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Walter Burkert Greek Religion PDF
Walter Burkert Greek Religion PDF
Walter Burkert Greek Religion PDF
RELIGION
G R E E K R E L IG IO N
Archaic and Classical
Walter Burkert
Translated by Jo h n Rallan
1
BLACKWELL
UXO RI
B la c k w e ll P u b lish e rs L td
108 C o w le y R o a d . O x f o r d , 0 X 4 1J F , U K
A ll rig h ts re s e r v e d . E x c e p t fo r th e q u o ta tio n o f sh o rt p a s s a g e s fo r th e
p u r p o s e s o f criticism a n d re v ie w , n o p a rt o f th is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e
r e p r o d u c e d , sto re d in a r e trie v a l s y ste m , o r tra n sm itte d , in a n y fo r m o r by
a n y m e a n s, e le c tro n ic , m e c h a n ic a l, p h o to c o p y in g , r e c o r d in g o r
o th e r w is e , w ith o u t th e p r io r p e r m iss io n o f th e p u b lis h e r.
E x c e p t in th e U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e r ic a , th is b o o k is so ld su b je c t to th c
c o n d itio n th a t it sh a ll n o t. by w ay o f tr a d e o r o th e r w is e , b e le n t, re -so ld ,
h ir e d o u t, o r o th e rw is e c irc u la t e d w ith o u t th e p u b lis h e r ’s p r io r c o n s e n t in
a n y fo r m o f b in d in g o r c o v e r o t h e r th a n that in w h ic h it is p u b lis h e d a n d
w ith o u t a s im ila r co n d itio n in c lu d in g th is c o n d itio n b e in g im p o s e d o n th e
su b seq u en t p u rch aser.
B u r k e r t , W a lte r
G r e e k r e lig io n : a rc h a ic a n d classical
I . G r e e c e — R e lig io n
I. T it le I I . G r ie c h is c h e R e lig io n d e r a rc h a is c h e n
u n d k la ssisc h e n E p o c h e . E n g lis h
2 9 2 '.0 8 B L 782
I S B N 0 - 6 3 1 - 1 5 6 2 4 -0
P rin te d in G re a t B rita in b y
A th en aeu m P re ss L td . G a te s h e a d . T v n e & W e a r
Contents
In tro d u ction i
1 A S u rv e y o f S c h o larsh ip i
2 T h e S o u rces 4
3 T h e Sc o p e o f the S tu d y 7
II R itual and S a n c tu a ry
III T he Gods
1 T h e S p e ll o f H o m er 119
2 In d iv id u a l G o d s 12 5
2 .1 Zeus 12 5
2.2 H e ra 13 1
2 .3 Poseidon 136
2.4 A th e n a 13 9
2 .5 A p o llo 14 3
2.6 A rte m is 149
2.7 A p h ro d ite 15 2
2.8 H erm es 15 6
2.9 D em eter 15 9
2 .1 0 D io n ysos 161
2 .11 H ep h a isto s 167
2 .12 A rcs 169
3 T h e R e m a in d e r o f the Pan theon 170
3. ι L e sse r G o d s 170
3 .2 So cie tie s o f G o d s 173
3 .3 N atu re D eities «74
3 .4 F o reig n G o d s 176
3 .5 Daimon «79
4 T h e S p e c ia l C h a ra c te r o f G re e k A n th ro p o m o rp h ism 182
IV T h e D e a d , H ero e s, and C h th o n ic G o d s
N otes 339
B ib lio g ra p h y 473
In d ex o f G re ek W o rds 479
In d ex 482
Preface to the English Edition
I A SU RVEY OF SCHOLARSHIP
G reek relig io n ' h as to som e extent a lw a y s rem ain ed fa m ilia r, but is fa r from
easy to kn ow and u n d erstan d . Seem in g ly n atu ra l and yet a ta v istic a lly
estra n ged , refined and b a rb a ric a t the sam e tim e, it h as been taken as a gu id e
a g ain and a g ain in the search for the o rigin o f all religion . B u t as a h isto n cal
phen om en on it is un iq u e and u n re p ea ta b le , and is itse lf thc pro d u ct o f an
in vo lved p reh isto ry.
In W estern trad ition an a w a re n e ss o f G re e k religion w as kept a liv e in three
w a y s :' th rough its p resen ce in an cien t lite ratu re an d in all lite ratu re form ed
on that m odel, th rough the p o lem ics o f the C h u rc h F a th e rs, and through its
assim ilatio n in sym b o lic g u ise to N co p la to n ic p h ilosop h y. T h e alleg o rical
m ethod o f ex p o sitio n , w h ich taugh t that thc n am es o f the gods should be
un derstood on thc one h an d a s n atu ra l an d on the oth er h an d as m eta
p h ysical en tities, had at the sam e tim e also been taken o v e r in literatu re and
p h ilo so p h y a like. T h is offered po ssib ilities for a ttem p tin g a reco n ciliation
w ith the C h ristia n religion . F ried rich C re u z e r ’ s Symbolik1 is the last larg e-
sca le an d th o ro u gh ly u n a v a ilin g en d e av o u r o f this kind. T h e re w as, how ever,
an o th er path w hich cou ld bc taken, n am e ly, to con struct a self-co n scio usly
p ag an co u n ter-p ositio n to C h ristia n ity . T h c fascin ation w hich this idea
exercised can be traccd from the tim e o f thc R e n a issan c e to S c h ille r ’s poem
D ie Götter Griechenlands (17 8 8 ) and G o e th e ’s Braut von Korinth ( 17 9 7 ) and is
evid en t a g ain in the w ork o f F rie d ric h N ietzsch e and W a lte r F . O tto.
T h e h isto rical criticism o f the n ineteenth cen tu ry ab a n d o n ed such efforts
to fill an cicn t religio n w ith d irect m ean in g an d rele van ce an d d evoted itse lf
in stead to thc c ritica l co llectio n and ch ro n o lo g ical o rd erin g o f thc source
m a teria l. F o rem o st in this line is C h ristia n A u g u st L o b e c k ’ s Aglaophamus,*
w h ich red uced the sp ec u latio n s abo u t M yste ries and O rp h ism to tan gib le
but u n d e n iab ly b an a l realities. A m ore ex citin g a p p ro ach w as in sp ired b y the
R o m an tic m ovem en t: m yth s w ere seen as w itn esses to a specific Volksgeist,
and a cco rd in g ly the G re ek ‘s a g a s ’ w ere traced b ack to thc in d iv id u a l G reek
tribes and th eir h isto ry. H ere it w as K a r l O tfried M ü lle r5 w h o led the w ay ,
and thc sam e path w a s still follow ed by W ila m o w itz, the m aster o f h istorical
•2 A S U R V E Y OF SC H O LA R SH IP
ph ilology, right up to the w ork o f his old age Der Glaube der Hellenen/’ It w as,
a s it w ere, an exten sion o f the sam e project w hen , hand in h and w ith the rise
o f Sa n sk rit stu d ies, the d o m in an t concern for a tim e b ecam e the recon stru c
tion o f an In d o -E u ro p ea n religion and m yth olo gy. W ith fu rth er progress in
h istorical lin gu istics, h ow ever, this en terp rise, w hich had rem ain ed deeply
in debted to the n ature a llego riz in g o f a n tiq u ity ,7 w as for the m ost part
ab an d o n ed .
T h e p icture o f G re ek religion had long been defined by m yth s tran sm itted
in lite rary form and by the ideas o r beliefs d raw n from them , but the stu d y
o f folk-lore and ethn o lo gy brough t a b o u t a d ecisive ch an ge in p erspective.
U sin g new m eth od s o f fie ld -w o rk , W ilh elm M an n h a rd t w as able to set
E u ro p e a n p e asan t cu stom s a lo n g sid e th eir an cien t counterparts*' w ith th e
result that the cu stom s o f a n tiq u ity , the ritu als, w ere brough t into focus
beside the m yth s. C u sto m s an cien t and m odern co n seq uen tly ap p ea red as
the expressio n o f o rigin al religio u s ideas cen trin g on the g row th and
fruitfuln ess o f p lan t, an im al an d m an in the cou rse o f the year, the
V eg etatio n S p irit w hich dies to rise anew b ecam e the gu id in g idea. In
G e rm a n y , M a n n h a rd t’s syn th e sis o f p easan t custom s and sop h isticated
n ature alleg o rizin g w as co n tin u ed first by H erm an n U sen e r9 an d then by
A lb re ch t D ie teric h .10 W ith the foun din g o f the scries RcligionswissenschaJ'lliche
Versuche und Vorarbeiten ( 19 0 3 ) a n d the reo rg an izatio n o f the Archiv Ju r
ReligionswissenschaJ't (19 0 4 ), D ieterich estab lish ed the h isto ry o f religion as
an independent discip lin e based on the stu d y o f the religion s o f a n tiq u ity.
M a rtin P. N ilsso n , au th o r o f the m ost im portan t and still in d isp en sab le
sta n d a rd w orks on G re ek r e lig io n ," placed h im se lf u n eq u ivo cally in this
tradition .
D evelo pm en ts took a p a rallel cou rse in E n gla n d w here rep orts o f s ava g e
peop les an d e sp e cia lly o f their religion s w ere flow ing in from all p arts o f the
colon ial em p ire; the interest in religion w as not en tirely su rp risin g since the
ethn ologists w ere alm ost all m issio n aries. W h ateve r w as alien w as u n d er
stood as p rim itive , as the ‘ n o t-yct’ o f a b egin n in g w hich co n trasted w ith the
E n g lish m a n 's ow n self-con scious p rogressiven ess. T h e syn th esis o f this view
o f Prim itive Culture w as furn ished by E .B . T y lo r ;'* he introduced into the
h istory o f religion the co n cept o f an im ism - a b elief in souls o r spirits w hich
preced es the b e lie f in gods or a god. T h e stim ulus w hich this g a ve to the
stud y o f the religion s o f a n tiq u ity w as m ad e ap p are n t in the C a m b rid g e
School. In 18 8 9 -9 0 three books w ere pub lished alm ost sim u ltan e o u sly : The
Religion oj the. Semites by W . R o b ertso n S m it h ,'1 Mythology and Monumenti o j
Ancient Athens by Ja n e E . H a rriso n , '4 and the first edition o f The Golden Hough
by J a m e s G e o rg e F r a z e r .'5 C o m m o n to all these w orks is th at here, too, the
in vestigatio n o f M u a i becom es the cen tral concern. J a n e H a rriso n , w ho as an
arch aeolo gist based her stu d ies on the v a se pain tin gs and m onum ents,
sou ght to Illum in ate a p rc -H o m cric, p re -O ly m p ian religion : the ‘ Y e a r
D a im o n ’ , follow in g M a n n h a rd t’ s ex a m p le, becam e a key con cept. F razer
IN TRO D U CTIO N j
united M a n n h a rd tia n id eas w ith the fa scin atin g them e o f the ritu al killin g ol
the king a n d in his collections o f m a teria l, w hich grew from edition to edition
to m o n u m en tal p ro p o rtio n s, h e also d re w on th e n e w e r th eo ries o f
T o ie m is m '6 an d P rea n im ism . P re a n im ism '7 w as then believed to be the m ost
p rim itiv e form o f religio n : b e lie f in an im p erso n al m a n a . T h is view w as also
taken o v e r by N ilss o n .'8
T h e C a m b rid g e Schoo l gain ed w id e in flu en ce, esp e cia lly w ith its tra cin g o f
m yth s to ritu als: ‘ M y th and Ritual· ' 9 h as rem ain ed a ra lly in g cry dow n to thc
present d a y . J a n e H a rris o n ’s p u p ils and colleagu es, G ilb ert M u rra y and
F ra n cis M ac d o n a ld C o rn fo rd , a d v a n ce d , resp ectively, the theory o f the ritu al
o rig in o f tra g e d y 70 a n d thc theory th al cosm ogon ic ritu al lay behind thc
Io nian p h ilo so p h y o f n a t u r e / ' and these ideas w ere to h ave a profound and
stim u latin g effect not on ly on the stu d y o f a n tiq u ity b u l on lite rary and
p h ilo so ph ical eu ltu re in g en e ral. F ra z e r’s m y th ological m o tif o f ih c d yin g
god, A d o n is -A ttis -O s iris . com bin ed w iih ih c idea o f s ac ral kin gsh ip, offered
3 key w h ich seem ed to open m an y d oors. It is on ly w iih in thc last decad es
lh a i the in fluen ce and rep utatio n o f ‘ G o ld en B ou gh a n th ro p o lo g y ’ has fallen
sh a rp ly ; a m ore rigorous m eth o dological a w a re n e ss h as com e to p re vail in
ethn ology an d in thc sp ecialist p h ilologies and arch aeolo g ies, and in creasin g
sp ecializatio n h as brough t w ith it a m istru st o f gen eralizatio n s; but a i least in
A n g lo -A m e rica n lite ratu re an d lite rary criticism thc F ra z e r-H a rris o n tra d i
tion is still a liv e .
In the m ean tim e, h ow ever, tw o new schools o f thought had em erged about
thc turn o f the c c n iu ry w hich w ere to tran sform in tellectu al life and its sclf-
aw a re n css: E m ile D urk h cim d evelo ped a ra d ic a lly socio logical view poin t and
Sigm u n d F reu d founded p syc h o a n aly sis. In their theses co n ccrn in g thc
h istory o f religion both w riters clo sely follow ed R obertso n S m iih 's acco u n t o f
ih c sa c rificia l ritu al. “ In both sch oo ls the alleged ab so lu te and in dep en d en t
s ia iu s o f the m ind is co m p ro m ised , con dition ed on thc one h an d by su p ra -
in d iv id u a l soc ial forces and on the o th er b y unconscious p sych ic forces.
W hen confined to an econ om ic b ase, this is also thc thesis o f M a rx ism , but
M a rx ist co n trib u tion s to thc h istory o f religion h ave often been vitiated by a
po litically enforced o rth o d o xy bound to thc state o f ih c scicn cc at the tim e o f
F ried rich E n g e ls / 1
T h e im m ed ia te co n seq uen ce o f this revo lutio n for thc stu d y o f religion
is that the in vestigatio n o f rep resen tatio n s, ideas, and beliefs can be a t best
on ly a p re lim in a ry g o al: on ly when these a re in co rpo rated w ith in a m ore
co m p reh en sive fun ction al con text can they becom e m ean in gful. T h e socio
logical ch a llen ge found a sw ift respon se in J a n e H a rriso n 's book Themis, and
then in thc w orks o f L o u is G e rn e t 34 and the sub sequ en t P aris Scho o l o fje a n -
P ierrc V e rn a n t. K a r l M c u li’ s orig in al and fun dam en tal co n trib u tio n s 10 the
u n d e rstan d in g o f G re ek religion arose from F reu d ian in sigh ts com bin ed with
thc study o f folk-lo re;2* E .R . D o d d s w as a lso able to ad d u ce p sych o a n aly tic
p ersp ectives to shed light on G re ek in tellectu al h isto ry .16 F rom a historical
4 INTRODUCTIO N
p o in t o f view ih c p sych o lo gica l and socio logical a sp ects can be recon cilcd, al
least in prin cip le, by ih c h ypothesis that thc d evelo pm en t o f social form s,
in clu d in g religious ritu als, an d the develo p m en t o f p sych ic fun ction s have
proceed ed in con stant in teractio n , so that in term s o f the traditio n the one is
a lw a y s attu ned to the o th e r / 7 A t presen t, h ow ever, atten tion tends lo focus
on an ah isto rical stru c tu ra lism con cern ed w ith form al m odels and confined
to p resen tin g in their full co m p lexity the im m an en t, reciprocal relation sh ips
w ith in th e in d iv id u a l m yth s and r itu a ls / 8
T h e w ork o f W a lle r F. O lio ’'* and K a r l K e ren y i is in a ca te go ry o f its ow n.
D ie Götter Griechenlands (19 2 9 ) is a ch allen g in g attem pt to take ihe H om eric
gods serio u sly as go d s, in defian ce o f 2,50 0 y ea rs o f criticism : the gods en jo y
an ab so lu te a ctu a lity as Urphánomene in G o eth e’ s sense o f the term . T h is path,
w hich ends in a su b lim e p riv a te religion , is not one w hich can be taken by
ev e ry o n e , but thc w ork still rad iates a pow erful force o f attractio n . K a r l
K e r e n y i'0 ex p licitly align ed h im se lf w ilh W alter F . O tto : god s and ritu als
a p p e a r w ith profoun d sign ifican ce but w-ithout ratio n al ex p la n a tio n ; ihe
sy n ih e sis w ith C .G . Ju n g ’ s theory o f a rch ety p e s w as estab lish ed only
flcctin g ly. In ihe h arsh clim ate o f the present it is qu estio n ab le w heth er the
au to n o m y o f im ages can m ain tain its spell and pow er.
