OSD:
But, L OSD
So, Let L < OSD:
⁄
L < OSD (assumption is OK)
Length of Summit Curve = 417 m.
18) A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of 1 in 150 which meets an ascending
gradient of 1 in 40. Design the total length of valley curve if the design speed is 80 kmph
so as to fulfil both comfort condition and head light sight distance for night driving, after
calculating SSD required.
Solution:
V = 80 kmph
(a) Comfort condition:
⁄
⁄
( )
(b) Headlight sight distance condition:

Neglecting ascending & descending gradient at valley curve
& assuming t = 2.5 sec, f = 0.35
If L > SSD,
But, L SSD,
So, Let; L < SSD, then
⁄
= 122.61 m < SSD (assumption is correct)
Length of valley curve on headlight sight distance is higher than that on comfort condition
Length of valley curve = 122.61 m 123 m.

[5] HILL ROADS
A hill road is defined as the one, which passes through with a cross slope of 25% or more
i.e. mountainous or steep.
- As per NRS the cross slope may be classified as:
Type of Terrain 1. Level or plain 2. Rolling 3. Mountainous 4. Steep
Cross Slope (%) 0 – 10 10 – 25 25 – 60 > 60
Special consideration in the Aligning of Hill roads

Following points to be considered while aligning the hill roads:
i) Temperature
The temperature of air varies inversely with altitude. The temperature drop being about
0.50C per 100m of rise.
- Similarly, the amount of heat received by hill slopes varies enormously with their orientation
in relation to the exposure to sun.
ii) Rainfall
The amount of rainfall in hilly region is inversely proportional to the altitude.
- In hilly regions, wind often flows along the valley and gorges, as consequence of which the
rainfall in the valley is substantially higher than on high-lands and water-sheds.
- Also, maximum rainfall occurs in few months only. So these all uneven situation create the
problem in construction and maintenance of the road.
iii) Atmospheric pressure and Winds

Atmospheric pressure is inversely proportional to altitude. At high altitudes, the velocity
of wind is frequently coming at 25 – 30 m/s.
- The change in character of wind is due to appreciable difference of atmospheric pressure in
valleys and on mountain passes.
iv) Geological condition

The tendency of sedimentary rocks is to slip under the influence of force parallel to the
layer.
- The degree of stability of hill slopes depends upon the type of rock, the degree of strata
inclination or dip, the occurrence of clay seem, the hardness of rock and presence of ground
water.
- The instability of road may be due to ground water, landslides and unstable folds.
v) Route location
The approach to the location of hill road alignment varies for the sections along the
valley bottom and along the mountain pass.
 The first is called ‘river route’ and second is called ‘ridge route’.
a) River route
The location of a route along the river valley is known as river route. River route
is frequently used in hill road due to comparatively gentle gradient.
- It is advantageous that availability of water and other construction material in vicinity.
- However, a river route may involve numerous horizontal curves, construction of large
bridges over tributaries and on stretches along steeply sloping hill sides.
- It may also be necessary to construct special structures on hill side for the safe of road
against landslides.
b) Ridge route
A ridge route is characterised by very steep gradient, numerous sharp curves
including hair pin bends and the expensive rock works.
- The road usually follows the top section of the hill system and crosses successively
mountain pass.
- Geologically stable and comparatively mild slope sections are selected for the artificial
development of the route.
Hill Road Design

i) Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is calculated from the relation;
where, V = design speed of vehicle, kmph
t = reaction time
SSD (As per NRS 2027)

Speed (kmph): 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 120
SSD (m): 20 30 45 65 85 110 145 250
The overtaking sight distance is calculated from the relation;
where,
V = speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph √
= speed of overtaken vehicle = ( V – 16 ) kmph
S = spacing of moving vehicle = ( 0.2 + 6 ) m A = acceleration in kmph/sec
ii) Super-elevation
The super-elevation to be provided at horizontal curves of hill road is calculated from;
As per IRC, the super-elevation must not be greater than 7 % in hill roads.
iii) Radius of Horizontal curves

The radius of horizontal curves in hill roads, (minimum) is calculated by;
Where, R = radius of curve, m e = super-elevation (m/m)

V = design speed, kmph = coefficient of friction (0.15)

iv) Widening of Curves

Extra width of carriage way ( ) at horizontal curve is calculated from the relation;
Where, n = number of lanes

√
v) Set back distance
As it is not possible to provide visibility corresponding to overtaking sight distance all
along the hill road, the alignment is made so as to provide at least the safe stopping sight
distance.
vi) Transition curves

The length of transition curve is calculated form the relation,
Here,
vii) Gradients
The gradient for the given section of the road is normally selected maximum one in
order to reduce the earthwork and route length.
- The gradient of road decreased as height above MSL increases.
- The values of ruling and limiting gradient in mountainous and steep terrain over 3000 m
height above MSL are 5 % and 6% respectively.
viii) Camber or Cross fall

The recommended values of camber for hill roads (as per IRC) are given below;
S.N. Type of Surface Camber (%)
1. Subgrade, earthen road and shoulders 3–4
2. Gravel and WBM surface 2.5 – 3
3. Bituminous surfacing 2.5
4. High type bituminous surface 2
ix) Hair pin bends

In aligning a hill road, it becomes necessary to attain height at a particular location
without substantial covering of horizontal distance. In such cases, hair pin bend is provided.
Design of Hair Pin Bend

Within the limits of the available turning angle, it is often very difficult and sometimes
even impossible to lay out curves following normal geometric standards of design. In such
conditions, the curve provided on hill side having the minimum slope and maximum stability,
is called hair pin bends.
- It must be safe from view point of landslides and ground water.
- It may reduce construction problems and expensive protective works.
Design criteria for hair pin bends

The following design criteria are adopted for planning hair pin bends:
a) The straight length between two successive hair pin bends should be minimal of 60m
excluding the length of circular and transition curve.
b) Minimum design speed = 20 kmph

c) Minimum radius of inner curve = 14 m
d) Minimum length of transition = 15 m
e) Super-elevation in circular portion of the curve = 1 in 10
f) Minimum width of carriageway at the apex of curves should be 11.5 m and 9 m for two-
lane and one lane respectively.
g) The maximum and minimum gradients should be 1 in 40 and 1 in 200 respectively at the
curve.
h) For good visibility at the hair pin bend, the island portion shall be cleared off all the trees
etc.
Expression for Hair Pin Bends
Here,
T = tangent length of reverse curve
R = radius of main curve
 = deflection angle
= length of the reverse curve
C = length of the main curve
m = transition length between
reverse and circular curve
 = central angle at the centre of
main curve
r = radius of reverse curve
Fig: Hair Pin Bend
Tangent length of reverse curve = ⁄
⁄
⁄
⁄
Equating (i) and (ii)
⁄
⁄ ⁄
⁄
⁄
⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
⁄ ⁄
This is a quadratic equation of ⁄ .