2 th e so u rc es
T h e m ed iation o f religion and the tran sm issio n o f in form ation abou t religion
a lw a y s proceed th rough lan g u a g e, though not through lan g u a g e alon e. T h e
m ost im po rtan t evid en ce for G reek religion rem ain s the lite rary evid en ce,
esp e cia lly as the G re ek s founded such an em in en tly lite rary culture.
N everth eless, religio u s texts in thc n arro w sense o f sacred texts a re sca rcely
to be found: there is no holy scrip tu re an d b are ly even fixed p ra y e r fo rm ulae
and litu rg ies; in d ivid u a l sects later possess their sp ecial books such a s those
o f O rp h e u s ,1 but even ih ese are in no w ay co m p a ra b le w ith thc V e d a or
A v c s la , let alon e ih e T o ra h . N ew h ym n s are com posed for each festival o f
the gods by poets: alm o st all a rch aic ch oral lyric is cult lyric, and the
rh ap so d es in troduce th eir festal recitation s w ith H o m eric H ym n s. In tcr-
w 'eaving talcs of thc gods w ith h eroic n arra tive s, epic po etry, pre-em in en tly
the H o m eric Iliad, set its seal on the w ay the gods w ere im a g in e d / B y ihc
b egin n in g o f the seven th century H esiod h ad brough t the m yth s o f thc gods
to geth er w ith in a théogonie system to w hich thc a rb itra rily exten sib le
Catalogues o f hero m yth s w ere a p p en d e d .3 C la ssic a l traged y then p o rtra y s the
sufferin g and destruction o f thc in d ivid u al caugh t in thc m ystery o f the
d ivin e. T h u s p ra ctic ally thc w hole o f ancien t p o elry is our p rin cip a l evid en ce
for G reek religion : even com cdy pro vid es im po rtan t a d d ition s to oui
kn ow ledge from the point o f view o f thc o rd in ary m an o r through b u rlesqu e
p a ro d y .4 Y e t o n ly a sm all p art o f the literatu re has su rv iv e d ; thc conlent o f
TH E SO U R C E S 5
w hat h as been lost is preserved in part in m y th o gra p h ica l co m p en d ia, b y fa r
ihc m ost su b sta n tia l o f w hich is the L ib r a r y w h ich circu lated under the nam e
o f A p o llo d o ru s.5
F ro m the fifth ccn tu ry o n w ard s, historia, thc in vestigation and collection o f
trad ition s, b ec am e a distinct lite rary g e n re . C u sto m s, ih e dromena o r rituals,
a re h ere d e sc rib e d in co n ju n ctio n w ith th e m yth ical n arra tive s. The
h istorical w ritin g s o f H ero do tus represent the o ld est su rv iv in g and m ost
im portan t e x a m p le o f this g en re. In the fourth cc n tu ry , local h isto rian s in
m any places begin to devote th em selves to cu ltiv atin g their ow n trad itio n s -
none w ith g rea te r zeal than the ‘ A llh id o g rap h crs* o f A th e n s / H ellen istic
p o etry w as later to m ake g rea t p lay w ith their eru d itio n .7 D etailed
d escrip tio n s o f prevalen t cu stom s w ere in corporated into the g eo g ra p h ical
w ritin gs o f Strab o " and also into P a u sa n ia s ’ travel guide through Greece.'-'
F in ally , w e find scattered am o n g P lu ta rch ’ s w id e-ran gin g w ritin gs a n um b er
o f p a rticu la rly im portan t d etails o f ritu als o f w hich he had first-hand
kn ow ledge. F ro m all these sou rces there em erges a differen tiated and often
d etailed pictu rc o f G re ek ritu als, a lw a y s perceived, o f co u rse, through the
m ed ium o f lite rary form , n ever a s thc act o f the p a rticip an t, but o n ly in an
extern al aspect m ed iated th rough a real o r fictitious ob server.
T h c sac red law s w hich h ave su rv iv ed in large n u m b ers on in scription s
p ro vid e d irect do cu m en tation o f religio us p ra ctic e,'" but they, too. present
on ly an o u tw ard face o f the cult. F o r the m ost part they a re p u b lic decrees
o r decrees o f religio u s a sso ciatio n s, in p a rtic u la r statu tes an d ca len d a rs o f
sacrifices, a n d they d eal pred o m in an tly w ith o rgan izatio n al a n d fin ancial
question s. N everth eless, they yield first-h an d in form ation abo u t priesthoods,
cult term in olo gy, n am es and epithets o f gods, and o ccasio n a lly specific
ritu als. E ven a cco u n ts and in ven tories can be v e ry reve a lin g in m atters o f
detail.
T h e m on um en ts o f G re ek a rt, the tem ples, sta tu e s, and v a se p ain tin gs,
b ear sp e c ta cu la r w itn ess to G re ek r e lig io n ." A n um b er o f tem ples in places
such a s A th en s, A g rig en tu m and Paestum h ave su rvived through the ages;
R om an co p ies o f G re e k im a ge s o ft h e gods h ave for cen turies co m m un icated
the m ost lively im pressio n o f an cien t religion , and for m ore than a hundred
y ea rs now scien tific a rch ae o lo gy has been u n coverin g an un p resaged and
qu ite o v erw h elm in g w ealth o f evid en ce. T h e early period o f G reek history
in p a rtic u la r h as em erged in e x tra o rd in a ry in ten sity. T h e A cro p o lis and
O ly m p ia , D elph i and D elo s, th e m ajo r san ctu a ries and in n u m erab le m inor
san ctu a ries h ave been ex c a v a te d , and in each case the h istory can be
d eterm in ed w ith precision : pottery pro vid es a firm foun dation for the
ch ro n olo gy and thc sligh test a rch itectu ra l rem ain s m ake o vera ll recon stru c
tions possible.'*’ V a lu a b le in d icatio n s o ft h e ritu als perform ed in these places
a re furn ished by cu ll m onum ents, a lta rs , and ritu al vessels. D eposits of
v o tive g ifts a rc esp e cia lly in stru c tiv e :'1 ih cse gifts often b ear vo tive in scrip
tions w hich h ave yield ed a vast corp u s o f d iv in e nam es and epithets.
6 INTRO D U CTIO N
p ro v id in g precise in fo rm ation on the d ilfusio n o f in d ivid u a l cu lts. W h ere
w ritten sou rces a rc lac k in g , h ow ever, the function and m ean in g o f in stalla
tions an d a rtefacts often rem ain obscure.
T h e v isu al a rts h ave n everth eless com e to o ccu p y a place o f alm ost eq ual
im p o rtan ce a lo n g sid e the w ritten sou rces. A lth ou gh the cu lt statu es th em
selv es h av e effectively d isa p p e a re d , v a se p a in tin gs, v o tiv e sta tu e s, and late
rep licas m ake it p ossib le to trace lh e d evelo p m en t o f the rep resen tatio n o f the
g o d s step by step from the E a rly A r c h a ic period o n w a rd s .'4 T h e v ase
p a in tin g s o f m yth olo gical scenes, w hich a p p e a r from abou t 700, are often
v e ry m uch ea rlie r than the su rv iv in g w ritten so u rc e s.'5 P ain tin gs o f rilu a l
scen es w hich offer an in sig h l into the reality o f the cu ll are c o m p a ra tively
ra re b u t esp e cia lly im p o rta n t.1,1
R elig io u s d isposition m ay be g a u ged in d irectly from the use o f th eoph oric
nam es, p ro p er n am es w hich assign a person to a sp ecific god and often
d e sig n a te him a s the gift o f the god: A p o llo d o to s and A p o llo d o ro s,
H ero do tos and H cro d o ro s, A p o llo n io s, A lh c n a io s, H ek ataio s, D ion , H ero n ,
A p e lles a n d m any o th e r s .'7 T h e o p h o ric n am es are also w id esp read th ro ugh
o ut the A n cien t N e a r E a st, but seem 10 be non-existent in the M yc en a ca n
w o rld and a p p e a r o n ly m a rg in a lly in H o m e r.'“ T h e th eoph oric n am es reflect
the diffu sio n a n d p o p u la rity o f the in d ivid u a l god, su b ject, o f co u rse, to
certain q u a lifica tio n s: fa m ily traditio n m a y retain a n am e o n ce it h as been
in tro d u ced , w ithout g iv in g a n y thought to its sign ifican ce.
I he d isp a rity in d ate betw een the m yth olo gical p ain tin g s and the texts
is in its e lf a cle ar in d icatio n o f the im p o ssib ility o f prod u cin g a n account
o f a rc h a ic and cla ssica l G re ek religion based solely on co n tem p oran eo u s
sou rces. O ften it can be cle a rly sh o w n , a n d in m ost cases it is p ro b ab le, that
the w aitings o f the late m y th og ra p h crs a n d the in d ivid u a l notes in the
co m m en taries on cla ssica l teicts a rc b ased on literatu re o f the C la s s ic a l and
E a rly H e llen isiic a g es; the Library o f A p o llo d o ru s to a large exten t rep eats the
H esio d ic Catalogues: a cco u n ts o f ritu als a re often d ra w n from the local
h isto rian s o f the fourth ccn tu ry . A t the sa m e tim e, h ow ever, a stub b orn local
trad itio n m ust h a v e persisted o u tsid e lite ratu re: the m yth o f D em ctcr o f
P h ig a lc ia ,'9 w hich is recorded by P au sa n ias alone, m ust som ehow go back to
the B ro n z e A g e , a n d all the m ore, m an y o f the ritu als w hich P lu tarch and
P au sa n ias o b served m u st b c o f high a n tiq u ity . F o r this reason , such late
sou rces w ill often be ad d u ced in the follow ing pages: the d ate o f these sou rces
p ro vid es m erely a terminus ante quern for the p ra ctic e w hich they record.
I f religion is q u in lc sscn tia lly trad itio n , then an accou nt o f G re e k religion
can lillle afford to lose sigh t o f the still e a rlier p re -H o m e ric an d p re-G reek
w o rld . S in c c the sp e c ta c u la r su ccesses o f H ein rich S c h liem a n n and S ir
A r th u r E v a n s in b rin g in g lo light the C re ta n —M y c e n a e a n a g e ,10 kn ow ledge o f
the p reh isto ry a n d e a rly h isto ry o f the a rea s su rro u n d in g G re e ce h as been
exten d ed and deepen ed en o rm o u sly: con n ection s h ave em erged lin kin g
G re ece w ith the B ro n z e A g e N e a r E a s i a n d . even further back, w ith the
E u ro p ea n and A n a lo lia n Neolithic.*'' O f q u ite fu n d am en tal im p o rtan ce is the
T H E SC O PE O F T H E STU DY 7
réco gn itio n that th r G re e k H o m cric religion does noi ex ist in un iq ue an d
sp len d id isolatio n , but is to bc regard ed p rim a rily a s a rep resen ta tive o f a
m ore g en eral type, as belonging w ithin a B ro n z e A g e koine. It is con seq uen tly
ev e r m o re d ifficu lt even to su rvey and record these m u ltip le in terrelatio n
sh ip s. let alo n e to w ork them into a syn thesis. T h e m aterial to be considered
g ro w s a p a c e ; thc prob lem s in crease.
2 INDO-EUROPEAN
3. ι Λ Historical Survey
T h c study o f M in oan religion must still rely alm ost ex c lu siv e ly on thc
arch aeolo gical m aterial. B u t a deciph erm ent o f L in ea r A ' does now seem to
h ave been brought a step eloser by thc latest im portant new finds. T h is is
aw aited all thc m ore im p atien tly since thc L in ea r A script is em p loyed in
un m istakab ly religious con texts, 10 in scribe vo tive gifts; one longer form ula
in p a rticu la r rccurs rep eated ly on libation ta b le s.1 L in e a r B. by contrast,
w ith its G reek readin g now establish ed beyond serious d o u b t.1 is on ly used
for in ven to ries and acco u n ls and for ow n ersh ip m arks on vases. F u rth er
m ore. the o rth o grap h y, w hich is poorly a dapted to the G reek lan gu age, often
ad m its several readin gs, the con texi is m eagre in thc extrem e, and proper
nam es pred o m in ate; m uch therefore rem ains un certain , indeed unin telli
gible. N everth eless, the fact that a w hole scries o f G reek gods w ith their cults
a p p e a r in these docu m en ts has placed research on a new foundation.
M ost im portant am on g thc m aterial relics arc a n um b er o f types o f w hat
arc clearly cult in stallatio n s:1 ca ves, peak san ctu aries, house san ctu aries, and
even tem ples. T h e se sh rin es m ay be identified by thc accu m ulation o f vo tive
gifts: the s ac ral in terpretation is confirm ed by the presence o f artefacts
unsuited for p ractical use, such as gold o r lead axe s, m in iature vessels, and
also clay o r m etal m odels o f artefacts, an im a ls, and m en. T h e re are even a
few m odels o f w hole s a n c tu a rie s / A cult w ithout vo tive figures, w hich is
certain ly co n ceivab le, w o uld, o f cou rse, elude such criteria.
Im ag in ed reality is con veyed most v ivid ly in pictorial representations.
Forem ost am ong these a rc a gro u p o fla r g e gold rin gs and a n um b er o f silv e r
and electrum rings w hich cle arly dcpict cu ltic o r m yth ical scenes; they w ere
w orn a s am ulets and placcd in the g ra ve s o f n obles.6 In d ivid u a l m otifs from
these scenes also recu r a gain an d a gain on the in n um erab le gem s, seals and
seal im p ressio n s.7 T h e g rea t w all p ain tin gs arc thc true point o f d e p artu re for
the ico n o grap h ical trad itio n ,” though in most eases .only scant fragm ents
su rv iv e . O n a n um b er o f ritu al vessels cu ltic b uildin gs and scenes a rc show n
in relief.'1 F in a lly , in the I.a te M in o an period there are fig u ra tive ly painted
clay s a rc o p h a g i.'0 In q u ality and su b stan ce the sarc op h a g u s from A v ia
T r i a d a " tow ers far a b o v e all the others; but, as in ihe case o ft h e largest o f
1 .J .2 T H E S T A T E O F T H E SO U R C E S 23
the gold rin gs, the R in g o f N e s to r ," it also d em on strates vivid ly how m any
en igm as rem ain in spite o f all efforts ai interpretation .
T h e hum an form s found depicted and the plastic figures o f cla y o r m etal
w hich com e either certain ly o r p ro b ab ly from san ctu a ries raise thc question
o f w heth er they a rc to be understood a s gods or a s hum an vo ta ries or perh aps
even as priests w h o represent the gods. Λ decision can be based on ly on the
attitude an d attrib u tes o f the figure; the great m ajo rity o f figures represent
hum an vo taries, w ilh arm s folded or w ith the right hand raised in greetin g or
often placed on the foreh ead ;'* o ccasio n ally they will ca rry a gift in their
hand. In co n trast, the gestu re o f thc two u praised h an ds w ith open palm s is
the m ark o f thc figure w ho sta n d s at thc cen tre and tow ards w hom all eyes
a re d irected : the ep ip h an y gestu re o f the g o d d e ss.'4 T h e tw o faien ce figurin es
from a m agazin e at K n o sso s arc therefore alm ost certain ly goddesses, thc
S n a k e G o d d e s s e s .e s p e c ia lly as the snakes o f the one and the p an th er on the
head-dress o f the o th er point to su p erh u m an statu s. T h c figu res w ho consort
with lions and grifiin s on seal im ages m ust a lso be d eities;,f'in thc cult scenes
an enthroned go d d ess often a p p ea rs a s thc focus o f v e n e ra tio n .'7 R ea l cult
im ages set up in thc san ctu a ry a s an opposite for the faithful w ho enter there
are on ly estab lish ed for thc L a te M inoan period - rigid, bell-sh aped idols in
the attitu d e o f the ep ip h an y gestu re;'* they a re found gen erally in grou p s, in
contrast to the cult im age o f the G reek tem ple.
W hether the scen es depicted in M in o a n -M y c c n a c a n art con tain 3n y
reference lo m yth s, to trad itio n al talcs o f gods and heroes, is a pa rticu la rly
thorny q u e stio n .'“ Som e reference o f this kind h as a lw a y s been expected,
especially since C re te, M y c e n a e , F ylo s, T h e b e s, and O rcho m en os figure so
large in later G reek m yth ology; hence thc n am es o f G reek m yth ology have
been transform ed into design ation s — M in y a n pottery, M in o an civilization .
E ven long before E v a n s, h istorian s o f religion w ere fascin atcd by a n um b er o f
ap p aren tly an cicn t co n figuratio n s o f m yth connected w ith C re te: the god as
bull - Z e u s and Europa;*’“ P asip h ae w ho yields lo the bull and gives birth to
ihe M in o tau r;*' the birth an d death o f a god - ih c Z e u s child in the Id acan
cave and thc in fam ou s G ra v e o f Z e u s near K n o sso s;1*' a graria n m ysteries
with a sac red m a rria g e - D cm c tc r’s union w ith Iasio n on a thrice-ploughed
co rn -field /* O n e o f thc K n o sso s tablets now m entions a D aidaleion and
another a M istress o f the L a b y r in th / 4 but w h at these n am es sign ify is not
known. T h e ico n o g rap h y o f thc C re ía n P alace P erio d , how ever, has provided
v irtu ally no con firm atio n o f all these cx p ccta iio n s. N oth ing points to a bull
g o d / 4 sexu al sym b o ls a rc absent. A single seal im pression from K n o sso s7*
w'hich show s a boy b eneath a sheep is scan t evid en ce for the m yth o f Z e u s ’
ch ild hood; and w h a i w as regarded since the M id d le A ges as the G r a v e o f
Z eu s turns out to be one o f m an y M in o an peak s a n c tu a rie s /7 F an ta stic
com posite figures often a p p e a r on seals; one such ih crian th ro p ic creature
w hich a p p ea rs seated on a th ron e has been called the M in o tau r, but ils lack
o f horns is even m ore un fortun ate than the absen ce o f a la b y rin th / ” T h e re is
a lw a y s E u ro p a on the bull; but strictly speakin g she belongs in a gro u p which
24 P R E H IS T O R Y A N D T H E M IN O A N -M Y C E N A EA N A G E I 3 .3
sh o w s a go d d ess w ith h er h an d s raised in the ep ip h a n y g estu re sittin g on the
b ack o f som e fab u lou s c re a tu re ; this creatu re is v a rio u sly rep resen ted, but
m o stly a p p e a rs a s h orse-like, and is ce rta in ly n ev e r a sw im m in g b u ll .*9 T h e
g riffin s taken o v er from N e a r E aste rn trad itio n , cre atu re s w ith w in ged lion
b o d ies a n d falcon h ead s, a p p e a r in p lay fu l scen es w hich w ere p ro b ab ly used
as 3 b asis for s to ry -te llin g ;3" o n C y p ria n v a se s a g ig an tic bird is co n fro n tin g a
w a r ch a rio t - but o n ce a g a in , the G re ek co u n terp a rts a re th o ro ughly
tran sfo rm ed ;*' on an oth er vase, w om en th ro w in g sp ea rs could be in terpreted
a s A m a z o n s.3* M a n y things rem ain m ysterio us such as the v a se p ain tin g
kn ow n a s ‘ Z e u s h old in g the scales o f D e stin y ’.11 It is h az ard o u s to project
G re e k tradition d ire ctly into the B ro n ze A ge.
A c c e ss to the M in o a n w orld through the co n tem poran eo u s B ron ze A ge
civ iliz a tio n s o f the E a st seem s lo becom e alm ost m ore im p o rta n t. E v a n s
h im s e lf d re w reg u la rly on E g y p tia n an d N ea r E aste rn evid en ce for c o m p a ri
son , an d sin ce then the d isco very o f the H ittite and U g a ritic civ iliz atio n s
h as un covered texts a s w ell a s m on um en ts w hich oflcr co m p a ra tiv e m aterial
for ritu al a n d m yth olo gy. T h e re is a lre a d y talk o f a B ron ze A g e koine w hich
esta b lish ed a certain eco n om ic and cu ltu ra l unity in the eastern M e d ite rra
nean in the fourteenth ce n tu ry , in the A m a rn a period a l least. T h e se
rela tio n sh ip s a re p a rtic u la rly useful in the m ore exact in terp retatio n o f the
ico n o g ra p h y / 4 E ven cult sym b o ls a s d istin ctive as the h orn s and d o u b le a xe
can now be related to the tradition o f ancient A n ato lia .55 T h e reception o f alien
trad itio n m a y . o f co u rse, a lw a y s in v o lv e the creation o f new m ean in gs. The
g ro w in g n u m b er o f p ossib le poin ts o f co n tact h as not therefore m ad e the task
o f in te rp retatio n a n y easier.
Caves
Peak Sanctuaries
Tree Sanctuaries
Cult scenes w hich cannot be connected with the caves, the m ountain sum m its,
o r the p alaces a p p e a r f req u e n d y in th e ico n o g rap h y , esp ecially on the go ld
rings.*' T h e ir distin ctive feature is a large, im posing tree, alm ost a lw a ys
enclosed by a w all, and so set ap art a s sacred . T h e w all m ay bc decorated
w ith stucco or crow n ed w ith cult horns. A door, also em b ellished, leads into
thc in terior, o cc asio n a lly revealin g a stone pillar. V a rio u s form s o f a ltars
a re also show n , and irr a n um b er o f cases a tcm plc-like b u ild in g stands
o pposite the tree. O p en , stony groun d is som etim es suggested.
G e n e ra lly it is fig and o live trees w hich seem to bc d epicted. A gem from
N a x o s4* p o rtra y s a m an w ith a sp ea r stan d in g in front o f a palm tree beside a
tab le w ith libation vessels. In o th er scenes, fem ale or m ale d an cers m ove w ith
ecstatic gestu res in front o f thc tree, or a goddess ap p ea rs to her vo taries.
A m in iatu re fresco from Knossos** show s a large crow d o f people besid e a
gro u p o f trees, w hile in front o f the trees a gro u p o f w'omcn raise their arm s in
excitem en t or in dan cc.
S u ch trees are not found on m oun tain s and arc not likely in thc p alace
co m plexes. T h e shrin es m usl therefore h ave lain in the open co u n try sid e .44
In stallatio n s o f this kind a re difficult to identify a rch aco lo gica lly . O n
cu ltivated land the relics o f isolated b uildin gs and en closures d isap p ea r
m uch m ore qu ick ly and m ore com pletely than thc ruin s o f large tow ns o r thc
rem ain s o f peak san ctu aries p reserved by their exception al position. N ev e r
theless, in a n u m b er o f places votive gifts, in cludin g an im als and figures in an
attitude o f a d oratio n , h ave com e to ligh t alon g with thc rem ain s o f b uildin gs.
T h e y su p p o rt thc co n jecture that an im portan t part o f religious life w as
enacted o u t o f d o ors, far from the e ve ry d ay existence o f thc settlem ents;
procession s w ould m ake their w ay to those places w here the deity could
a p p e a r in d a n ce b eneath the tree.
TH E C U L T P L A C E S 39
Houst Sanctuaria
Templa
Grave i
A n insight w hich cam c to bc g en e rally ackn o w led ged in thc stu d y o f religion
to w ard s thc end o f thc last ccn tu ry is that ritu als a re m ore im portan t and
m ore in stru ctive for thc un d erstan d in g o f thc ancicn t religion s than a rc
ch a n g e ab le m y th s.' W ith this recognition, a n tiq u ity is no longer seen in
isolatio n , but em b raced in the totality o f so-called p rim itiv e religio n s, w hile
in the h igh er, theologically developed religion s, the sa m e b asis is quite
ce rta in ly present in the p racticc, but forced into thc b ackgro un d in the act o f
reflection. A n origin for the ritu als them selves w as sou gh t, for the m ost part
w ithout d iscu ssio n , in prim itive thought or im agin atio n . In reccnt tim es,
thc ten den cy is m ore to regard ritu als as an in itially auto n om o u s, q u asi-
lin gu istic system a lo n gsid e and prior to thc spoken lan g u a g e. B eh avio u ra l
scien ce, w hich h as identified w hat are a t least an alo gu es o f ritu al in thc
an im al kin gdom , is ab le to com e som e w ay to w ards this position . From this
persp ective, ritu al is an action d ivorced from its p rim a ry p ra ctic al context
w hich bears a sem iotic ch atactcr; ils function norm ally lies in group form ation,
the creation o f solidarity, or the negotiation o f understanding am ong m em bers
o f the spccics. Such actions constitute specifically religious ritual insofar as they
sign al a tu rn in g to w a rd s som eth in g e x tra -h u m a n o r su p er-h u m an ; de facto the
v e ry act o f tu rn ing a w a y from the hum an h as an em in en tly social function.
U su a lly this som eth in g is circu m scrib ed most u n iversally as the sa c re d ' o r as
the p o w e r,1 and thc exp erien ce o f thc sacred is p ortrayed a s the intense
in terp lay o f mystenum tremendum, fascinam a n d augustum. In th e re p e rto ir e o f
signs this in te rp lay is sh o w n by th e ju x ta p o sitio n o f th in gs th rea te n in g a n d
alluring - fire, blood, and w eapons, on thc one hand, and food and sexuality on
the other - by gestures o f subm issivcness alongside im posing d isp lays o f pow er,
and by thc sudden alterations o f darkness and light, m asking and unm asking,
rigid ity and m ovem en t, sou n d an d silen ce. T h is q u a si-lan g u a g e o p erates not
o n ly through learn in g and im itatio n , but acts a s an im p rin tin g force,
esp e cia lly for ch ildren a n d ado lescen ts. It sign a ls arid crcatcs situation s o f
an x ie ty in o rd er to overcom e them , it leads from thc p rim al fear o f being
ab an d o n ed to thc esta b lish m en t o f so lid a rity and the rein forcem ent o f sta tu s,
an d in this w a y it helps to o verco m e real situatio n s o f crisis by su b stitu tin g
II ι .ι 'W O R K IN G S A C R E D TH IN G S’ A N IM A L S A C R IF IC E 55
d iverted a ctiv ity for the a p a th y w hich rem ain s tran sfixed in rea lity ; it lay s
claim to the h igh est serio u sn ess, to ih e absolute.
W hen con sidered from the p oin t o f view o f the go al, rilu a l b eh avio u r
a p p ea rs as m agic. F o r a scien ce o f religion w hich reg a rd s on ly in strum ental
action a s m ean in gfu l, m a gic m ust bc seen as the origin o f religio n ,4 sincc acts
w hich seek to a ch ie v e a given go al in an un clear but direct w ay a re m a gical.
T h e goal then a p p e a rs to be the a ttain m en t o f all de sira b le boons an d the
elim in atio n o f p o ssib le im ped im en ts: there is rain m a gic, fertility m a gic, love
m a gic, an d d e stru ctive m agic. T h e conception o f ritu al as a kind o f lan gu ag e,
h ow ever, lead s beyon d this co n strain in g artifice; m a gic is present only
in so far as ritu al is con scio usly placed in the serv ice o f som e end - w h ich m ay
then u n d o u b ted ly affect the form o f the ritu al. R elig io u s ritu al is g iv en a s a
co llective in stitutio n ; the in d ivid u a l p articip ates w ithin the fram ew o rk o f
social co m m u n icatio n , w ith the stron gest m o tivatin g force being the need not
to stan d a p a rt. C o n sc io u s m agic is a m atter for in d iv id u a ls, for the few , and
is d evelo p ed a cco rd in g ly into a h igh ly co m p licated pseu do-scien ce. In early
G re e ce , w here the cult belon gs in the com m u n al, pu b lic sp h e re, the
im p o rtan ce o f m a gic is co rre sp o n d in gly m in im al A n d h o w ever m uch the
G re ek s m a y h ope that good th in gs w ill flow from pious acts, they are
n everth eless a lw a y s a w a re that fulfilm en t is not g u a ran tee d , but lies in the
lap o f the gods.
A su rv e y o f th r form s o f ritu al m ight bc articu la te d in term s o f the v a rio u s
so c ial g ro u p s w h ich ex p re ss th em selves in ritu al: the fa m ily and clan ,
pe asan ts, craftsm en a n d w a rrio rs, citizcn s, kin g, priests. A lte rn a tiv e ly , it
m ight follow the sp h eres o f life in w hich ritu al unfolds its function: birth,
in itiatio n , an d d e a th , h un tin g and h arv e st, fam in e and p lag u e, w a r and
victo ry. Y e t, the sam e rep erto ire o f sign s is em p lo yed b y v a rio u s g ro u p s in
v a rio u s situ atio n s. F o r this reason, the in d ivid u a l but com plex ritu al actions
w ill be exam in ed here first o f a ll, and the G re ek p ractice view ed a g ain st the
b ack g ro u n d o f m ore u n iversal contexts. O n ly then, and in con jun ctio n w ith
the rich m y th olo gical ela b o ra tio n , can the in teractio n o f relig io n a n d co m
m u n al life a m o n g th e G re e k s b e p re se n ted .
T h e essen ce o f the sac red act, w hich is hence often sim p ly term ed doin g or
m akin g sacred or w o rkin g sacred things, is in G re ek practice a stra ig h t
fo rw ard an d far from m iracu lo u s process: the sla u g h te r and con sum ptio n o f
a d o m estic a n im a l fo r a g o d .' T h e m ost noble s ac rificia l an im al is the o x,
esp e cia lly the b u ll; the m ost com m on is the sheep, then the g o a l a n d the pig;
the ch ea p e st is lh e piglet. T h e sacrificc o f poultry is a lso co m m o n ,1 but oth er
b ird s3 - geese, pigeon s - to sa y nothing o f fish ,4 a rc rare.
56 R IT U A L AN D SA N C T U A R Y II l.l
T h e sa c rifie e is a festive o ccasion for the co m m u n ity. T h e co n trast w ith
e v e ry d a y life is m arked w ith w ash in g, d re ssin g in clean g a rm e n ts, and
a d o rn m e n t, in p a rticu la r, w ea rin g a g a rla n d 3 w oven from tw igs on thc h ead —
a feature w h ich does not yet a p p e a r in H o m er. T h e an im al chosen is to be
perfect, a n d it too is a d orn ed , en tw ined w ith rib b o ns, w ith its horns gilded .
A pro cessio n escorts thc a n im a l to thc a lta r. E v ery o n e hopes as a ru le that
the a n im a l w ill go to thc sac rifice c o m p la isa n tly, or rath er v o lu n ta rily ;
ed ifyin g legen d s tell how a n im a ls pressed forw ard to thc sa c rifice on their
ow n in itia tiv e w hen th e tim e had co m e.0 A blam eless m aiden at the fron t o f
the pro cessio n ca rrie s on h er head thc s ac rificia l basket in w hich the knife for
sac rifice lies co n cealed ben eath g ra in s o f b a rle y or cakes. A vessel con tain in g
w ater is also born e a lo n g , an d often an incense b u rn er; a cco m p a n y in g thc
pro cessio n is one or s evera l m u sician s, n o rm ally a m ale o r fem ale flutc-
p la y e r. T h e go al is the ston e a lta r o r pile o f ash es laid dow n or erected o f o ld .7
O n ly th ere m ay an d m ust blood be shed.
O n ce the procession h as a rriv e d at the sacrcd sp o t, a circle is m arked o ut
w hich in clu d e s the site o f sac rifice , thc a n im a l, and the p a rticip an ts: as thc
sa c rificia l basket an d w a te r vessel a rc borne a ro u n d in a circle, the sacrcd is
d elim ited from the profan e. A ll stan d arou n d the a lta r. A s a first co m m u n al
actio n w ater is poured from thc ju g o v e r the h an ds o f ea ch p a rticip an t in
tu rn : this is to begin, archesthai. ‘I'h e an im al too is sprin kled w ith w ater,
c a u sin g it to je rk its h ead, w hich is in terpreted as the a n im a l n od d in g its
a ssen t. T h e god a t D elph i pro n o un ced through thc o raclc: ‘T h a t w hich
w illin g ly nods at the w a sh in g o f h an ds 1 s a y you m ay ju s tly s a c rific e .’8 A bull
is g iv en w a te r to d rin k : so he too bow s his h ead.
T h e p a rtic ip a n ts each take a h an d fu l o f b arle y gro ats (oulai, oulochylai) from
the s ac rificia l b asket. S ile n c e descen ds. C e re m o n ia lly and reso u n d in g ly, and
w ith a rm s raised to thc sky, the sac rifice r recites a p ra y er, in vo catio n , w ish,
an d vo w . T h e n , as i f in co n firm atio n , all hurl th eir b arle y gro ats fo rw ard onto
the a lta r a n d the s ac rificia l a n im a l; in som e ritu als ston es a re th ro w n .“ T h is ,
to geth er w ith the w ash in g o f h an ds, is a lso called a b egin n in g, katarchesthai.
T h e sa c rificia l knife in the basket is now un covered . T h e s a c rifice r g ra sp s
the knife a n d , c o n ce a lin g the w eap o n , strides up lo the victim : he cuts som e
h airs from its fo reh ead and throw s them on the fire. T h is h air s a c rific e “’ is
on ce m o re a n d for the last tim e a b egin n in g, aparchesthai. N o blood has
flo w ed , but the victim is no lo nger in vio late.
The sla u g h te r n ow follow s. S m a lle r a n im a ls a re raised a b o v e the a lta r and
the th ro at is cut. A n ox is felled by a blow w ith an axe a n d then the a rtery in
the neck is o pen ed. T h e blood is collected in a b asin and s p ra y e d o v e r the
a lta r a n d a g a in st the sid es: to stain the a lta r w ith blood (haimassdn) is a pious
d u ty . A s the fatal blow fa lls, the w om en m ust cry out in high, shrill tones:
thc G re ek cu stom o f thc sacrificia l c r y " m ark s thc em otional clim a x . L ife
screa m s o v e r death.