√ √
⁄

Neglecting negative sign;

√
⁄
After knowing the value of ,
Deflection angle at main curve,

Length of reverse curve,
Length of main curve, C
Total Length of Hair Pin Bend (S) = 2 ( +m)+C
Design and Construction of Hill Roads

i) Rock Cutting
If the rock strata slope downward into the hill-side, the rock is permitted to overhang
the road forming a half tunnel. Blasting is done either from face or from one or both sides.
- If the strata are inclined towards the hill slope, cutting is continued until the inner slope is
at a safe angle to prevent slipping. In such case, blasting and cutting is commenced from
top.
ii) Precipice Work

Where the time available does not allow for blasting and tunnel work, cliff galleries and
cradles are resorted for the negotiation of cliffs and precipices.
- These are suitable only for light vehicles or foot traffic and considered only for short term
use and not as a permanent roadway for regular traffic.
iii) Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are most important structures in hill road construction to provide
adequate stability to the roadway and to the slope.
- Retaining walls are constructed on the valley side of the roadway and also on the cut hill
side to prevent land slide towards the roadway.
- The rear face of wall is vertical and filled with boulders and stones to improve drainage
and to resist earth pressure for half the height.
iv) Revetment Walls

The embankment slopes are normally protected with rough stone pitching about 30 cm
thickness in order to avoid erosion due to flow of water.
- If the stopping length is too long, it is preferable to construct a toe wall to support the
embankment.
v) Pavement type
Because of the high intensity of rainfall, generally throughout the year in the hill regions,
an impermeable type of pavement proves more effective, though the initial cost may be
high.
- The bituminous pavements are preferred on hill road.

- Cement concrete roads are not considered suitable because of its high initial cost and
delay in construction.
Construction Problems in Hill Roads

Construction of roads in hills and mountain is more complex task than in plain, due to
the following reasons:
(i) A hilly or mountain area is characterised by a highly broken relief with widely differing
increase in length of road.
(ii) The geological condition of hill varies from place to place within a short section, which may
create problem for foundation of road structures.
(iii) Hill cross slopes which are stable before the construction may turn into unstable after the
construction due to removal of vegetation or by movement of construction equipment.
(iv) Variation in hydro-geological conditions, (ground water condition) from place to place, may
result in unexpected damage after and during construction i.e. landslides, slip etc.
(v) Highly broken relief requires the various types of road structures such as aqueducts,
retaining walls, tunnels etc., which may increase 50 – 60 % of total construction cost.
(vi) Presence of steep ground cross slope needs careful arrangement of erosion protection
work.
(vii) Variation in climatic conditions such as temperature, pressure, velocity of wind etc. should
be considered in the design and construction period.
(viii) Special safety precaution should be taken for earthwork erection of retaining structures
and bridge construction.
Maintenance Problems in Hill Roads

i) Maintenance of drainage structures
Catch water drains, side drains, catch pits and culverts are periodically cleared off of all
blockages to prevent overflowing during rains.
- Planting of tress on the upper slopes in order to reduce the scouring action of unstable
ground due to rain.
ii) Snow clearance

Because of snow accumulation, most of hill roads at very high altitudes are closed for
traffic in winter.
- The first problem in snow clearance is to correctly locate the position of the road and
other structures under snow cover. It is overcome by erecting snow markers.
- Then snow clearance is done by machines; but care must be when using them on black top
surfaces not to damage them.
iii) Control of avalanches

On some sections, special protective structures called galleries are constructed above
the roads which permit the snow mass to slide over the gallery roof without inducing
impact loads.

iv) Prevention of landslides

Landslides and slips are most important problem in the maintenance of hill roads. To
tackle this, the engineer has to study the causes, correction and remedial measures.
- The term landslide denotes downward and outward movement of slope forming materials
composed of natural rocks, soils, artificial fills or combination of them.
v) Slide movements
Where shear stresses exceed the shear strength of the soil, movement occurs.
Following are some causes of increased stress condition:
(a) Increase in water content
(b) External load due to traffic, accumulation of snow
(c) Undermining caused by excavation or erosion
(d) Shocks and vibrations cause by earthquakes or blasting
Drainage in Hill Roads

1) Drainage of water from hill slopes
Surface water flowing form the hill slope towards the roadway is one of the main
problems in drainage of hill roads.
- It is desirable that the water from the hill side is not allowed to flow into the side drains
due to the problems maintaining the side drains intended for water from roadway.
- In order to intercept and divert the water form hill slope catch water drains are provided
and then it is diverted by side drain.
2) Road-side drains
Side drain is provided only on the hill side of the roads and not on the both sides. Due to
limitation of in the formation width, the side drains are constructed to such a shape that at
emergency the vehicles could utilize the space for crossing at low speed or for parking.
3) Cross drainage
As far as possible, cross drainage should be taken under the road and at right angle to it.
- At the head of small cross drains catch pits must be provided to collect the stones and
rubbish and to prevent scour.
- In hill roads where rainfall is heavy, it is recommended that culverts should be provided
every 60 to 90 m, to facilitate drainage of water cross the roads.
4) Sub-surface drainage
The seepage flow of water on hill roads is one of the major problems during and after
the monsoons.
- The seepage flow causes problems of slope stability as well as weakening of the road bed
and the pavement.
- The seepage flow is controlled by suitable sub-surface drainage system i.e. by longitudinal
pipe drain, by controlling of capillary rise, by lowering the water table.
Structures in Hill Roads

On the basis of function of structures, these are classified into:
1. Retaining structures 2. Drainage structures
1) Retaining structures
A retaining structure is usually a wall constructed for the purpose of retaining a vertical
or nearly vertical earth bank which in turn supports vertical loads.
- It provides adequate stability to roadway and to the slope.
- It is constructed on the valley side of the roadway and also on the cut hill side to prevent
slide towards the roadway.
- They are also provided to retain the earth mass for elevated and depressed roads.
Design
The design of retaining wall as a thumb rule provided by Hager and Bonney is
done by following ways:
(i) A section of 0.5 H with a minimum width of 0.45 – 0.60 at top.
(ii) The rear side of retaining wall should be vertical while front batter of 1 in 4.
(iii) The height > 6 , the base width of (0.4 H + 0.3) to (0.5 H + 0.6) is adopted with
a top width of 0.75 .
Types
A. Based on material used B. Based on the location C. Based on structural scheme
i. Dry stone masonry i. Hill or valley side i. Gravity wall
ii. Stone filled gabion crates ii. Toe wall ii. Semi-gravity wall
iii. Stone masonry with c/m iii. Cut off wall iii. Cantilever wall
iv. Composite retaining wall iv. Revetment wall iv. Buttressed wall
v. RCC retaining wall

2) Drainage structures
Drainage is one of the main problems during construction as well as operation of roads.
Hill road construction is said to be the battle against water and this battle indeed is a very
difficult one.
- Surface water flowing from the hill slope towards the road way is one of the main
problems in drainage of hill roads.
- Water intercepted by the catch drain is diverted by sloping drains and carried across the
road by means of culvert.
- If catch drain is not properly constructed and maintained then road way or side drain may
damage.
- Lining may have to be done to prevent scouring.
- Energy dissipating structures like chutes may have to be provided for road side drain.
Passing Lane in Hill Roads

The construction of hill road is not only costly but also tedious work due to abrupt
change in level, geological conditions and limited funds.
- Sometimes it is very difficult to cut the hard rocks, while sometimes very tedious to make
stable flow ground.
- So the width of hill roads is not uniformly throughout.
- Minimum width of hill roads is fixed based on the geological conditions, traffic volume,
method of construction, availability of fund and locality.
- At certain interval some extra space is provided to pass the traffic coming from opposite
direction or to overtake. This type of arrangement is called passing lane in hill roads.
[6] HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Definition
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and subsoil
water within the right of way. This includes interception and diversion of water from the
road surface and subgrade.
Importance of Highway Drainage

Highway drainage is important because of the following reasons:
i) Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability.
ii) Increase in moisture causes reduction in strength of many pavement materials like stabilised
soil and water bound macadam.
iii) In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerable variation in volume of
subgrade. This sometimes contributes to pavement failure.
iv) One of the most important causes of pavement failure by the formation of waves and
corrugations in flexible pavements is due to poor drainage.
v) Excess water on shoulders and pavement edge causes considerable damage.
vi) Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and simultaneous
reduction in strength of the soil mass.
vii) Erosion of soil from top of un-surfaced roads and slopes of embankment, cut and hill side is
also due to surface water.
viii) The main cause of failures in rigid pavements by mud pumping is due to the presence of
water in fine subgrade soil.
Requirements of Highway drainage system

(i) The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to subgrade.
(ii) The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the roadway.
(iii) The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the
surface water collected.
(iv) Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cross ruts or erosion.
(v) Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by the subsurface
drainage system.
(vi) Highest level of GWT should be kept well below the level of subgrade, preferably by at least
1.2 .
Classification of Highway drainage system

Highway drainage system can be classified as:
1) Surface drainage system
(a) Longitudinal drainage system: Road side drain, Intermediate drain, Catch drain
(b) Transverse drainage system: Culverts, Causeway, Aqueduct, Inverted siphon
(c) Energy dissipating measures: Drain lining, Ditch decks, Drop or fall structures

2) Subsurface drainage system

(a) Control of seepage flow
(b) Control of capillary rise / vapour transfer
(c) Lowering of water table
SURFACE DRAINAGE
The surface of water is to be collected and then disposed off. The water is first collected
in longitudinal drains, generally in side drains and then the water is disposed off at the
nearest stream, valley or water course.
Design of Surface drainage system

( ) Hydrologic Analysis ( ) Hydraulic Analysis
i) Hydrologic analysis
The main objective of hydrologic analysis is to estimate the maximum quantity of water
expected to reach the element of the drainage system under consideration.
- A portion of the precipitation during the rainfall infiltrates into the ground as ground
water and a small portion gets evaporated.
- The remaining portion of water which flows over the surface is called run-off.
- Various factors affecting the run-off are:
 Rate of rainfall  Topography of the area
 Type of soil and moisture condition  Type of ground cover, like vegetation, etc.
- The peak run-off water for highway drainage is widely computed by:
Where, Q = run-off (m3/s) I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hr.)
C = run-off coefficient A = drainage area (ha)
Design Steps
(i) Find the frequency or return period
(ii) Run-off coefficient and drainage area
(iii) Time of flow for the estimated longitudinal drain to the nearest cross drainage or water
course.
(iv) Inlet flow to the drainage and flow along the drain (time of concentration).
(v) Total area of drainage (ha), rainfall intensity (mm/hr.)
(vi) Run-off quantity (Q) = ⁄
(vii) Cross-sectional area of flow of the drain (A) = ⁄ (where, V is the allowable velocity in
the drain)
(viii) The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient width and side
slope of the drain.
(ix) Required longitudinal slope (S) of the drain is calculated by using Manning’s formula
adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient.
ii) Hydraulic analysis

Once the design run-off is determined, the side drains and partially filled culverts are
designed based on the principles of flow through open channels.
- If is the Quantity of surface water ( ⁄ ) to be removed by a side drain and is the

allowable velocity of flow ( ) on the side drain, the area of x-section of the channel
( ) is given by the relation: .
- By using the Manning’s formula, the longitudinal slope or velocity of flow is given by;
Where, V= avg. velocity ( )
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = longitudinal slope of channel
- Determine wetted perimeter from; ⁄
- Determine the dimensions i.e. width (b) and depth (d), from:
i.e.
( for trapezoidal drain)
√
- If the depth of flow (d) > ⁄ (critical depth), then it’s OK.
SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
Changes in moisture content of subgrade are caused by fluctuations in ground
water table, seepage flow, percolation of rain water and movement of capillary water and
even water vapour. The removal of water located below the ground level is known as sub-
surface drainage system.
Following methods are normally used for surface drainage system:
i) Lowering of Water Table
The highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade, in order
that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture.
- From practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept at least 1 –
1.2 m below the subgrade.
- In places where water table is high, the best remedy is to take the road formation on
embankment of height not less than 1.0 – 1.2 m.
- When the formation is to be at or below the general level, it would be necessary to lower
the water table.
- If the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high water table by merely
construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand.
ii) Control of Seepage flow