T h e a n im a l is skin ned a n d b utchered ; the inner o rg an s, e sp e cia lly the
heart and the liv er (splanchna). a rc roasted on the fire on the a lta r first of all.
II 1.1 ‘ W O R K IN G S A C R E D THINGS* A N IM A I. S A C R IF IC E 5)
O cca sio n a lly the h eart is torn s till b eatin g from the b ody before all else.*'
T o taste the e n trails im m ed ia te ly is the p riv ileg e and d u ty o f the in n erm ost
circle o f p a rticip a n ts. T h e in ed ib le rem ain s a rc then con secrated: the bones
a re laid on the p y re p re p are d on the a lta r in ju s t o r d e r.'5 I11 H o m er,
b eg in n in g s from all lim b s o f the a n im a l, sm all pieces o f m eat, are also placed
on th e pyre: the d ism em b ere d c re a tu re is to be reco n stituted s y m b o lic a lly .'4
L a te r texts a n d p a in tin g s em p h asize the p elvic bon es and the tail; in the
H o m eric fo rm u la it is the thigh bones w hich a re b urn ed . F o od o fferings,
cakes a n d broth , are also burn ed in sm all q u an tities; a b o ve all, the sacrifice r
po u rs w in e o v e r the fire so that the a lco h o l Hames up. O n ce the splanchna have
been eaten and the fire h as died d o w n , the p re p ara tio n o f the actu al m eat
m eal b egin s, the ro astin g or bo ilin g; this is g en e rally o f a profan e ch aracter.
N everth eless, it is not in freq u en tly p rescribed that no m eat m ust be taken
a w a y : ail m ust be con sum ed w ith out rem a in d er in the s a n c tu a ry .11 The skin
falls to the sa n c tu a ry o r to the priest.
T h e rilu a l o f a n im a l sac rifice v a rie s in d etail a cco rd in g to the local
a n c estra l cu sto m , but lhe fu n d am en tal stru ctu re is id en tical an d clear:
a n im a l sac rifice is ritu aliz ed sla u g h te r follow ed b y a m eat m eal. In this the
rite as a sign o f the sac red is in p a rtic u la r the p re p a ra tio n , the b eg in n in g , on
the one h an d , a n d the su b se q u en t restitution on the oth er: s a c raliza tio n and
d c s a c ra liz a tio n '0 a b o u t a cen tral a ct o f killing atten ded w ith w ea p o n s, blood,
fire, an d a sh rill cry.
A s soo n as reflection found exp ression a m o n g the G re e k s, the pious claim
atta ch ed to this sac red act b ecam e a m b iv a le n t. S u c h a sa c rifice is perform ed
for a g o d . and yet th e god m an ifestly receives n ext to n oth in g: the good m eat
serv es en tirely for the festive feastin g o f the p a rticip an ts. T h e sacrifice, it
is kn ow n , cre ates a relatio n sh ip betw een the s a c rifice r and the go d : poets
recoun t how the god rem em b ers the sa c rifice w ith p lea su re o r h ow he rages
d a n g e ro u sly i f sa c rifice s fail to be p e rfo rm e d .'7 But all lh a t reach es to the sky
is the fatty v a p o u r risin g in sm ok e; to im a gin e w h a t the gods could po ssib ly
d o w ith this lead s u n fa ilin g ly to b u rlesq u e. T h e rilu a l sim p ly d oes not fit
the an th ro p o m o rp h ic m yth olog y o f the gods. ‘ W hen gods an d m o rtal m en
p a rte d ,’ H esiod relates, sac rifice w as cre ated :'* v o n d er the gods, im m o rtals
un touch ed b y d e ath , the h ea ven ly ones to w hom the s ac rificia l flam e points;
here m en , m o rta ls, d epen dent on food, killin g. A d m itted ly , H esio d ’ s tale
is then a b le lo ex p la in the d iv ision o f the portions betw een gods and m en on ly
a s a decep tio n . A l lh a t sep a ratio n at the first sac rifice , P ro m eth eu s, the
a m b iv a le n t friend o f m a n . set on one sid e lh e flesh and fa tly e n trails o f
the sla u g h te red b ull a n d covered them w ith the hide a n d sto m ach , a n d 011 ihe
oth er sid e he hid the w h ite bones in glisten in g fat. In the n am e o f the go d s,
Z e u s ch ose the latter p o rtio n , in te n tio n ally, a s H esiod m akes su re lo
em p h a siz e; a n ea rlie r v ersio n w ill h a v e told that the fath er o f the gods was
d u p e d ."1 A l all even ts, bitin g com m en ts a b o u t the b u rn in g o f the bones and
gall for th r gods later form p art o f the sta n d a rd rep erto ire o f c o m e d y /" can
th at w hich is noi a gift be a sacrificc?
58 R IT U A L A N D S A N C T U A R Y II I I
G re e k traged y*' su rro u n d e d its ow n scen es o f un can n y vio len ce 3 n d
n ec essa ry d e stru ction w ith th c m etap h o rs o f a n im a l s a c rificc alm o st a s a
s ta n d a rd a cco m p a n im en t, a n d freq u en tly d e sc rib e d a n d p layed o u t scen es o f
sac rificc. W ith o u t d o u b t both poet and p u b lic exp erien ced w h a t W a lter F *
O tto h as ca llc d the 'v io le n t d ra m a o f the a n im a l b leed in g to d e a th , . . . thc
ex p re ssio n o f a m ood w h o se g ra n d e u r is p a ralleled o n ly in w o rks o f high
a r t ’ .” T h e sho ck o f the te rro rs o f d e ath presen t in the w a rm (low ing blood
strik e s h om e d ire c tly , not a s som e p a in fu l a d ju n c t, but a s the v e ry cen tre
to w a rd s w h ich all e y e s a re d ire cte d . A n d y e t in th e su b se q u en t feasi thc
en c o u n te r w ith d e ath is tran sfo rm ed into life-a ffirm in g en joym en t.
H isto ric a lly , this ritu al o f thc sa c rificia l m eal m a y b c traccd to the
situ atio n o f m a n before thc d isco v e ry o f a g ricu ltu re:*3 h u n tin g, esp e cia lly b ig-
g a m e h u n tin g for ca ttlc a n d horses, w as the p rim e task o f the m a le , a n d the
p rin cip a l so u rce o f food for thc fa m ily . K illin g to eat w as an u n a ltera b le
co m m a n d m en t, and yet thc b lood y a ct m ust a lw a y s h ave been a tten d ed w ith
a d o u b le d a n g e r an d a d o u b le fear: that th c w ea p o n m igh t be tu rn ed a g ain st
a fellow h u n ter, and that the d e ath o f the p re y m ight sign a l an end w ith no
fu tu re , w h ile m an m ust alw-ays eat a n d so m ust a lw a y s h un t. Im p o rta n t
ele m en ts o f the rites th at ca m e before and a fter the sa c rificc m a y a cco rd in g ly
bc tra cc d to h u n tin g cu sto m s, in p a rtic u la r the la y in g d ow n o f the bones,
e sp e c ia lly thc thigh bones, thc ra isin g u p o f thc sk u ll, and the stretch in g out
o f ih e skin : a tte m p ts to restore the sla in a n im a l at lea st in o u tlin e. W h at K a r l
M e u li'4 ca lle d ih e ‘ co m cd y o f in n o ccn cc ', thc fiction o f the w illin g n ess o f thc
v ictim for s a c rific c , is a lso to bc seen in this con tcxt. In thc sa c rificia l ritu al,
o f co u rsc, these cu sto m s a r e clo sclv in te rw ov e n w ith thc sp ec ific form s o f
N e o lith ic p e asan t a n im a l h usb an dly-. T h e fact th at th e d o m estic a n im a l, a
po ssessio n and a c o m p a n io n , m ust n everth eless b e sla u g h te red a n d eaten
creates n ew con flicts a n d a n x ie tie s w h ich a re resolved in thc ritu al: thc
a n im a l is co n sec rate d , w ith d raw n from e v e ry d a y life a n d su b ju g a te d lo an
a lie n w ill; not in freq u e n tly it is set free,*5 tu rn ed b ac k into a w-ild a n im a l. T h e
fru its o f a g ric u ltu re , corn a n d w in e, a re a lso in co rp o rated into thc execu tio n
o f the d e ed , a s b egin n in g a n d en d , m a rk in g a s it w ere the b o u n d a ries o f
d o m estic ated life * from b etw een w hich d e ath eru p ts as from an a ta v istic
ch a sm w hen th c fruits o f the earliest a g ric u ltu re , thc g ro ats o f b a rle y , are
tran sfo rm ed in to sy m b o lic m issiles.
H o w e v e r d ifficu lt it m a y b c fo r m y th o lo gica l and for co n ce p tu al reflection
to u n d e rstan d how su ch a s a c rifice affects the god, w hat it m ean s for m en is
a lw a y s q u ite c le a r: co m m u n ity, koinunia ? 1 M e m b e rsh ip o f thc co m m u n ity is
m ark ed b y th e w ash in g o f h an d s, ihe cn c irclcm cn l and the co m m u n al
th ro w in g ; an even clo ser b on d is forged th ro u gh the tastin g o f the splanchna.
F ro m a p sy c h o lo g ica l a n d eth o lo gical p o in t o f v iew , it is the c o m m u n a lly
en acted a g g re ssio n a n d sh a red gu ilt w h ich cre ates so lid a rity . T h e circ le o f
the p a rtic ip a n ts h as closed its e lf o l í from o u tsid e rs; in d o in g so, thc
p a rtic ip a n ts a ssu m e q u ite distin ct roles in the co m m u n al actio n . F irst there
is the c a r r y in g o f the b ask e t, the w a te r vessel, the in ce n se b u rn er, an d
Il 1.2 BLOOD R IT U A L S 59
ih e to rches, a n d thc lea d in g o f the a n im a ls; then com e thc s ta g e s o f tlir
b eg in n in g , »he p ra y in g , thc sla u g h te r, thc sk in n in g , a n d the d ism em b erm e n t;
this is fo llo w ed b y the ro astin g, first o f t h e splanchna, then o f t h e rest o f the
m ea t, then thc lib a tio n s o f w in e, and fin a lly thc d istrib u tio n o f the m eat. B o y s
a n d g irls, w om en a n d m en a ll h ave th eir p lac e an d th eir task. D ire ctin g the
a ctio n is the sa c rific e r, the p rie st, w h o p ra y s, tastes, and m akes lib atio n : in
his a w e o f th e d iv in e he also d e m o n stra te s his ow n p ow er, a p o w er w hich,
a lth o u g h ii b rin g s in rea lity o n ly d e ath , a p p e a rs t contrario lo em b ra ce life as
w ell. T h e o rd e r o f life, a social o rd er, is con stitu ted in the s a c rifice through
irre v o c a b le a c ts ; religio n a n d e v e ry d a y ex iste n ce in te rp en e tra te so co m
p letely that e v e ry co m m u n ity, e v e ry o rd er m ust be foun ded th rou gh a
sacrifice.
1 .2 Blood Ritual\
A fte r the b attle o f P la ta e a, the G re ek s all decided to fetch new fire from
D elp h i; th ereafter, on the b asis o f certain sign s, th e A th en ian s rep eatedly
sen t a P yth ian m ission to D elph i to brin g fire to A th en s in a tripod
c a u ld ro n .5*
T h e a lta rs w hich stand in the open a ir do not h ave fire b u rn in g on them
con tin u ou sly ; they a re kindled in an im p ressive cerem o n y in the co u rse o f the
fe stiv al. A t O ly m p ia , the victo r in the stadion ra ce has the right to ascend to
the a lta r to w hich the stadion leads, w here the con secrated portion s lie
p re p are d , and to light the fire .5-' A t the P an a th en a ia, the fire is carried in a
torch ra ce from the gro ve o f A kad em o s through the m arket p lace to the a ltar
o f the g o d d ess on the A cropolis.'*0 T h e A rg iv cs fetch fire for th eir celeb ratio n s
in L e rn a from the d istan t san ctu a ry o f A rtem is P y ron ia . N o ctu rn al
6 u R IT U A L AND S A N C T U A R Y II 1 .3
procession s w ith torches0’ are am o n g the m ost p rim itive cu stom s an d n ever
fail to im p ress; a b o ve all they h ave their p lac e in D ion ysos festivals.
N o th ing len ds a m ore un iq ue an d u n m istakab le ch a racter to an occasion
than a distin ctive fra gran ce ; fire speaks not o n ly to eye, ca r, an d p h ysical
sen satio n , but also to the sen se o f sm ell. T h c sacrcd is experien ced a s an
atm o sp h ere o f d ivin e fra gran ce . T h is w as no do ub t a lw a y s taken into
co n sid eratio n in the selection o f the w oods and tw igs for the sacral fire. In a
H o m eric fo rm u la the gods a lre ad y h av e their ‘ fra g ran t a lta rs ',03 In H om er,
too, the b egin n in gs o f that shift in m ean in g m a y bc d iscern ed w h ereb y
the an cien t w ord for fum igatin g, ihyeirt, carne to bc thc n o rm al w ord for
sa c rific in g /’4 E x a c tly w h at P atro clus th row s on to thc h earth fire for the gods,
a nd w hat H esiod com m end s to be b urned every m orn ing and even in g as an
in cen se offering is not cle a r/'4 A t all even ts, the im port o f specialized incense
w are s, p rim a rily fran kin cen se and m y rrh , com m enced abou t 700 a t the
latest; these cam e to G re ece from sou th ern A ra b ia via P hoen ician in ter
m ed iaries. a n d in G re ek they retain th eir Sem itic n am es. T h e cu lt p ractice
m ust h av e exp an d ed a lo n g w ith the trad e.66 T h e type o f in cen se b u rn er used,
thc ihymialerion, is o f B a b y lo n ia n -A s s y ria n o rigin , and p ro b ab ly cam e to thc
G re ek s and E tru sca n s v ia C y p ru s . In cen se offerings and a lta rs a re asso ciated
p a rticu la rly w ith the cult o f A p h rod ite an d o f A d o n is; a p p ro p riately , the first
m ention o f fran kin cen se is found in that poem by S a p p h o 7 w hich con jures up
the ep ip h an y o f the god d ess A p h ro d ite in her g ro ve o f ap p le trees a n d roses
betw een q u iverin g b ran ches an d in cen se-b urn in g a ltars. T h c use o f fra n k in
cense is later cu stom ary everyw h ere, to strew a gran u le o f fran kin cen se in thc
flam es is the most w id esp read , sim plest, and a lso ch eapest act o f offering.
T h e festivals w hich a re w h olly defined by the d e stru ctive pow er o f fire arc
e x tra v a g a n tly costly. T h e m ost detailed accou n t o f a festival o f this kind is
the one - a d m itted ly from Im p eria l tim es - w hich P au sa n ias gives o f the
festival o f L a p h ria a t P atra i:6*
T h e lith e is tran sform ed into the gift w h ich the go d d ess in turn o ilers to her
g uests at the fe stiv al. E lsew h ere the tithe is often h an ded o v er to lh e tem ple
in th e form o f a lastin g v o tiv e gift, a s a kind o f t a x .'1
A b o u t 420 ih c sa n c tu a ry o f E le u sis p roclaim ed its title to collect firsi fruit
o fferings lor the corn go d d ess D em eter th rough ou t G r e e c e ·'4
T h e silos w ere then in fa ci built, and ihe reven ues lh a l flow ed in to thc
sa n c lu a r v w ere o b v io u sly regarded sim p ly a s the ca p ita l o f the tem ple and
w ere used lo fin an ce n orm al sacrificia l festivals.