When the general ground as well as the impervious strata below are sloping, seepage
flow is likely to exist.
- If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 – 0.9 m from the subgrade level, longitudinal
pipe drain in trench filled with filter material and clay seal may be constructed to intercept
the seepage flow.

iii) Control of Capillary rise

The capillary rise may be checked either by a capillary cut-off of any one of the following
two types:
(a) A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction of
embankment between the subgrade and the highest level of sub-surface water table.
(b) Another method of providing capillary cut-off is by inserting an impermeable or a
bituminous layer in the place of granular blanket.
Design of Sub-surface Drainage System

The size and spacing of sub-surface drainage system would depend on the
quantity of water to drain off, the type of soil and type of the drains.
- Proper filter material should be used for back filling the drainage trenches and also for use
in all sub-surface drainage system.
Design of filter material

The filter material used in sub-surface drains should be designed to have sufficient
permeability offering negligible resistance to the flow. The procedure for design of filter is
briefly discussed here;
(i) On a grain size distribution chart (% passing vs. particles size on log scale) plot the grain size
distribution curve for the foundation soil.
(ii) Find the value of size of foundation material and plot a point of particle size of
foundation to represent the lower limit of size of filter. This is to fulfil the permeability
condition given by:
(iii) To fulfil the condition to prevent piping
Hence plot a point to represent the upper limits of size of filter given by of
foundation.
(iv) The size of perforation in the drain pipe = (filter) and no definite procedure for
determining the number of perforation per unit length of pipe.
Erosion control and Energy dissipating structure

1) Erosion control
Water emerging out of culverts and other cross drainage structures generally will have
the velocity higher than the non-scouring velocity for the soil around it.
- Similarly, in many cases, the bed slope of road side drains and intercepting drains may be so
high that the velocity of water flowing among them may erode its bed and side.
Following methods are used for erosion control:
i) Lining of drain
If the mean velocity exceeds the permissible for the particular kind of soil the road drain
should be protected against scouring.
- The slope of drain is lined with turf and bottom is covered by cobbles and gravels of the
desired size.
- Grass linings are valuable where grass can be supported.
- For higher velocity, stone masonry riprap lining or brick masonry, precast concrete block
throughout the perimeter and length of drain is appropriate.
ii) Vegetation
Vegetation is a process of application of grass on the top surface of exposed soil. Soil
erosion control is improved by allowing vegetation to grow in the fill slopes, side borrow
and shoulder portion of roadways.
- Bio-engineering is other alternative which has proved more effective with sustainable
development with age.
- The use of bio-engineering is environment friendly is not only in erosion control but also in
slope stabilisation.
iii) Slope pitching, lining and protection walls

Due to various reasons slope of cut and fill should be provided higher than the angle of
repose for the soil.
- In such cases, various types of slope protection works like stone, plain concrete, RCC,
timber, etc. may be provided against grass growing.
- Erosion control may be controlled by proper water shed management.
2) Energy dissipating structures

When flowing out along and out of drainage structure is contracted to reduce the size;
the velocity of flow increases. As a result of increase in the velocity of flow, the kinetic
energy of water increases which may cause erosion of soil ahead. So the use of energy
dissipating structure is to dissipate the energy of flowing water.
Following are some energy dissipating structures:
i) Road rapid
Rapids are provided on short length as inlet and outlet drain adjacent to some cross
drainage structures.
- It is also provided at the end section of catch or intercepting drains.
- A rapid consists of inlet, main conduit, stilling basin and outlets.

ii) Ditch deck

In case of large rapid slope, the flowing water has great energy having capacity to erode
the bed and side slope of drain.
- The energy of flowing water can be reduced by providing falls at certain intervals.
iii) Fall or drop structures

In the design of road drainage system in hill road it is often necessary to provide drop
structures.
- Such structures are to be provided frequently in hill roads where the bed slopes of existing
drainage ways is very high.
- These structures may be provided both u/s and d/s of the cross drainage structures.
Cross drainage structures used in highway

Following are the main types of x-drainage structures used in highway:
i) Causeways
When the flow of water is not only temporary but also about or slightly below the level
of road, then the structure is called causeway.
- A causeway does not restrict the waterway and is constructed perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
ii) Inverted siphon

Inverted siphon is provided in the case, if the invert level of conduit across the road is
lowered to the desired level and both inlet and outlets are provided to receive flow and
discharge to the d/s respectively.
iii) Aqueduct
If the road is in cutting exceeding and the water either of natural drainage or
irrigation canal has to be drained or taken to irrigate the land, aqueduct is the best
structure.
iv) Culvert
A culvert is a close conduit (span < 6 m) placed under the embankment to carry water
across the roadway. It may be of following types:
(a) Slab culvert (b) Box culvert (c) Arch culvert (d) Pipe culvert
- Culvert is more hydraulically efficient than bridges.
v) Scupper
A scupper is a cheap type of culvert having
0.9 – 1 m wide, made of coursed rubble dry
masonry abutments. Retaining walls are
provided on both ends of the scupper.
 A longitudinal channel with a trapezoidal x-section is to be constructed in a cut section.

The longitudinal slope of 1 in 2500 and cross slope of ( ). The soil is clay, with
Manning’s roughness coefficient of 0.024. The maximum allowable velocity is 0.6 m/s.
Design the channel for discharge of .
Solution:
Here, Longitudinal slope (s) = 1 / 2500
Cross slope or side slope (1: r) = 1: 2
V = 0.6 m/s Q = 3 m3/s n = 0.024
b = ?, d = ?
We have,
⁄
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
( ⁄ )
Now, Q = AV
Again,
Also,
√ √
Putting the value of b in equation (i), we get;
Solving this equation, we get;

d = 0.8055  0.81 m
b = 8.1967 – 4.47  0.81 = 4.60 m
Now,

[7] HIGHWAY MATERIALS
Classification of Materials
1. Binding materials
The materials used to unite or bind two or more materials during the construction
process are called binding materials. These are divided into three groups:
(i) Stone dust: Produces semi rigid or semi flexible bond between the mineral
materials.
(ii) Inorganic materials: Produces rigid bond between the mineral materials. E.g. cement,
lime, etc.
(iii) Organic materials: Produces thin film or layer which is flexible and reversible in nature.
E.g. bitumen
2. Mineral materials
Mineral materials used for the construction of highway are soil, sand (fine aggregate),
stone chips, gravel, stone dust, blast furnace slag, brick etc.
- Soils are extensively used for the embankment construction while stone aggregates are used
in pavement construction as well as filter materials in the backfill of retaining walls.
3. Other materials
Other materials used in highway construction are timber, reinforcing steel, stone, brick
boulders, cobbles, etc.
Desirable properties or Road Aggregates

Following are the desirable properties of road aggregates:
i) Strength
The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to
withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
- The aggregates which are used in top layers of the pavements, particularly in wearing course
should withstand high wear and tear to resist the crushing strength.
ii) Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion
due to moving traffic.
- They should be hard enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of traffic.
iii) Toughness
The aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel
loads.
- The magnitude of impact would increase with the roughness of the road surface, the speed
of the vehicle and other vehicular characteristics.
- The resistance to impact or toughness is hence another desirable property of aggregates.
iv) Durability
The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to action of weather.
- The property of the stones to withstand the adverse action of weather may be called
soundness.
- The road stones used in the construction should be sound enough to withstand the
weathering action.
v) Shape of aggregates
The flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and durability then cubical,
angular or rounded particles of same stone.
- Hence, too much flaky or elongated aggregate should be avoided as far as possible.
- Rounded aggregates may be preferred in cement concrete mix due to low specific surface
area and better workability for the same proportion of cement paste and same w/c ratio.
- Angular aggregates are preferred in granular base course, WBM and bituminous
construction, due to their better interlocking properties.
vi) Adhesion with Bitumen

The aggregate used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
composed with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate
will be stripped off in presence of water.
Test for Road Aggregates

In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction, the following
tests are carried out:
1. Crushing strength test (for strength) 4. Soundness test (for durability)
2. Abrasion test (for hardness) 5. Shape test
3. Impact test (for toughness) 6. Sp. Gravity & Water absorption test
1. Crushing strength test

The strength of coarse aggregate may be assessed by aggregate crushing test. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under
gradually applied compressive load.
Equipment
(a) Steel Cylinder: - 15.2 cm internal diameter with base plate and plunger
- Height of cylinder vary from 13 to 14 cm
- Wall thickness of 1.6 cm
(b) Cylindrical measure: Internal diameter of 11.5 cm & height 18 cm
(c) Steel tamping rod: Length of the rod 45 – 60 cm & diameter 1.6 cm
(d) Compressive testing machine

Procedure
(i) Take and dry the aggregate passing from 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm.
(ii) Fill the sample in cylindrical measure in 3 layers by tamping each layer 25 times with a
standard rod.
(iii) Weight the test sample (say ) and place it in the test cylinder and tamp each layer 25
times with standard rod.
(iv) Place the plunger on the top of the test specimen and put the whole apparatus in the
compression testing machine.
(v) Load the specimen with a total load of 40 tonnes @ 4 ton / minute.
(vi) Remove the test cylinder from the compression machine and sieve the aggregate through
2.36 mm sieve. Weight the material passing through (say ).
 For surface course, crushing value 30 %

 For base course, crushing value ≤ 45 %
2. Abrasion test
Abrasion tests are carried out to test the hardness property of stones and to decide
whether they are suitable for the different road construction works.
 The abrasion test on aggregate may be carried out by;
Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Principle
The principle of Los Angeles Abrasion Test is to find the percentage wear and tear due to
relative rubbing action between the aggregates and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Equipment
(a) Hollow cylindrical machine with 70 cm internal diameter and 50 cm long mounted on
supports.
(b) Steel spherical balls 4.8 cm dia. and weighing 390 – 445 grams.
Procedure
(i) Weight the aggregate sample (5 kg or 10 kg) depending on the grading ( ) and place in
machine.
(ii) Rotate the machine with a speed of 30 – 33 rpm for the specified number of revolution
(500 – 1000).
(iii) Take out the sample from the testing machine and sieve through 1.7 mm sieve. Weight the
aggregate passing through (say ).
 For cement concrete, abrasion value 16 %

 Bituminous mix surface course, abrasion value ≤ 30 %
 Bituminous with base course, abrasion value ≤ 50 %
3. Impact test
A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone or the resistance of the aggregates to
fracture under repeated impacts is called impact test.
- The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of resistance of aggregate to
impact, which has a different effect than the resistance to gradually increase compressive
stress.
Equipment
(a) A steel cylindrical cup of internal dia. 10.2 cm and 5 cm depth in which the aggregate
sample is placed.
(b) A metal hammer having a weight of 13.5 to 14 kg and having a free fall of 38 cm.
(c) Tamping rod 60 cm long and 1.6 cm diameter.
Procedure
(i) Fill the dry aggregate specimen in cylindrical cup of an impact test machine passing 12.5
mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve in 3 equal layers and tamp each layer by 25 blows
with tamping rod and weigh it (say ).
(ii) Raise the hammer to a height of 38 cm above the surface of the aggregate in the cup and
is allowed to fall freely on the specimen. 15 blows are given to the aggregate specimen.
(iii) Sieve the aggregate sample through 2.36 mm sieve and weight (say ).
 Impact value, 10 – 30 %  satisfactory strong

 Impact value, 30 %  surface or wearing course
 Impact value, < 45  base course
4. Soundness test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action,
by conducting accelerated weathering test cycle.
Procedure
(i) Weight and count the dry and clean aggregates of specified size.
(ii) Immense the piece in the saturated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for
16 – 18 hrs.
(iii) Oven dry the specimen at 105o – 110o C.
(iv) Immersion and drying is the one cycle.
(v) After completing the final cycle, dry the sample and examine the piece of aggregate visually
to seed excessive splitting, crumbing or disintegration of grains.
(vi) Sieve analysis to note the variation of gradation from the original.
(vii) The average loss in weight after 10 such cycles should not exceed 12 % (for test with sodium
sulphate) or 18 % (for test with magnesium sulphate) for aggregates to be of
recommendable quality.