T h e an im al sacrifice s in turn a re - a s in Se m itic riiu a l - reg u la rly
acco m p a n ied by food offerings. A bequest on T h e ra p re sc rib e s:1' ‘T h e y sh a ll
sacrificc an ox, then [as food o lferin gsj o f w heat from one b ushel, o f b arley
from tw o b ushels, one m easure o f wine and oth er firstlin gs w hich the seasons
b rin g." In addition to the un groun d g ro ats o f b arle y w hich are taken and
throw n at thc b egin n in g, there is also gro un d b arle y, psaista, in v a rio u s form s,
as flo ur, bro th , p an cak es, and cakes;'* here a rich va riety is found from place
to place. O fferin gs o f this kind are b urn ed on the a lia r, som e before and som e
a fter the bones and fat o f the victim . N everth eless, thc a m ou n t o f food
destroyed in this w ay w as kepi w ithin lim its. F ro m C la ssic a l tim es o n w ard s
there is in creasin g evid en ce o f tab les o f offering, trapezai. b ein g set up a lo n g
sid e ih c a lia r ; choice pieces o f roast m eat, cakes, and sim ila r offerings w ere
placed on them ; the o fferings then fall to thc priest. T h e p ro ced u re is
ratio n alized even further w hen these gifts a re collected from thc very outset
in cash ; they are slill called firstlin gs, but they a re to be p laccd stra igh t into
thc o ffcrto ry -b o x , thesauros.'7
In sp ec ial cases the o ffering o f first fruits stan d s on its ow n , w ithout an im al
sacrifice, or even in co n trast to it. In P h igaleia in A rc a d ia , offerings a re m ade
from ‘ the fruits o f cu ltiv ated trees and esp e cia lly the fruit o f the vin e, alon g
w ith h on eycom bs and raw w ool still full o f its g rea se. T h e se they p lac c on the
a lia r . . then they pout oil o ver th cm .Mfi In ih is case the asso ciated m yth o f
D e m elcr and the form o f the riiu a l in dicate a connection w ith B ro n ze A g e
A n a io lia . T h e a lia r o f A p o llo G cn e to r, B eg e iter. on D elos n ever served for
blood sacrifice, and in front o f the E rech th eio n in A th en s, there stood another
bloodless a lia r d ed icated 10 Z e u s H v p a io s, H i g h e s t . A s in P ap h o s, J" these
a lla r s m a y p re se rve a B ro nze A g e tradition : thc a lta r as lab le o f offerings in
th r M in o a n -M y c c n a c a n m ould.
T h c v o tiv e offerin g, the gift m ade to the god in con séq uen ce o í a vo w , differs
from the first fruit offering m ore in occasion than in su b stan ce. It p e rvad es all
a n c icn i civ iliz ation s and p lay s a n essen tial p art in d efin ing the relation
betw een m en and gods as estab lish ed in thc exch an ge o f gifts.*' In d istress
II 2.2 V O T IV E O FFE RIN G S 6$
and d a n g e r m an seeks io lin d d e liv e ran ce th rough a vo lu n ta ry act o f
ren u n ciation , on e determ in ed and circu m scrib ed b y him self. H e seeks to
m aster the un certain ties o f the future by m ean s o f a self-im posed ‘ if - then'
A n y situ atio n o f a n x ie ty m a y present thc o ccasion for a vo w : for the
in d iv id u a l, sickn ess o r the perils o f a sea vo y age ; for the co m m u n ity, fam ine,
p lag u e, or w ar. T h e vo w is m ad e alo u d , ce rem o n ia lly , and before as m any
w itn esses as possib le - the G re ek w ord euche m ean s sim u ltan eo u sly a loud
cry , a p ra y er, a n d a v o w ." I f the o utcom e is successfu l, fulfilm ent o fth e vow
is an irrev o c ab le d u ty , as w ell a s an o p p o rtu n ity to p arad e on e’ s su ccess
before thc eyes o f gods and m en.
T h e v o w m a y in v o lv e an y gift req u irin g som e m in im al expen se. A n anim al
sacrifice*5 m ay be specified, for ex a m p le, in w h ich , on ce the crisis is o ver,
m en reassu re th em selves o fth e d iv in e o rd er; eq u a lly com m on is the prom ise
o f first fruit o lfen n g s o r thc prom ise to in crease these offerings. V o tiv e
o fferings 3tid first fruit offerings then becom e linked in an unend ing chain
th rough out thc year: at the h arve st festival, p ra y ers a rc m ade for new grow th
and in crease, and the g o d s a re prom ised their portion in turn. O n e m ay even
go so far as to found a new san ctu a ry w ith an a lta r o r even a tem ple,*4 but an
in itia tiv e o f this kind w ould gen e rally req uire som e special san ctio n through
a d iv in e sign . S la v e s and an im al herds m ay be bestow ed on existin g
s an ctu a ries, and very' o cc asio n a lly m em bers o fth e h ousehold are pledged for
s erv ice in the tem ple.*s M o v a b le goods, p rim a rily costly g a rm e n ts, m a y bc
h an d ed o ver to the tem ple, or even a tract o f lan d. M ost com m on, h ow ever, is
the p ra ctice o f settin g up in the tem ple artefacts m ade by oneself, votives in
thc true sen se, anathemata.j6
T h e m ost e x tra v a g a n t form o f setting up connected w ith vow s and first-
fruit offerings is occasioned by w ar. H ecto r prom ises to d ed icate the arm ou r
o f his opponent to A p o llo , and O d vsseu s h an ds o ver D olon ’s ca p , b o w , and
sp eai to A th en a .*7 L a te r, a fixed p roportion o f the booty w on in w ar. u su a lly
a tithe (dekate), w as taken out for the god before the d istrib u tion o fth e spoils
b egan : this trib u te is also called akrothima, the topm ost o f the pile. E v en
before b attle, h ow ever, a sh a re o f the spoils is aw a rd e d through vo w s to one
or several go ds; this a lso avo id s a n y do ub t abo u t the god o r gods to whom
the a rm y ow es its victory.*" B ooty consists p rim a rily o f w eapon s: all G reek
sa n ctu a rie s w ere resplen den t w ith w eapon s captu red in w ar, especially
shield s. A large reven ue w as a lso raised from the s ale or ranso m o f prisoners
o f w ar, and a tithe o f this reven ue w as given in turn to the god in thc form
o f splen d id vo tiv e gifts. Som e o f ihe m ost renow ned a rtistic m onum ents o f
G re e ce cam e into ex iste n ce in this w a y . from the S n a k e C o lu m n from the
P ersian W ars, to the N ike by P aio n ios in O ly m p ia and the N ike from
S a m o th ra ce . T h e S a cre d W ay at D elph i is lined w ith m onum ents to the
victo ries w ith w hich the G re ek s d estroyed th em selves in the fifth and fourth
cen turies. P o lyth eism a llo w s every’ victo ry to be recognized w ith out in h ib it
ion as p ro o f o f the pow er o f a Stro n g e r O n e , as an act o f fa v o u r o f specific
go d s w ho are then entitled to an a p p ro p riate thanks offering from those
70 R IT U A L AN D S A N C T U A R Y II 2 .3
w hom they h a v e ex alted ; but ih c gods g ive no g u a ran tee again st vicissitud es
o f fortune or p re cip ita te d ow n fall.
A l the sam e tim e, gifts o f a kind w hich no m an m ight bc oflcred also find
their w a y in to san ctu a ries as a result o f vo w s. O f these the m ost com m on is
the h air o ffe rin g .^ At P atro clu s’ bier A ch illes cu ts ofT a long lock o f h air
w hich is pled ged to his n ative riv er Sp erch eio s. In m an y places b oys and girls
on en terin g their m a jo rity w ould cut th eir h air an d d ed icate it to som e d eity,
a riv er, a local h ero, or a go d ; the m ost p ettily pretentious w ould even travel
to D elph i to d o so. S im ila rly , a girl w ould d ed ícate the p layth in g s o f her
ch ild h o o d in a san ctu a ry and present her gird le lo A rtem is before m a rria g e .10
O n their retirem en t, aged hunters, fisherm en , and p easan ts w o u ld d ed icate
the tools o f th eir trad e in a s a n c tu a ry .1 ' T h e things w h ich m an leaves behind
at a tu rn ing point in his life rem ain p reserved in the shrin e. T h is dedication
cannot be a n n u lled ; the ren u n ciatio n is irrevo cab le. T h e b ackgro un d lo this
practice is cle a rly the sac raliza tio n o f the rem ain s o f the sacred a c l. the
h an g in g up o f the skin and lhe elevation o f the skull. B y d ed ica tin g his h air, a
m an su rren d ers a p art o f h im se lf to a h igh er pow er - a loss w hich a d m itted ly
cau ses no pain and is qu ick ly rep laced. J u s t a s the sacraliza tio n at the
sac rifice co n tain s som eth in g o f b ad con scien ce and restitution , so here the
a n x ie ty associated w ith th«· turn ing point in life becom es a sym b o lic
red em ptio n from the pow ers w hich have pre v io u sly ruled o n e’s life. T he
bride in p a rtic u la r m ust not forget to show reveren ce to the virgin A rte m is.
T h e g a rm e n ts o f w om en w ho h ave died in ch ildb irth are d ed icated in her
san ctuary' at B ra u ro n ,v a s i f the m iscarria g e in dicated a debt w hich m ust be
settled po sth u m ou sly.
•2.3 Libation
3 PRAYER
L ib a tio n , s ac rifice , first fruit o fferin gs - these are the a cts w hich defin e p ie ty .'
B u t each o f th ese a cts m u st be a tten d ed by the right w ord. A n y w ro n g, evil,
co a rse , o r co m p la in in g w ord w ould bc h arm , blasphtmia, a n d so the good
sp eech , euphemia, o f the p a rticip a n ts con sists in the finît in stan ce in holy
silen ce.* O u t o f the silen ce th ere rises up the a p o stro p h e to an O p p o site, an
in vo catio n an d e n trea ty : the p r a y e r .1 T h e r e is ra rely a rilu a l w ith ou t p ra y er,
an d no im p o rta n t p ra y e r w ith o ut ritu al: lilai - thysiai, p ra y e rs - sacrifices is
an an cien t an d fixed conjunction.'4 In the Odyssey, w hen Pen elope p ra y s to
A th e n a , she w ash es, d resses in clean g a rm e n ts, a n d p re p are s the gro ats o f
b arle y in the sa c rific ia l b ask e t.5 A s a rule, w in e is fetched for lib atio n or
g ra n u le s o f fra n k in cen se a re strew n in the flam e. O n im p ortan t o ccasio n s a
full s a c rifice is p erfo rm ed , and a sp ec ial p rocession , know n a s a procession o f
su p p lica tio n , hikesia, m a y even bc o rg a n i 7.ed to the god in his san ctu a ry.'·
,7
T h e usual w o rd for to p ra y , euchesthai a ls o 'm e a n s to b oast, a n d in victory ,
to let out the c ry o f triu m ph : such p ra y e r is m ore an act o f d ra w in g attention
to o n e s e lf than o f su b m issio n . I hc king, gen e ral, or priest w h o d ire cts the
sa c rificc an d m akes lib atio n p ra y s alo u d and for all. U s u a lly the p ra y e r
in clu d es w ith in it the vo w - w h ich is likew ise called euche; so it is m ade
o ffic ially and before w itn esses. The gods, o f cou rse, ca n also hear soft
e n trea tie s;0 and in ex cep tio n a l ca ses, in the cu ll o f u n c an n y , su b te rran e an
go d s, silen t p ra y e r is p re sc rib e d .9
Ara, lo o. m ean s p ra y e r and vow . but at the sam e tim e it is also a cu rse.
74 R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y II 3
Siicccss and h on our for o n e is u su ally in sep arab le from h um iliation 3n d
d cstu ction for ano ther; the good ara a n d thc evil ara'" go hand in h an d. Ara
has an a rc h a ic sound a n d rccalls the direct pow er w hich ih c w ord o f p ra y er
exercises as a blessin g or as a cu rse w hich, on ce uttered, can n ever bc
retracted . In thc Iliad, the title o f the priest w ho know s how to m an ip u late
such w ords o f p ra y er is a r t ie r " il is C h ryse s w ho brin gs thc p lagu e on ih c
A ch ac an arm y w iih his p ra y er and w ho la ic r brings ih c p lagu e 10 an end.
In thc poetic sellin g , this p ra y er is ad m itted ly a w cll-fo rm ulaied en treaty to
ih c personal god A p o llo , w ho heeds his priesl.
A m ore elem en tary stratum o f invocation is touched by those tradition al,
lin gu istically m ean in gless, w ord-sounds w hich acco m p an y specific dan ces or
processions cach o f w hich is asso ciated w iih a p a rticu la r god. T h ro u g h sound
and rhythm they help 10 m ould ihe experien ce o f the festival, and at thc sam e
lim e they rcccive ih eir content from lh a i experien ce. T h e act o f sacrifice is
m arked by a sh rill cry, the Ololyge o f the w om en: ihe sam e cry o f w om en
acco m pan ies birth as the com ing and intervention o f a birth goddess is
a w a ite d , and it recurs in o ih cr situ ation s o f crisis, such as supposed
p o ssessio n .11 T h e D ion ysian revcllin gs are recognized by w ild shouts,
esp ecially the cry tuhoi - tran scrib ed as cvoc in L atin - and also ihriambe
dithyrambe. A sso ciated w ith the A pollo cult is the P aean , or m ore precisely,
thc shout ie ie paian. w ith the special rhythm o f three short and one long; ihis
shout g iv e s u s nam e to thc h ym n w hich d rives out pestilence and celebrates
victo ry, and also to the god w ho so m anifests h i m s e l f lakch’ 0 lakcht is the
sh o u l w hich a cco m pan ies thc procession 10 E leu sis; here, too, a nam e is
heard in ihe c ry , Iak ch os, ih c nam e o ft h e one who is supposed to lead the
procession a s a daim on and is p ro b ab ly identical w ith D ion ysos; la lc r he w as
also ca rried a lo n g in thc form o f a s ta tu e .'5 D ith yram b o s w as also used as an
epithet o f D ion ysos. T h e collective scream leads to thc brink o f ccstasy; as
soon as the G re ek s com e to offer an account o f these w ords, they sp eak o f
perso n al, an th ro p o m o rp h ica lly represen ted gods.
It is a strikin g fact, but one th at is very closely conncctcd w ith this
a n th ro p o m orp h ism , that in G reek 110 ancien t liturgical p ra y er fo rm ulae are
tran sm itted , no V e d a and no A rv al H ym n . In d o -E u ro p ean coin in gs arc
preserved in the poetic lan gu ag e, but by virtu e o f that ver)· fact they m ay bc
em ployed qu ite freely. A b asic p ra y er fo rm '0 w ith variation s in detail arises
from its function. A t ihe b egin n in g, underlined by the request ‘ H e a r!’ , com es
thc nam e o f ih e deity. G re a t im po rtan ce is attach ed to fin din g the right
nam e, esp e cia lly a p p ro p riate epithets; as m uch as possible, epithets are
heaped one upon another - a feature w hich p ro b ab ly also d erives from Indo-
E u ro p ean tradition - and the god is also offered thc choice: ‘ W ith w h atever
nam e it pleases you to be ca lle d *.'7 A n attem pt is .also m ade to defin e thc
sp h ere o f thc god sp atially by n am in g his favoured dw ellin g place or several
possib le places from w hich he is to com e. T h is is follow ed by a ju stification
for callin g on the god, in w hich e a rlier proofs o f friendship are invoked by
w ay o f preceden t: i f ever thc god has com e to the aid o f the su p p lian t, o r if thc
I I 4·* PU R IFIC A TIO N 75
su p p lian t has perform ed w orks p leasin g to thc go d , h as burned sacrifices and
built tem ples, then this should now hold good. O ften thc a ssu ra n ce ‘fo r you
a rc a b le ' is slip p ed in. O nce con tact has been estab lish ed , thc en treaty is
m ad e succinctly a n d clca rly and is usu a lly accom p an icd by the prom ise for
the future, the vo w ; piety is supposed to g u a ran tee co n stan cy. Philos
o p h ica lly refined religio us sen sib ility later took exception to thc self-
interested d irectn ess o f these euchai\ one should, it w as recom m en ded , p ray
sim p ly for thc G o o d and leave the decision to thc g o d .'" Su c h sub lim ated
piety could n ever becom e thc gen eral rule: N o rm ally the G reeks had no
qu alm s abou t p ra y in g for an o th e r's d estru ction .,Ba
K n e e lin g dow n to p ray is u n u su a l.“* T h e gestu re o f en treaty is outstretched
a rm s. T o in voke the h eaven ly go ds, both hands a rc raised to the sky with
upturned palm s; to call on the go d s o f the sca, the arm s are exten ded out to
the sea ; the h an ds a rc also stretch ed tow ards thc cult im age. A cult im age or
san ctu a ry m ust a lw a y s bc given a friend ly greeting - a chain - even if on e is
sim ply passin g by w ithout a n y sp ecial re a so n /" o r else thc gestu re o f a kiss
m ay bc m ade by ra isin g a hand to o n e's lip s / ' a short, sim p ly p ra y er m ay
a lw a y s be ad d ed . So crates greets the rising sun also in this w a y ." Sim ple
ap o strop h es in vo kin g the gods pun ctuate e v e ry d a y life; in cxcitem cn t, fear,
am azem en t, o r a n ge r, the ‘ go d s’ or som e fitting d ivin e nam e arc invoked.
O ften n am es o f local gods trip ofT the tongue, or else Z e u s and A p o llo and
esp e cia lly H eracles, the a v ertc r o f all that is evil; Herakleiι - mehtrcuU in L atin
- is alm ost as o verw o rn a s thc excla m atio n , ‘J e s u s !’ . W om en h ave th eir own
sp ec ial goddesses, A rtc m is, P an dro so s, and so on.**
Sp e cia l m easures a re req uired, h ow ever, if thc dead or the god s o f the
u n derw orld arc to bc reached. Poets describ e how the su p p lian t hurls h im se lf
on the gro un d an d h am m ers the earth w ith his lis t s / 4 W here th c p u rp ose w as
to h arm or cu rsc, the silent and lastin g inscription rep laced such in vocation s
from the fifth cen tu ry at thc latest: leaves o f lead - o f the kind also used for
letter-w ritin g - w ere in scrib ed su rren d erin g on e’ s enem y to thc gods o f the
un d erw orld; these leaves w ere buried in the shrin es o f su b te rran e an gods or
in g ra ve s. W hile the official cult a lw a y s con tin u es w ith the spoken w ord, the
in n o vatio n o f the w ritten word is used to serve m a gical ends. T h e m agical act
rep laces thc in vo catio n : ‘ I w rite d o w n ’ . '1 bind d o w n ’ / 5 this is therefore
called kaladesis, defixi».
4 PURIFICATION
A ll crcatu res m ust keep clcan , elim in atin g m atter w hich is a sou rce o f
irritatio n and so is defined as dirt. F o r m an, clean in g bccom cs one o f the
fo rm ative exp erien ces of childhood. C lea n lin e ss sets lim its. T h e ch ild learn s
how read y others arc to b an ish a d irty person a lo n g w ith his d irt, an d how*
76 R IT U A L AN D SA N C T U A R Y It 4. 1
by follow in g certain p ro cedures, an acce p ta b le sta tu s m ay bc regain ed .
P u rification is a social process. T o belong to a gro u p is to conform to its
sta n d a rd o f p u rity ; the rep rob ate, the ou tsid er, an d the rebel are unclean.
G ro u p s w hich set them selves a p a rt from the rest o f society m a y do so
through an a p p ea l to special, heightened p u rity . A cco rd in gly , the em otion
a lly ch arged a ctivities o f clean in g h ave becom e ritu al d em on stratio n By
celeb ratin g the elim in ation o f irritatin g m atter, these riles delim it a m ore
h igh ly valu ed realm , either the co m m un ity itse lf in relation to a ch aotic
o u lsid e, o r an esoteric circle w ithin society; they m ed iate a ccess to this realm
and so to a high er statu s; they p lay out the antith esis betw een a n egative
and a positive state and so a re suited to elim in ate a state w hich is truly
un com fortable and d isru p tive , and to lead o ver to a better, pu re state.
P urification ritu als are therefore in volved in all in tercourse w ith the sacred
and in all form s o f in itiation ; but they arc also em ployed in crisis situ atio n s o f
m adness, illness, an d guilt. In so fa r as in this case the ritual is placed in the
service o f a cle arly id en tifiab le e n d . it assu m es a m agical c h a ra c te r.'
T h e m ost w id esp read m ean s o f purification is w ater, and in G reek
purification rituals* con tact w ith w ater is fun d am en tal. In ad d itio n , th ere is
the p ractice o f fu m igatio n 3 to era d icate foul sm ells, a p rim itiv e form o f
d isinfectin g; O d ysseu s su lp h u rates the hall a fter the blood bath he has
ca u se d .4 T h e G re ek w ord for to pu rify, kalhairein, is perh aps to be derived
from the Se m itic word for cu ltic fum igatio n , qtr.'' Sin ce, m oreover, fire
consum es and destroys ev e ry th in g , in cludin g things un pleasan t and d isg u st
ing. one can say : ‘ fire purifies e v e ry th in g .’6 T w o further req uisites o f G reek
purification s are less im m ediately in telligib le, the w in n ow in g fan (liknon) and
sea onions (skilla). T h e w in n ow in g fa n 7 purifies the corn a s the sw in gin g
m ovem ent o f the basket a llow s the ch a ff to be blow n a w a y b y the w in d. T h e
sw in g in g o f the basket over the head o f the in itian d , su gg ests a n a lo g y m agic,
but eq u ally the sh o w erin g o f the n ew -com er“ m a y be recognized as an
a h reaction o f a g g re ssiv e feelings, ju s t as the victo rs in the g a m e s are
honoured by peltin g w ith leaves (phyllobolia). N o G reek exp lan ation is found
for the use o f onions,'* but a H ittite ritu al text is illu m in atin g: the onión is
peeled skin by skin , until noth ing rem a in s;’" in this w ay the d istu rb in g m atter
is elim in ated very eleg an tly. T h e use o f blood sacrificc for p urification is
am b ig u o u s, but n everth eless p urification is thereby brough t w ith in the
cen tral reserve o f the sacred w ork.
W hatever is ritually and forcibly elim inated in the act o f purification can be
interpreted as a gift to certain powers w ho arc therefore uncanny and perverse
and better not m entioned by nam e: ‘ F o r you the d irty w ater for w hom it is
n ecessary an d for w hom it is rig h t.’ " F rom the tim e o f X en o cra te s o n w ard s,
o n e speaks o f daimones] c o n c e r n e d w ith un clean things, they are in turn
unclean. M o d ern in terpreters, seekin g to cla rify the ideas w hich accom p an y
the ritu al, prefer lo speak o f a m aterial conception o f p o llu tio n ’ * w hich can bc
tran sm itted through co n tact, but w hich can also be isolated, con cen trated ,
I I 4 ·2 THE SACRED AND THE PURE 77
and elim in ated . In p ra cticc few w ord s and no d etailed e x p la n a tio n s w ere
n eeded: the social function w as im m ed iately m anifest and effective.
P urification ritu als a re fa m ilia r in thc A n cien t N e a r E a st a s in the O ld
T esta m en t. H o m er m entions not o n ly the ’ pure g a rm e n ts’ a n d the w ash in g o f
h an d s before p ra y e r and sacrifice, but a lso thc p u rification o fth e entire arm y
a fte r the p la g u e .'4 A n um b er o f sp ecial prescriptio n s are found in H esiod.
Still a b le to find a place in m yth olog y w ere thc pu rificatio n s from m ad ness -
M e la m p u s and the P ro itid e s'5 - an d from blood g u ilt'0 - A p o llo and O restes.
T h c prob lem o f m u rd er and thc m u rd erer, e sp e cia lly its pow er to cast a
sh a d o w o ver later g en eratio n s and the m eans o f overco m in g this by p u rifi
catio n , seem s to h ave b ccom c in cre asin gly urgent d u rin g the cou rse o f the
seven th cen tu ry. T h e D elp h ic O ra cle cle a rly p layed a lead in g role in this
d evelo p m en t w h ile n everth eless exploitin g local tradition s w h en ever
p o s sib le .'7 S p e cia l pu rifyin g p riests, kalharlai, a lso a p p eared w ho prom ised
relie f in cases o f ep id em ic and civil disco rd. T h e m ost fam ous o f these,
E p im en id e s o f C re te , purified A th en s o f the C y lo n ia n pollution som e tim e
before 6 0 0 . F am ilies and in d iv id u a ls w ere also inclined to trace calam ities
o f all kinds to som e ancient pollu tion , to the w rath , menima, o f som e
m ysterio us p o w e r.'9 F ro m the practice o f ritu al, in the figure o f im p u rity, a
con cept o f guilt d evelo p s; pu rificatio n bccom cs atonem ent.
A process o f in tern alizatio n o f this kind leads, o f cou rse, to a qu estio n in g o f
ritu al. A lre a d y in H esio d an inner dim en sion co rrespo n ds to the outer when
he w arn s a g ain st crossin g a river ‘ w ithout w ash in g w ickcdn ess and o n e ’s
h a n d s ’ .” P lato later w rites, ‘’I’he im pure m an is w hoever is w ickcd in his
sou l';*' and even an o rato r“ can dem an d th a l a p n est should 'not keep
h im se lf pu re for a certain n u m b er o f d a y s, but be pure in his w hole w ay o f
life'. A n often quoted line w hich w as en g raved o ver the en tran ce to the
A sk lep io s sa n c tu a ry at E p id au ru s reads: ‘ P urity is to think pious things.
In practice, such statem en ts w ere regard ed not as d e v alu in g thc ou ter form s
o f piety, w hich w ere still rigo ro u sly uph eld, but as a d d in g a deeper
dim en sion . In thc sphere o f p u rificatio n , ritual and ethical reflection could
th erefore m erge w ith out a break.
4 .5 Pharmakos
A m o n g the pu rificatio n ritu als special attention h as long been focused on the
exp u lsio n o f the Pharmakos, for here at the very cen tre o f G reek civilization
h u m an sac rifice is in dicated as a po ssib ility, not lo s a y as a fixed in stitutio n .0'
T h a n k s to thc in su ltin g poem s o f H ip p o n ax/·" the most rem a rk a b le d etails
a rc know n from C o lo p h o n in thc sixth cen tu ry. H ip p o n a x th reaten s his
en em ies w ith ig n o m in io u s destruction by v ivid ly d escrib in g how on e deals
w ith a Pharmakos·. a m an chosen on account o f his uglin ess is first feasted on
figs. b arle y bro th , a n d ch eese, then he is w h ip ped out w ith fig b ran ch e s and
sca on io ns, b ein g struck al>ove all seven tim es on his membrum virile. O u r
B y z a n tin e w itn ess then claim s that he w as fin ally burned and his ash es
scattered in the s e a ; w h eth er he is to be believed h as long been d isputed .
In A b d e ra ,6* som e poor victim is bought eve ry y ea r as a pu rificato ry sacrificc.
kalharsion; he is fed ro y a lly and then on a certain d a y is led through thc city
g a tes, m ad e to w alk round the city w alls, and fin ally ch ased a cro ss the
b o u n d aries w ith sto n es. S im ila rly , at the T h a r g c lia festival in A th e n s,7” two
m en are chosen a g ain on accou nt o f their p a rticu la r lo athsom en ess, ’one for
I I 4*5 pha rm a ko s 83
ih c m en . and on e for ih c w om en*; they are d ra p ed wifi» figs a n d led out as
kalharsia, and p e rh a p s they too w ere d riven out w ith stones. O n dire
o ccasio n s such a s p lag u e, thc peop le o f M a s s a lia -M a r s e illc s 7' resorted to
sim ila r m easu res: a p o o r m an w as offered pu re and costly food for a year,
then, dcckcd in b o u gh s and sa c re d vestm en ts, he w as led arou n d ih r w hole
town am id cu rses and fin ally ch ased a w a y . From ih c cliffs o f L c u k a s 7* in ihe
precin ct o f A p o llo L e u k a ta s a con dem ned crim in a l w as plun ged into the sea
every y e a r; he w as, h ow ever, p rovid ed w ith w in gs to lighten his leap and an
attem pt w as m ad e to fish him up a g ain . A n o th er rep o rt7* speaks o f a yo un g
m an being plun ged into ihe sea for P oseidon, in o rd er to be rid o f all evil
w ith him : ‘ becom e o ur o ffsco u rin gs’ (peripsema). In C h a iro n e ia , H u n ger,
Bou limos, is w h ip ped out o f thc d o o r in the form o f a s la v e .74
S p e cu la tio n s a b o u t the V e g etatio n S p irit h ave tended to o b scu re the
sim p le and te rrify in g ch a racter o f this d ra m a. T h c sam e d ra m a , w ell-nigh
bereft o f ritu al acco m p a n im en t, a p p e a rs in a po ssib ly h isto rical rep ort from
late a n tiq u ity .7' A s the p lagu e w as ragin g in E p h e su s, ihc m ira cle m an
A p o llo n io s a ssem b led the en u re p o p u lation in thc th eatre, then su d d en ly
h e p o in ted to a n o ld b e g g a r clad in ra gs: this w as the p la g u e d a im on .
T h e r e u p o n th c p o o r b e g g a r, in sp ite o f his p leas fo r m ercy, w as sto n ed until
a g re a i cairn to w ered o ver his corpse. T h e a g gressio n excited by fear is
co n cen trated on som e lo athsom e o u tsid e r; ev e ry o n e feels relieved by thc
co m m u n al p rojection o f the fury b orn o f d e sp a ir, a s w ell a s by thc ce rla in ty o f
sta n d in g on the side o f thc ju st and the pure.
A cc o rd in g ly , the p erfo rm an ce o f the ritu al in excep tion al situ a tio n s o f
a n x ie ty , su ch as in M a s sa lia , m ay w ell bc the e a rlier form. T h a i ihe A ttic
O str a k is m o s/6 the ju d g e m en t by po ish erd s on a d istu rb in g in d ivid u a l, is a
d e m o c ratic ra tio n aliz atio n o f a sim ila r tradition h as long been recognized.
T h e T h ir ty T y r a n ts w ere then ab le 10 d e sig n a te their political m u rd ers as
a p u rifica tio n 7' - a pu rge in the m ost o m in ous sen se o f the w ord. T h c
relig io u sly circ u m scrib ed form is connected in Io n ia and A ttica w ith the
festival o f thc T h a rg e lia in the ea rly sum m er, w ith thc first fruit offerings
from thc n ew h arve st: purificatio n as a p rereq u isite o f the new b egin n in g.
It is cle a rly essen tial that thc crc atu rc 10 be d riv en out be first bro ugh t into
in tim ate con tact w ith th e co m m u n ity, thc city; this is the sense o f thc gifts o f
food w hich a rc co n sta n tly m entioned. F ig s 70 a rc d o u b ly co n trasted to n o rm al
cu ltu re , to thc fruits o f the field and to the flesh o f the victim ; they point
to sw eetn ess, lu x u ry , licentio usn ess, a b reath o f a golden a ge from w hich
reality m ust be ru d e ly distin g u ish ed . T h e en circlin g, w hich is a lso found in
p u rifica tio n s w ith w ater and w ith blood, in cludes all the pure m em b ers o f the
co m m u n ity; the ou tca st is then ca llcd thc one w ip ed o ff all a rou n d , peripsema.
T h is is not a c tiv e k illin g, but sim p ly a m atter o f o ffsco u rin gs w hich m ust be
th row n acro ss the b o u n d aries o r o ver the cliffs, n ever to return
C o rre sp o n d in g lo ih is in the O ld T e sta m e n t is the fam o us, though itself
q u ite p u zzlin g rile o f d riv in g thc sca p cg o at out in io the d esert; this has given
84 R IT U A L AN D SA N C T U A R Y II 5 . 1
(he w hole co m plex thc usual n am e o f sca p ego a t ritu a l.79 In G re ece th ere a re a
n u m b er o f in stan c es o f an o x being d riven out, cither tow ard s enem ies on
w hom it b rin g s m isfo rtun e, or else acro ss the b o u n d a ry .8*’ C o m p a ra b le ritu als
are attested in thc N e a r E ast."'
T o exp el a tro u b le-m aker is an ele m en ta ry gro u p reflex; p erh ap s in the
m ost d istan t b ack gro u n d th ere is also the situ atio n o f thc pack su rro u n d ed by
b easts o f p re y : o n ly i f one m em ber, p re fera b ly a m a rg in a l, w ea k , or sick
m em b er, falls victim to thc b easts can the oth ers escap e. T h e o u tcast is then
also thc sa v io u r to w hom all a rc m ost deeply indebted.
T h e G re ek d escrip tio n as kalharmox m akes the proccss seem u n eq u ivo cal,
a s i f it w ere m ere ly d irt w hich is era d ic ate d ; m yth, h o w e v er, points to thc
p ro v o ca tiv e a m b iv a len ce . It m a y even be the kin g w h o bccom cs the outcast:
K in g K o d r o s o f A th en s h as h im se lf killed by the enem y w hile dressed as a
b e g g a r;8’ th ere is the w an d e rin g K in g O e d ip u s;*’ K in g T h o a s o f L em n o s is
cast out to sea in a chest at the revolt o f the w om en , the g rea t kalharmox,*4
A lte rn a tiv e ly , the g ro u p m em b er h an ded o v e r to the en em y, pelted, and
killed is a p a rtic u la rly b eau tifu l, chosen m aid en , su ch a s Polxkrile o f N a x o s,
w h o is h on oured w ith sacrifices at the T h a r g c lia fe stival.8' T h e exp u lsio n o f
ad o lescen ts, a s in the case o f the L o k rian m aiden trib u te0* to A th en a o f Ilion ,
w hich is d e scrib ed a s pro p itiatio n for the sacrilege o f A ja x the L o k rian . m a y,
o f co u rse, also be part o f an in itiatio n ritual in w hich the p u rify in g sep aratio n
lead s on to a rein co rp o ratio n w hich a llo w s the old o rd er to con tin u e. In the
foun dation sa g a s o f a n um b er o f colonies it is related that thc first settle rs had
b een d ed icated a s tithes to the god at D elp h i and so had been sen t a b ro a d ;
ihe d riv in g out. a kind o f ver sacrum, is here in terpreted as a first fruit offering
in stead o f as a k a l h a r m o s in o th er foun dation sa g a s it is a g a in ou tsid ers,
b a sta rd s, and s la v e s, w ho are d riven out and find a new b egin n in g in the
foreign lan d .™
3 THE SANCTUARY
5 .1 Temenos
T h c cult o f thc G re e k s is alm ost a lw a y s defined lo cally: the places o f w o rsh ip '
a re fixed in a n cicn t tradition a n d ca n n o t be m oved lig h tly. S a n c tu a rie s are
often p re se rv ed a n d tended th rough ca ta stro p h e s, revo lu tio n , and ch a n ge s in
p o p u latio n . T h e T r m p lc o f A p o llo con tin u ed to tow er o v er C o rin th long a fter
the city had been destroyed b y the R o m an s, and even to d ay a n u m b er o f its
co lu m n s are still sta n d in g . E v en C h ristia n s follow ed trad itio n , erectin g
ch ap els in p lac e o f sa n ctu a rie s o r tran sform in g tem ples into ch u rch es; the
ca th e d ra l o f .Syracuse in co rp o râtes the A th en a T e m p le from th e fifth cen tu ry.