Gradation Analysis of Aggregate

Gradation analysis usually involves the gradation test. From the gradation test,
determine the weight retained, cumulative weight retained on each sieve and total weight
passing on each sieve.
- Compare the gradation curve obtained with the gradation curve in the specification.
- The blending of aggregates to desired gradation is a complicated problem, particularly when
the two aggregates are to be combined and these gradation overlap.
- This can be done by two methods:
1. Mathematical method 2. Graphical method
1. Mathematical method
An equation of the general form is:
Where,
a, b & c = proportion of the mix to be taken from aggregate A, B & C respectively
A, B & C = % particles either retained or passing on each sieve
T = specified mix value
Example:
% passing given sieve size
B.S. sieve specifications
F.A. (A) M.A. (B) C.A. (C)
(mm) Limit mid value
25.4 100 100 100 100 100
12.7 100 100 94 90 - 100 95
4.76 100 100 54 60 - 75 67.5
1.18 100 66.4 31.3 40 - 55 47.5
0.3 100 26 22.8 22 - 35 27.5
0.15 73.6 17.4 9 12 - 22 17
0.075 40.1 5 3 5 - 10 7.5
(a) For % passing through 4.76 mm sieve, 100a + 100b + 54c = 67.5
For % retained through same sieve, 0a + 0b + 46c = 32.5 ---------- (i)
c = 0.71
(b) For % passing through 1.18 mm and 0.3 mm sieve
100a + 66.4b + 31.3c = 47.5 --------- (ii)
And 100a + 26b + 22.8c = 27.5 --------- (iii)
Subtracting (iii) from (ii) we get

40.4b + 8.5c = 20 -------- (iv)
Putting the value of c from (i) in (iv), we get
b = 0.35
Also, a+b+c=1 a = - 0.06
Negative value indicates mid-point specification is do no match, so repeat using the
specification of 70 % passing from 4.75 mm & 45 % passing for 1.18 mm sieve.
i.e. 0a + 0b + 46c = 30 ---------- (v)
c = 0.65
Now for 1.18 mm and 0.3 mm sieve (% passing)

100a + 66.4b + 31.3c = 45 --------- (vi)
And 100a + 26b + 22.8c = 27.5 --------- (vii)
Form (vi) and (vii)
40.4b + 8.5c = 17.5 ---------- (viii)
b = 0.3
Also, a + b + c = 1 or, a + 0.3 + 0.65 = 1 a = 0.05
I.e. a = 5 %, b = 30 %, c = 65 %
Desired gradation is tabulated as:

B.S. sieve Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Combining
(cm) A5% (i) B30% (ii) C65% (iii) (i)+(ii)+(iii)
25.4 1000.05=5 1000.3=30 1000.65=65 100
12.7 5 30 61 96
4.76 5 30 35.1 70.1
1.18 5 19.9 20.3 45.27
0.3 5 7.8 14.8 27.62
0.15 3.7 5.3 5.9 14.9
0.075 2 1.5 2 5.5
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Bituminous binders used in pavement construction works include both bitumen and tar.
- Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude whereas
road tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal or wood.
Types of Bituminous materials

Bituminous materials used in highway construction may be classified as:
1. Bitumen  (i) Native bitumen or asphalt
(ii) Petroleum bitumen or asphalt
2. Tar
- Native asphalts are those which occur in a pure or nearly pure state in nature.
- Native asphalts which are associated with a large proportion of mineral matter are called
rock asphalt.
- The viscosity of bitumen is reduced sometimes by a volatile diluent; this material is called
cutback.
- When bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and
stabilised with an emulsifier, the material is known as emulsion.
Bitumen
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude. It is the
product of fractional distillation of crude oil.

Requirements of Bitumen
(i) Mixing
(ii) Attainment of desired stability of the mix
(iii) To maintain the stability under adverse weather condition
(iv) To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface
(v) To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in presence of water
Desirable properties of Bitumen

The bitumen should possess the following desirable properties:
(i) The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
(ii) The bituminous material should not be highly temperature susceptible. I.e. during the
hottest weather the bituminous mix should not become too soft or unstable and during cold
weather the mix should not become too hard and brittle causing cracking of surface.
(iii) In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the aggregates. There has to be
adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used.
Comparison between Bitumen and Tar

Bitumen Tar
1. It is the product of fractional distillation 1. It is the product of destructive
of crude oil (i.e. petroleum crude). distillation of coal or wood.
2. It has black to dark brown colour. 2. It has black to dark brown colour.
3. It is soluble in and 3. It is soluble in toulene.
4. It has better weather resisting property. 4. It has poor weather resisting property.
5. It is less temperature susceptible. 5. It is more temperature susceptible.
6. It contains less free carbon. 6. It contains more free carbon.
Tests on Bitumen
1. Penetration test 4. Softening point test 7. Solubility test
2. Ductility test 5. Sp. Gravity test 8. Flash and fire point test
3. Viscosity test 6. Float test 9. Spot test
1. Penetration Test
This test determines the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in mm
to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in five seconds while the
temperature of the bitumen sample is maintained as 25oC.
Equipment
- A penetration consisting of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100 mg and device for
releasing and locking needle in any position.
- A graduated dial gauge to read the penetration value up to 0.1 mm.
Procedure
(i) The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into
containers to a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration.
(ii) The sample containers are then placed in a temperature controlled water bath at a
temperature of 25oC for 1 hour.
(iii) The sample with container is taken out and the needle is arranged to make contact with the
surface of the sample.
(iv) The dial is set to zero or the initial reading is taken and the needle is released for 5 sec.
(v) The final reading is taken on dial gauge.
(vi) At least 3 penetration tests are made on this sample by testing at distances of at least 10
mm apart.
(vii) The depth of penetration is reported in one-tenth millimetre units and the mean value of 3
measurements give a penetration value.
(viii) The bitumen grade is specified in terms of penetration value. 80 – 100 or 80/100 grade
bitumen means that the penetration value of the bitumen is in the range 80 to 100 at
standard test conditions.
2. Ductility test
Ductility is a means of elasticity or adhesiveness of bitumen. It is expressed as the
distance in to which a standard briquette can be stretched before the thread breaks.
- The test should be conducted at 27oC and the pull should be applied @ of 50 mm/min.
- The minimum width of x-section should be 10  10 mm.
Equipment
» Briquette of standard dimension
» Pulling device with distance measuring dial
Procedure
(i) Heat the bitumen sample to bring it in fluid state and pour the briquette assembly and place
on a brass plate.
(ii) The samples along with the moulds are cooled in air and then in water bath maintained at
27oC.
(iii) The excess bitumen material is cut and the surface is levelled using a hot knife.
(iv) The mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water bath of the ductility testing
machine for 85 – 95 minute.
(v) The sides of the mould are removed, the clips hooked on the machine and the pointer is
adjusted to zero.
(vi) The distance up to the point of breaking of thread is reported in as ductility value.
(vii) The ductility values of bitumen vary from 5 to 100 cm for different bitumen grades.
3. Viscosity test
Viscosity is defined as inverse of fluidity. Viscosity thus defines the fluid property of
bituminous material.
- The degree of fluidity of the binder at the application temperature greatly influences the
strength characteristics of the resulting paving mixes.

- It is applicable for both cut back and tars.

- It is the measurement of resistance to flow.
- Viscosity is measured by recording the time in seconds taken by 50 cc of material to flow
through specified orifice of standard dimension at standard temperature.
Tar: (Equipment)
» An orifice of 10 mm size (orifice viscometer)
» Sample collected
» Thermometer
Procedure
Note the time in seconds for 50 cc of sample to flow through the orifice of 10 mm at the
specified temperature of 35, 40, 45 or 55oC.
Cutback: (Equipment)
 An orifice of 4 mm at 25oC or 10 mm at 25 – 40oC
 Sample collected
 Thermometer
Procedure
Note the time in seconds for 50 cc of sample to flow through 4 mm orifice at 25oC or 10
mm orifice at 25 – 40oC.
4. Softening point test

Softening point is defined as the temperature at which a substance attains a particular
degree of softening under specified conditions.
- Softening point is determined by ring and ball test.
- Generally higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred
in warm climates.
Equipment
 A brass ring and steel ball
 Water bath and thermometer
Procedure
(i) A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerine
at a given temperature.
(ii) A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen and the liquid medium is then heated at a rate of 5 oC
per minute.
(iii) The temperature at which the softened bitumen touches the metal placed at a specified
distance below the ring is recorded as the softening point of bitumen.
Hard grade bitumen possesses higher softening point than soft grade bitumen. The
softening point of various bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary between 35 – 70oC.
Cutback bitumen
Cutback bitumen is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced by a
volatile solvent. Kerosene oil or diesel is used as the volatile solvent.
Purposes
To increase fluidity for good mixing and such mix can be transported for long haul
without setting.
Types
(i) Slow curing (SC)
It is obtained either by blending bitumen with high boiling point gas oil OR by controlling
the rate of flow and temperature of the crude during the first cycle of refining.
- It is used in fine cold asphalt and as dust palliative materials.
(ii) Medium curing (MC)

These are bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by blending with an intermediate-boiling-
point solvent like kerosene or light diesel oil.
- It is used in dense graded road surfacing / in bituminous soil stabilisation.
(iii) Rapid curing (RC)

These are bitumen, fluxed or cutback with a petroleum distillate such as neptha or
gasoline which will rapidly evaporate after using in construction, leaving the bitumen
binder.
Bitumen Emulsion
A bitumen emulsion is liquid product in which a substantial amount of bitumen is
suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by means of
one or more suitable materials.
- Emulsions are used in bituminous road construction, especially in maintenance and patch
repairing works.
- The main advantage of emulsion is that it can be used in wet whether even when it is
raining.
- Also, emulsion has been used in soil stabilisation, particularly for the stabilisation of sands in
desert areas.
Types
i) Rapid setting (RS)
Suitable for surface dressing and penetration macadam type of construction.
ii) Medium setting (MS)

Used for premixing with coarse aggregates.
iii) Slow setting (SS)

Suitable for fine aggregate mixes.

Tar
Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood and coal
carbonised or destructively distilled in the absence of air.
Three stages for the production of road tar are:

(i) Carbonisation of coal to produce crude tar
(ii) Refining or distillation of crude tar
(iii) Blending of distillation residue with distillate oil function to give the desired road tar.
Following are the grade of road tars.

i) RT – 1 : it has lowest viscosity and used for surface painting
ii) RT – 2 : used for standard surface painting
iii) RT – 3 : used for surface painting, renewal coats and premixing chips
iv) RT – 4 : used for premixing the macadam in base course
v) RT – 5 : used for grouting purpose and has highest viscosity among the road tars
BITUMINOUS MIXES
Bituminous mixes are composed of a mixture of aggregate (coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate) with bitumen or without filler.
Coarse aggregates
- Material retained on 2.36 mm sieve
- Imparts stability to the mix by mechanical interlock between the particles.
- Resists the abrasive action of traffic
Fine aggregates
- Materials passing through 2.36 mm sieve and retained on 75µ sieve.
- Fill the voids of the coarse aggregates and help to secure dense gradation.
Filler
- Materials passing through 600 micro sieve.
- Acts as a final void filling medium and complete the process of making the mixture as
dense as possible.
Desirable Properties of Bituminous Mixes

i) Sufficient stability to satisfy the service requirements of the pavement and the traffic
conditions, without undue displacements.
ii) Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement by coating the aggregate and bonding
them together and also by water-proofing the mix.
iii) Sufficient voids in the compacted mix as to provide a reservoir space for a slight amount of
additional compaction due to traffic and to avoid flushing, bleeding and loss of stability.
iv) Sufficient flexibility even in the coldest season to prevent cracking due to repeated
application of traffic loads.
v) Sufficient workability while placing and compacting the mix.
vi) The mix should be the most economical one that would produce a stable, durable and skid
resistant pavement.
Design Steps of Bituminous Mixes