M o d ern exp e rien ce o f a G re ek san ctu a ry is in d issolu b ly fused w ith G reek
la n d s c a p e / So m eth in g o f this even touched the an cien ts: they speak o f the
lo w e rin g h eigh ts, the rocky cliffs o f D elph i, and the sweet ch a rm o f sacred
II 5·1 TEM ENO S 85
g ro v es w ith their ru stlin g leaves, sin gin g b ird s, and m u rm u rin g b ro o k s.' Yet
the cu lt is not a respo n se 10 the exp erien ce o f the la n d sc a p e .4 I f e v e r a breath
o f d iv in ity b e tra y s som e spot as the sp h ere o f h igh er b ein gs,5 then this is
evoked by the in stitu tio n alized cu ll.
J u s t a s the rites frequen tly g iv e form to the opposition betw een in d oo rs and
ou td oo rs, so in relatio n to the tow n sh ip there a rc ce n tra lly and p erip h erally
placed san ctu a ries. T h e form er cro w n the high fo rtress - the A cro p o lis - or
b o rd er on the m arket p la c e - the A g o ra ; the latter seek out m oun tain heights
or else sw a m p s anil m a rsh la n d , Itrnne. In p a rtic u la r there is an A rtem is
.b
Limnatis and a D io n y so s en limnais H ere in the m arsh es ih e ancien t practicc
o f sac rifice by sin k in g or d ro w n in g has d o u b tless left its trace w h ile the
clim b in g up , the lea d in g up o f victim s to the m oun tain can call on an eq u a lly
im p re ssiv e tradition . T h e san ctu a ries, h ow ever, w ere often placed not on the
v ery sum m it but on a protected c o l.: T h e d ivin e n am e s a rc not confined lo
sp ec ific fun ction s. T h e r e is A p o llo in the m arkei p la c e ,8 a s w ell a s in the
lonely m o un tain s o f B assa e: there a re peak cu lls o f Z e u s, but e q u a lly H era
A k ra ia o r A p h ro d ite on A cro c o rin th . T h e goddess o f the citadel is p re
em in en tly A th e n a ; outside the city on a hill there often lies a sa n c tu a ry o f
D e m e le r/ w hich en ters in lo a certain p olarity w ith the e v e ry d a y life o f the
city.
T h e sac red site m ust bc m arked u n m ista k ab ly , but n atu ral featu res are
seldom a p p ro p riated for this p u rp ose. G ro tto s an d eaves p lay o n ly a
m a rg in a l role; the m ost strik in g is the m ystery cult in the Ida c a v e .1“ T h e
w ild ro cky g o rg e a i L e b a d e ia w ith its m any sp rin gs u n d o u b ted ly lent features
lo lhe su b te rran e an T ro p h o n io s c u lt ;" there are a lso san ctu a ries w hich arc
located a t hot s p rin g s . '* T he sim ple m arkin g w ith rock and tree is usually
sufficien t. A t the cen tre o f th r E le u sin ian san ctuary stood an un h ew n rock
that w a s a lw a y s left o pen to v ie w ;1* the san ctu a ry o f the O ly m p ia n E a rth in
A th en s en co m p assed a n atu ra l cleft in the ro c k .'4 N everth eless, stones arc
also sel up, u n w ro ugh t ston es (argot l i t h o i in D elph i the stone w orked in
the ch a racteristic form o f the n avel w a s regard ed as the cen tre not on ly o f lhe
s a n c tu a ry , but also o f the w orld ; the tw o eagles w hich Z e u s released from the
furtherm o st W est and the fu rtherm ost E ast met at this s p o t.1'1
T h e tree, h ow ever, is even m ore im portan t than the· stone in m arkin g the
s a n c tu a ry , and this co rresp o n d s not o n ly to M in o a n -M y c e n a e a n but also to
N e a r E aste rn tra d itio n .'* T he sh a d e-g iv in g tree epitom izes both b eau ty and
co n tin u ity acro ss the g en eratio n s. M ost san ctu a ries h ave their sp ec ial tree.
In A th en s the c a refu lly tended o live tree stan d s on .the A cro p o lis in the
s a n c tu a ry o f the D e w G o d d e ss, P an d ro so s; th a ï it im m ed iately broke into leal
a g ain a fter the P ersian s had b urned dow n the tem ple in 480 w as a vivid
assertion o f the un broken v ita l force o f A ih e n s.'8 In the H era sa n c tu a ry on
S a m o s the w illow tree (lygos) rem ain ed a lw a y s at the sam e spot and w as even
in co rp o rated into ih e great a lt a r .'0 O n D elos the palm tree w as show n
a g ain st w hich L eto had leaned at the birth o f the iw in gods A rte m is and
A p o llo ; O d ysseu s can co m p a re N a u sik a a 's virgin b eauty w ith noth ing m ore
86 R IT U A L AN D SA N C T U A R Y II 5 .1
fitting than this D elian p a lm / 0 In D id y m a '1 there stood the lau rel tree o f
A p o llo ; in O ly m p ia it w as a w ild olive tree (/colinos), w hose tw igs w ere used to
w rea th e thc v ic to rs .'rJ P a rtic u la rly old and sac rcd w as the o ak (phegos) o f
D od on a w hich im p arted the o rac le w ith the rustling o f its b ra n c h e s/1
T h e tree is closely a sso ciated w ith the go ddess. T h c c a n e d im age o f
A th en a in A th en s is m ade o f o live wood*4 a n d thc im age o f H era in T ir y n s is
m a d e o f w ild -p e a r w o o d / 1 C o in s from G o rtyn *6 an d from M y r a in A sia
M in o r’ 7 sh o w a g o d d ess sittin g in a tree: thc form er d epicts E u ro p a , w ho is
ap p ro ach ed by Z e u s in thc sh a p e o f an eag le, and thc latter show s A rtem is
E lcu th era . N on eth eless, d a rk m yth s w hich tell o f thc go d d ess o r thc m aiden s
in h er serv ice b ein g h an ged on thc treeJ* a re a w arn in g again st takin g thc tree
cult sim ply as a p recu rso r o ft h e goddess cu lt. O fferin gs h ave been h un g on
trees from tim e im m em orial: a n im a l skin s by age-old h un tin g cu stom , and
also d iscs, oscilla, w hich m ove in the w in d ; for m yth olo g ical fa n ta sy or
trad ition these a rc h an gin g sacrifices. T h u s it m a y also be said that a
D ion ysos idol is m ad e from the w ood o f thc pine tree on w hich Pen th eus met
his d e a t h / 1
O ften a tra ct o f w oo d lan d belongs to thc s a n c tu a ry , a g ro ve, alsos,
ca llcd altis in O ly m p ia , either con stitu tin g the san ctu a ry itse lf or lyin g
im m ed iately a d ja c e n t/ 0 T h e n am e feeding place points to its p ractical
function as a g ra zin g a re a for the pack an im als an d m ounts o f thc
p a rticip an ts at the fe stiv al, though this in no w a y p reclu d es a certain feeling
for n atu re, e sp e cia lly as the gro v e is reserved for sacral use.
M o re im p o rtan t still is w a te r for d rin kin g and for w aterin g the a n im a ls as
w ell as for the sp ecial pu rity o f thc cult. M a n y san ctu a ries h ave their ow n
sp rin gs and fo un tain s, esp e cia lly the D cm eter sanctuaries*/' but in D id y m a 5*
too there is a w ell n ear the a lta r; from the A lca tem ple in T e g e a 33 a sep a rate
d o o r lead s d o w n to thc foun tain ; the H craion o f A rg o s h as its brook at least at
the foot o fth e h ill/ 4 In D elp h i, thc w ater o f the K a sso tis sp rin g flow s in to the
A p o llo sa n c tu a ry itself, w h ile the m uch m ore pow erful and m ore fam ous
C a sta lia n sp rin g gushes from thc rocky gorge n e a rb y .15 O n the A cro p o lis in
A th en s, the m ost im p ortan t m a rk o f the cult a p a rt from the olive tree w a s the
's e a ', a little pool o f salt w ater in a hollow in the rock; though in co rpo rated
into thc north h all o f thc E rcch th cio n . it had a lw a y s to rem ain open to thc
s k y / 6 H ere it is the sy m b o lism o f t h e deep w hich is im p o rta n t, ra th er than
a n y p ra ctic al use.
T h c G re ek sa n c tu a ry , h ow ever, is p ro p e rly con stitu ted o n ly through the
d e m arca tio n w hich sets it a p a rt from the pro fan e (bebelon). T h e lan d cut o ff
an d d ed icated to the god or h ero is know n by the ancient term w hich really
sign ifies a n y d o m ain a t all, témenos/ 7 E ven w hen a river o r the all-seein g sun
god H elio s is w o rsh ip p ed , he receives his w ell-defined témenos/ 8 T h e
b o u n d a ry is m arked by b o u n d a ry stones w hich a re often in scrib ed , o r else by
a m a ssiv e ston e w all, u su a lly a b o u t the height o f a m an. M o stly on ly one
en tran ce is a llo w ed ; th ere the w a te r b asin s for pu rificatio n are set up. W ithin
II 5 ·2 a lta r 87
the w a te r b asin s o n ly w h at is pu re is adm itted.'1* H en ce w ith in the sa n c tu a ry
e v e ry th in g is forb id d en w hich w ould p ro d u ce a miasma - sex u a l in terco u rse,
b irth , a n d d eath . A s tim e w ent on, the scru p les i f a n y th in g in cre ased : D elos
w as purified tw ice, u n der P isistra tu s an d a g ain in thc y e a r 426/5;** first,
g ra v e s w ere rem o ved from thc a re a w hich could be seen from the s a n c tu a ry ,
then from thc w h o le isla n d ; pregn an t w om en a n d thc d y in g w ere tran sferred
to th r n eig h b o u rin g isla n d o f R h e n ia. P au sa n ias the S p a rtia te , w ho had been
left in th r sa n c tu a ry o f A th en a C h alk io ik o s to sta rv e , w as d ra g g ed out still
a liv e , alth o u g h this also vio lated the a sy lu m o f the s a n c tu a ry .4’ A d m itted ly ,
the taboos o f the sacred are essen tia lly a m b iv a le n t h ere loo: the god can
celeb rate m a rria g e in thc s a n c tu a ry , A p o llo and A rte m is w ere born on D elos,
and s ac rificia l v ictim s fo rever bleed to d e ath at the a lta r. F req u en tly a site o f
sac rifice is in terp reted as thc g r a v e o f a hero w hose g risly d e ath in the
sa n c tu a ry is then recoun ted in m y th .4i In o rd er to m ake w ay for th r gods,
w ho are out o f the o rd in a ry in thc m ost em in en t sense, all that is excep tio n al
in the life o f m en m ust rem ain exclu d ed .
5 .2 A liar
T h e lt.me.noi is set a p a rt for the sac red w ork, for sac rifice ; its m ost essen tial
ele m en t, m ore essen tial than thc cult ston e, tree, and sp rin g, is the a ltar,
homos, on w hich thc fire is kin d led .4’ ‘T cm e n o s a n d fra g ran t a lt a r ’ o f the god
is a lre a d y a H o m eric fo rm u la .44 T h e re a re n atu ral rock a lia r s ;4‘J a lt a r and cult
ston e a re then id e n tica l. In s im p le ru stic sh rin es a few ston es ro u g h ly set
together m a y serve as an a lta r.4'’ In a n u m b er o f la rg e a n d im p o rtan t
sa n ctu a rie s the rem a in s o f ash an d bone a rc allo w ed to gro w up into great
m o un ds; even a t O ly m p ia this an d n oth ing else w as thc A lta r o f Z e u s .47 T h e
n o rm al G re ek a lta r, h ow ever, is w ell b u ilt, con stru cted o f b ricks and w hite
w ash ed w ith lim e o r else fitted togeth er from c a refu lly hewn sto n e blocks.
N ot in freq u en tly the sid es a rc d eco rated w ith volutes. In b etw een lies the
m etal ta b let on w h ich thc fire b u rn s. L a r g e a lta rs h ave on e o r m ore step s
built to one sid e, w h ich th r priest can m oun t to lay thc co n secrated portions
on thc fire and to p o u r thc libation .
A c c o rd in g to lite rary sou rces, thc ce leb ran ts sta n d arou n d thc a lta r; the
w a te r vessel is carried a rou n d ev e ry o n e in a circle at the b egin n in g. In m an y
san ctu a rie s, h o w e ver, the a lta r sta n d s so close to thc Iemenos w all that an
irreg u la r scm icirc le is thc o n ly co n ce iv ab le a rra n g e m e n t.48 T h e tem ple fa çad e
then, a s a rule, form s the b ack g ro u n d . T h c en tran ce to the Iemenos u su a lly
lead s d ire ctly in to thc cu lt a rea in fron t o f the a lta r. In a n u m b er o f cases
there is th catre-Iikc te rrac in g w hich cou ld m ake th r rcre m o n ie s visib le to a
g rea te r n u m b er o f p e o p le .49
T h e a lta r is c e rem o n ia lly set up w hen thc first sac rifice is perform ed ; this
act is often a ttrib u ted in m yth to som e h ero, to a kin g o f an cicn t tim es, o r to
H era cle s. T h e re a fte r, the position o f the a lta r rem a in s fixed, w h a te v er oth er
88 R IT U A L AND S A N C T U A R Y II 5 .3
a lte ra tio n s m a y a flcct the sa n ctu a ry . In the H era io n on S a m o s the ex c a v a to rs
w ere a b le to d istin gu ish seven different states o f the a lta r before it received its
fin a l, m o n u m en tal form a t the h an d s o f R h o iko s abou t 5 5 0 .yl
A Irmenos need not be reserved for one god a lo n e, but m ay in clu d e several
sa c rificia l sites, sev era l a lta rs, w hich then sta n d in a defined relation to one
an o th e r. F re q u e n t is the a n tith esis o f ofl'cring pit o r gro u n d level h earth and
raised ston e a lta r, co rre sp o n d in g to a C h th o n ic a n d an O ly m p ia n sacrifice ;
hero and god a re in this w a y d ire ctly a sso ciated w ith ea ch o th er: o th erw ise
ea ch m ay h a v e his ow n s e p a ra te Irmenos.'’1
5.4 Anathemata
'I ’he sacred spot arises spontaneously as the sacred acts leave behind lasting
traces: here sites o f fire, there stains o f blood and oil on the stone - rudim ents
o f a ltars o f differin g types and functions. W here ash, ch arcoal, and bones
accu m ulate at th e sam e place thc g reat ash altars are form ed. Even thc
P alaeolith ic hunters, m oreover, deposited bones and raised up thc skulls o f
the anim als hunted; in the shrines o f Ç a ta l H üyük bull skulls are set up in
row s. So too in G reek san ctuaries skulls from thc victim s o f the hunt and
sacrifice a rc placed on d isp la y ;95 b ucran ia with g arlan d s therefore becom e
the stereotype re lie f decoration on altars and sacral buildings. In sanctuaries
d edicated to A rtem is and A po llo goat horns accum ulate; a deposit o f this
kind w as found in D reros, and on D elos thc great H orn A lta r of A rtem is,
w hich w as view ed w ith astonishm ent as one o f thc w onders o f thc w orld, w as
constructed from goat horns.1*4 F urtherm ore, thc locks o f h air shorn at an
I I 5-4 AN ATH EM ATA 93
initiation ritu al, or indeed anythin g left behind at a eu ltieally accentuated
turning poim in life, will also rem ain at thc sacred spot.?* A n d if the
dislin ctiven ess o f the sacred is to bc upheld, then the im plem ents em ployed
at sacrificc cannot sim ply be returned to profane use.