The following steps may be followed for a rational design of a bituminous mix:
1) Selection of Aggregate
Aggregates which possess sufficient strength, hardness, toughness and soundness are
chosen keeping in view the availability and economic consideration.
- Crushed aggregates and sharp sands produce higher stability of the mix when compared
with gravel and round sands.
2) Selection of Aggregate Grading

As higher maximum size of aggregate gives higher stability.
- In base course maximum aggregate size of 2.5 to 5 cm are used whereas for surface course
1.25 to 1.87 cm size are used in the mixes.
3) Determination of Specific gravity

The sp. gravity of the total or combined aggregate is determined and the average
specific gravity ( ) of blended aggregate mix is given by;
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Where, are percent by weight of aggregates 1, 2, 3 & 4.
are the specific gravities of the respective aggregates.
4) Selection of Binders
It depends upon the nature of traffic and climatic condition. Penetration grade bitumen
are considered suitable.
5) Determination of Optimum bitumen content

- To ensure maximum stability.
- Resistance of the paving mix to deformation under load.
Marshall Stability Test for Bituminous Mix Design

Marshall Stability method is a type of unconfined compressive strength test in which a
cylindrical specimen of specified diameter and height is compressed radially at a constant
rate strain.
- The maximum load in sustained by the specimen at failure is called Marshall
Stability Value.
- The deformation in at failure is called Marshall Flow Value.
Equipment
(i) A cylindrical mould of 101.6 dia. and 63.5 mm height with a base plate and collar.
(ii) A hammer of 4.54 kg weight.
(iii) A sample extractor to extrude the compacted specimen from the mould.
(iv) Dial gauge to measure the deformation of the specimen and providing ring to measure the
load.

Procedure
i) Take 1200 mg of aggregates and heat up to 154oC to 160oC.
ii) Assume the bitumen content and heat separately up to 175 – 190oC.
iii) Mix thoroughly aggregate and bitumen such that the upper surfaces of the aggregate
appear to be uniformly coloured with bitumen fill.
iv) Pour the mix into the Marshall mould.
v) Compact mix with hammer weight 4.54 kg & free fall 457 mm with 50 blows on either side.
vi) Taken out the mould and kept under laboratory temp. for 12 hrs.
vii) Immerse the specimen at water bath with constant temperature 60oC for 30 minutes.
viii) Now put the sample for testing in Marshall Testing Machine and apply load vertically @ 50
mm/min. on the sample at 60oC.
ix) Max load at which sample fails gives the Marshal Stability value.
x) Measure the flow value from the dial gauge reading.
2009 fall 6.(b)

Solution:
Here, wt. of mix in air ( ) = 1180.5 gm
wt. of mix in water ( ) = 678.6 gm
(i) Bulk density of specimen form dimension and immersion test:
Bulk density = 2.275 gm/cm3

⁄ ⁄
(ii) Air void % in compacted mix:
(iii) VMA (Voids in Mineral Aggregate):
Here,
VMA = 2.76 + 13.84 = 16.6 %
(iv) VFB (% voids filled with bitumen):
Where,
= % by wt. of bitumen, coarse agg, fine agg and mineral filler resp.
= respective apparent sp. gravity.
[8] GREEN ROADS
Intro
Green roads are low cost, low volume, fair weather earthen road. They are usually
village roads or district roads under rural road network.
- The green road concept is an approach; it refers to and environmentally sound, affordable
(low cost), participatory, technically appropriate, labour based rural road.
- The green road concept focussing on the protection of vegetation cover as means of soil
conservation without using heavy equipment and rock blasting.
Design consideration
 Maximum gradient 12 %
 Minimum radius of horizontal curve = 12.5 m
 Pavement surface is earthen with spot graveling at places wherever required.
 Other geometric design standards are similar to that of standard road practice.
Objectives
i) Since it is labour based construction, so labour cost is about 65 % of total construction cost.
ii)The participation of politicians, users committee and technician is essential.
iii)
Heavy equipment is not used and rock blasting is not permitted.
iv)In the beginning, track of 1 – 1.5 m is opened and it is then gradually expanded to required
width.
v) Constructing rural roads following the green road approach offers several benefits over
tradition roads construction.
- It is affordable as the construction technique uses local material and people to construct
road.
- It is participatory, since different stack holders are actively engaged from planning to
operation and maintenance of the road.
- Since it uses local labour and materials, it has an immense potential for poverty
alleviation.
- Environmental protection is a key aspect of green roads.

The End

Enough To Transportation Engineering I

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[2] HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAY 6

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS IN NEPAL 6

[3] HIGHWAY PLANNING 10

OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY PLANNING 10

[4] GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY 15

[5] HILL ROADS 47

SPECIAL CONSIDERATION IN THE ALIGNING OF HILL ROADS 47

[6] HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 56

IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 56

[7] HIGHWAY MATERIALS 63

[8] GREEN ROADS 76

2 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

[1] INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

(a) Roadways or Highways

Advantages and Limitations of Highway over other Modes

4 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

Role of Road Transportation in Rural Development of Nepal

[2] HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHWAY

Classification of Roads in Nepal

1. Classification by Traffic flow

(i) National Highways

(ii) Feeder Roads

6 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

a) Feeder Roads Major

b) Feeder Roads Minor

(iii) District Roads

(iv) Urban Roads

(v) Village Roads

Historical Development of Road Construction

(a) Roman Roads

(b) Telford construction

8 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

(e) Macadam construction

Road Construction in Nepal

[3] HIGHWAY PLANNING

Objectives of Highway Planning

c) Traffic or Road use studies

10 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

Requirements of highway alignment

Factors controlling highway alignment

Additional cares for hill roads are:

12 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

Engineering Surveys and Its Stages

Methods of Preliminary Survey

Following procedure is done in the conventional method:

4. Final Location and Detailed Survey

14 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

[4] GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

Basic Design Control and Criteria

(i) Design Speed

(iii) Traffic Factors

(iv) Design Hourly Volume and Capacity

(v) Environmental and Other Factors

Elements of Highway Cross-section

1. Elements of Cross section

The main x-sectional elements are:

(i) Traffic Lane

16 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah

(ii) Carriageway or Width of Pavement

(iv) Width of Formation or Roadway

(vi) Right of Way or Land Width

18 Notes by : Shambhu Kumar Shah