From such beginnings, thc custom of setting up things in the san ctuary
(anattthenai) clearly underwent an unprecedented expansion from the eighth
cen tury o n w ards, prim arily in connection with thc votive offering. T h e object
set up in this w ay, a n a t h e m a is a lasting, visib le gift: a witness to one’ s
relationship to thc deity, thc principal form o f expression for p rivate devotion
and thc most representative docum ent o f official piety. A s thc inscriptions
state, the donor expects a gracious gift in return, even if only that thc god
m ay grant him occasion to set up an o th er gift in the fu tu re .97 T h e gifts can
take many form s. Valuables in early times a re garm ents and metal. Since the
object set up acts as a sign, a substitute m odel, a sign o f thc sign, can take its
place: bronze and terracotta figurines, or a painting on clay o r w ood; quite an
industry in devotional objects developed at an early date.
O n e group o f anath em ata can bc understood as giving perm anence to the
sacrificial act: vessels o f all kinds, roasting spits, sacrificial axes, and above
all tripods. T h c tripod cauldron, w hich w as used as a cooking utensil for
boiling the m eat and a t the sam e tim e had considerable intrinsic value as
m etal, becam e the most representative votive gift o f G reek sanctuaries.''0
In this O lym p ia led thc w ay; from about 700, thc dom inant form w as the
O rien talizin g griffin cauldron which show ed U rartian /N o rth Syrian
influence. A n im al figures should also be seen in the context o f sacrifice.1"
especially the ox figures w hich a p p ea r with a ccrtain continuity even through
the d ark age. C u ll sccnes are oflcn depicted on votive tablets, and, from the
fourth century on w ard s, on large elaborate votive reliefs.
T o w hat extent the sm all anthropom orphic vo tive figures represent ihe
god or his devotees is often very difficult to d e cid c;"" both undoubtedly
appear. G ods can be rccognizcd in early times by ihc epiphan y gesture, and
later by certain ch aracteristic attributes; men often carry an anim al for
sacrificc. T h e votive figures need not bc strictly related to the deity ol thc
san ctuary in which they are placed; statuettes o f other gods can also be
d e d ica te d ."" L arg e statues in lim estone, m arble or bronze m ay bc ercctcd by
those who have been conncctcd w ith thc god in a special w ay and wish to
give lasting expression to this bond, particu larly boys and girls who have
d isch arged tem ple d uiics, such as the A rrhephoroi on the A cropolis and thc
C h ild ren from the H earth in E l e u s i s , or priests and priestesses. T h e victors
at O ly m p ia sim ilarly have the right to set up a bronze statue in the
san ctuary.
T h e pious ael o f dedication is thereby transform ed into an act o f public
ostentation. O ne creates one's m em orial, mnema. T h e an ath em ata o f much
frequented san ctuaries a rc thc most efficacious testim onies to a glorious past.
G y g es o f L yd ia w as a lw a ys known to the G reeks through his gold in Delphi,
and C ro esus o f L yd ia - the proverbial C roesus - sccurcd even greater
<H R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y I I 5 .4
ren o w n .' * C h an g e a b le as ihe fortune o f w ar w as, the victo r a lw a y s hastens to
erect his m onum ent in O ly m p ia and D elphi. Sh ield s in san ctu aries arc
a lre a d y spoken o f by H om er, but all other w eapon s could a lso be surren dered
to a god; to com m em orate a sea battle, a sh ip 's beak or even an entire sh ip
m ight be d e d ica ted .105
W ithin a relatively short period o f rim e thc p o p u lar san ctu aries in evitab ly
becam e quite overw h elm ed w ith votive gifts. Priests supervised the setting
up. T h e w orthless trinkets w ere buried from tim e to tim e in thc san ctu ary,
to the delight o f m odern arch aeologists; the m ost va lu ab le gifts constituted
thc prin cipal assets o f the tem ple and careful account o f them w as kept.
A s sto n es attach to rem arkab le objects, the tem ple in ventory becom es a
ch ron icle, the a n a g ra p h o f L in d o s is preserved in in scrip tio n .'06 T o produce
vo tive gifts from the T ro ja n W ar g ra d u a lly b ccam c a m atter o f course. 'I ’he
riches n atu rally attracted rap acio u s attention. T h e gold o f C ro e su s w as
m elted dow n for P hocian m ercen aries d u rin g thc Sacred W a r (3 5 6 -3 4 6 ) and
m an y a later tyran t financed h im self by thc sam e m ethod. C lea rin g s in thc
forests o f statues w ere later m ade by R o m an art collectors, but P liny could
still w rite o f thousands o f statues in D e lp h i."’7
V o tiv e gifts a rc a stim ulus to further b uildin g activity in the san ctu a ry.
C h a ra cte ristic a rc long, open colonnades, stoai, usually at the b oun dary o f the
sacrcd prccin ct. T h e earliest and ex em p lary structure o f this kind w as
erected once again in thc H craio n on Sam o s as early as the seventh ccn iury;
D id ym a follow ed suit sho rtly a fte rw a rd s."* T h e colonnades offer the visitor
sh elter from sun and rain and also en courage him to lin ger aw h ile. In ihe
sixth cen tu ry sep arate treasure houses, thtsauroi. begin to be scl up, abo ve all
in O ly m p ia and D elph i; these them selves are in thc sh ape o f sm all tem ples
and are in turn a gift to the god, p ari o f thc aparche or dekate. L ike the
sacrifices w hich vo taries m ultiply in thc vo tive representations, so d ivin e
im age and tem ple a rc reproduced. T h e god w ill delight in everyth in g, ju s t as
m an can take pride in everyth in g; all a re agalmala."**
P riestly dw ellin gs in ihe san ctu ary itself are the exception :'"* ih e dem an ds
o f purity adm it no norm al hum an life. O n the oth er h an d, houses for
sacrificial b an q uets, hestiatoria."' are frequently erectcd w ithin thc lemenos or
v ery near b y, especially a fter thc hearth house tem ple had given w ay to ihe
norm al tem ple w hich serves solely as a d w ellin g placc for the deity.
T h e layout, especially o f the ancicnt an d im portan t san ctu aries, arose
g ra d u a lly o ver th c cen lu ries, w ith co n stan t reb u ildin g and addition s. T h ere
is therefore no real arch itectural plan, no strict organ ization o fth e buildin gs
in recipro cal relation . E ach buildin g, especially each tem ple, is in the first
instance an in d ivid u al, constructed for its ow n sake and beautiful as an
ogalnia. O n ly the relation sh ip between the tem ple and a ltar w ith the
in terven in g s ac ral area is defined functionally and to som e extent constant.
T h e sym m etrical layout o f tem ples, colon nades, sta irw a y s and a ltars w as thc
p rod uci o f H ellcn isiic arch itects design in g g rea i tem ple com plexes for new
fo un d atio n s. A harm on ious relation sh ip betw een thc in dividual parts o f a
II 6 PR IE ST S 95
san ctu a ry w as nonetheless ach ieved bv ih c builders and arch itects even in
A rch aic and C la ssic a l tim es; the vitality o f this sacral arch itectu re lies
precisely in its seem in g irregu larity.
6 PRIESTS
G reek religion m ight alm ost bc called a religion w ithout priests:' there is no
priestly caste a s a closed group w ith fixed tradition , education, initiation , and
h ierarch y, and even in the perm an en tly estab lish ed cults there is no disciplina,
but on ly usage, nomos. T h e god in prin ciple adm its anyon e, as long as he
respects the nomos, lh at is, as long as he is w illin g to fit into the local
com m un ity; for this very reason, o f course, role distinctions between
stran g ers and citizens, sla v es and freem en, ch ildren and adults, w om en and
m en, a rc all im portan t at tim es. H ero do tus records with am azem ent that
the Persian s m ust call on a M a g u . for every sacrifice;1 am ong the G reeks,
sacrifice can be perform ed by an yon e w ho is possessed o f the desire and the
m eans, in cludin g h ousew ives and sla v es. T h e tradition o f rites and m yths
is easily learn ed through im itation and p articip ation ; m uch can even be
acqu ired o f the specialist arts o f the seer sim ply through o b se rv atio n .3
A t every m a jo r cu ltic occasion there m ust, o f course, bc som eone who
assum es the leadership , w ho begins, speaks the prayer, and m akes the
lib ation . P rerequ isite for this role is a certain au th o rity and econom ic pow er.
T h e sacrificer is the head o f the house, fam ily, or village, the president o f the
council, the elected c h ie f m agistrate o f the city - known as the archon in
A th en s - or the arm y general. W here there is still a kingship, as in Sp a rta ,
the kings h ave sp ecial respo n sib ility for intercourse w ith the sac red .4
In A th en s, alo n gsid e the arch o n , there is also a king, Basilcus, w ho like the
a rch on is elected for on e y ea r. T h e king is responsible for the ancient
relig io u s ce rem o n ies, co n d u ctin g ‘all trad itio n al sacrifices',5 in p a rticu la r, the
M ysteries, th e L e n a ia , an d the A n th este ris - in w hich his w ife also has
a sp ecta cu la r role to play. T h e arch on , on the other h an d, directs lhe
P an ath en aia and the D ion vsia, the m ajo r festivals that w ere organized in the
sixth cen tury. A t O ly m p ia , the organ ization o f the cult is closely associated
with the ad m in istratio n o f the E lean state: the city m agistrates elected in E lis
m ake the an n u al sacrifice o f a ram to Pelops in the Pclopion .6
T h e san ctu a ry is the property o f the god; the Irmenos is rem oved from
hum an use, unless for the benefit o f the san ctu a ry and the sacrificial festivals.
T o ensure that eve ry th in g is done in proper o rd er, a responsible official is
required - the priest, hiereus, or the priestess, hieitia? Priesthood is not a
gen eral status, but service o f one specific god in one pa rticu la r sanctuary’ .
N o one is a priest as such, but the Priest o f A p o llo Pythios or the Priestess o f
A th en a Polias; several priesthoods can , o f course, bc united in one person.
V a rio u s officials function as precinct govern o rs. T h e re will gen erally be
ju s t one caretak er, neokoros. T o o rgan ize the sacrifices, from the purchase
q6 r itu a l an d san ct u a ry II 6
o f ih r a n im a ls to thc sale o f the skin s, sacrifice cx cc u io rs, huropoio't, arc
a p p o in ted ; and m ore im portan t slill a rc sta te com m issions lo o versee ih c
fin an ces o f ih e san ctu aries, tpimeletai, hierotamuu.* T h e priest ra re ly lives in
the san ctu a ry, but he is ex p e cte d to Ik* con scio u s o f his respo n sib ilities; in o n e
ea se an in scription specifies that the priest be present in the san ctu a ry al
least ten d a y s a m onth. I f n eccssary. thc sacrifice can be perform ed w ithout a
p rie st.9
P riesth ood s are often h ered itary in certain ancicnt fam ilies w hich ow e their
statu s not least to this p re ro ga tive . In A th en s it is thc E tco b o u tad a i w ho
p ro v id e both thc priest o f E rcch th cu s-P o se id o n and the Priestess o f A th en a
P o lias, so a d m in iste rin g the cen tral cu lts on ih c A cro po lis. T h e ir ep on ym ous
a n cesto r Boutes - w hose nam e points lo thc sacrificc o f oxen - w as, they s a y ,
the b roth er o f the first king E rech th eu s, puttin g their priesthood alm ost on a
level w ith the kin gship. T h e fam ily o f the P rax icrg id a i oversees thc P ly n icria
fe stiv al, so assu m in g office sh o rtly before thc priest o f E rcch th cu s and ih c
priestess o f A th en a leave the A cro p o lis. T h e T h a u lo n id a i perform thc ancien t
bull sacrificc for Z e u s on thc A cro p o lis at the B ou ph on ia. T h c B o u zygai
pro vid e thc priest of Z e u s at thc P allad io n . T h c M ysteries o f E leusis
rem ain ed until the end o f an tiq u ity in thc h an ds o f thc E u m o lp id ai and the
K e ry k e s . w ith the E u m o lp id ai pro vid in g the hieroph an tes and the K e ryk es
pro vid in g the T o rc h -b c a rc r, dadourhns, and thc S a crc d H era ld , hierokeryx.10
T h e B ran ch id a i m ain tain a sim ila r relatio n sh ip to thc A p o llo san ctu a ry at
D id y m a . U p s ta rts also in vest ih cm sclvcs w ith a d ign ity to suit; G elo n and
H icro n , thc ty ra n ts o f G cla and S y ra cu se , claim ed that a h iero p h an tic officc
o f the C h th o n ic gods w as h ereditary in their fa m ily , and after their g re a i
v icto ry o v er C a rth a g e in 480 they proceeded to build a D cm cter tem ple in
S y r a c u s e ." F o u n d ers o f san ctu a ries later reg u la rly secu rcd thc priesthood for
th em selves and their fam ilies Tor all etern ity ’ .'*
P riests a re in sta lle d ; as ea rly as the Iliad it is said that the T ro ja n s
estab lish ed (ethekan) T h c a n o a s priestess o f A th e n a .15 A s w ith oth er posts, the
ap p o in tm en t is d ccided by thc co m m u n ity, u su a lly thc po litical a ssem b ly.
So rtitio n m ay bc seen as an in tim ation of d ivin e w ill. In A sia M in o r,
p riesthood s w ere reg u la rly auctioned in m an y places from H ellen istic
tim e s.M D epen d in g on the nomos, thc priesthood m ay last for a y ea r, for a
festal cycle, or for life. A n an n u al priesthood is frequen tly ep on ym o us, th a l is,
the local ch ron ology is related to thc list o f the nam es o f the priests. For
H ellan iko s to w ard s the end o f the fifth cen tu ry, the list o f thc H era priestesses
at A rg o s, as ihe list reach in g furthest back, w as the backb on e o f his h istorical
ch ro n olo gy.
A priestly office b rin gs reven ues, at least p rovision s, in acco rd an ce w ith
an cien t custom . T o g e th e r w ilh the sacrificia l victim the priest receives gifts o f
food, w h ich he uses on ly in part at the sacrificc; he is accorded a n h on orary
portion [geras) o f the roast m eat, u su a lly a leg, a n d the foods deposited on a
tab ic next to the a lta r eve n tu a lly fall to h im .'* O ften he receives ih c skin as
II 6 p r ie s t s 97
w ell. W ilh p ro gressin g ratio n alizatio n , fixed ch a rge s a rc set an d levied along
w ith ih c victim ; o n ce these a rc fixed in cash , the sa n ctu a ry receives a
collection b ox, thesauros, w ith a slot for c o in s .'7 T h e beggin g p rocession o f the
priest is an exception in G re ece , but belongs in a n ancien t tradition .
T h e tem ples in the N ea r E ast, from the very begin n in g o f high civilization ,
w ere econ om ic con cern s su p p o rtin g a large body o f priests. Sc arc ely
a n y th in g co m p a ra b le exists in G re ece , alth o ugh p arallels d e rivin g from
E aste rn traditio n s can certain ly be found in A sia M inor. D elp h i is an
exceptio n : situ ated in cra gg y isolation on the sle ep hillsid e, it is sim p ly
u n a b le to su p p o rt a peasan t co m m u n ity o f an y size. In the Hymn lo Apollo, the
C re ta n s w hom the god has led to P yth o as his priests en q uire: ‘ A n d how sh all
w e n ow live?’ S m ilin g ly the god com forts them : ‘ E ach m an sh all c a rry a knife
in his right h an d and sim p ly sla u g h te r sheep - and these will be a v a ila b le in
plen ty . . . B u t g u a rd m y tem ple and receive the cro w d s o f m en .' S o the
D elp h ian s live for the san ctu a ry and from the sa n c tu a ry .'" T h e oldest fam ily,
traced b ack to D eu kalio n , the su rv iv o r o f the flood, furn ishes the five
C o n se cra te d O n es, hosioi;10 an oth er kin gro u p , the L a b y a d a i, w ith its festal
b an q u ets, is know n through an an cien t cultic d e cre e .3'
N o n -G ree k elem en ts are evident in the cu ll o f A r tc m is-U p is o f Ephesos,
not o n ly in the rem a rk a b le cult im age w ith its pectoral w hich w as later seen
as m an y -b re aste d . 'I hc high p riest, megabyzos, is a cu n uch . A society o f m en,
set a p a rt for a y e a r an d bound to se x u a l a bstin en ce, m eets for sa c ra l m eals;
they a re called essenes, bee kin gs. T h e r e are also con serated m aid en s; the
m yth tells o f A m az o n s w ho founded the sanctuary.*’J C a stra te d priests are
a ttested in the cu lt o f K u b a b a - K y b c lc . and H ccatc o f L agiria in C a r ia also
has eu n uch s, ju s i as A p h ro d itc -A s ia r ic has her m ale tra n sve stite s.11
In G re ece th e priesthood is not a w ay o f life, but a part-tim e and h onorary
office: it m ay in v o lve expen se, but ii brings g reat presiige. T h e pious m an
treats the priest w ith reveren ce: at the sack o f Ism aro s, O d ysseu s spares
M aro n in the gro ve o f A p o llo , an d A lcib iad e s frees priests w ithout ran so m .3*
T h e priest is co n secrated (hieromenos). H is h air is u su a lly long an d he w ears
a h ead -b an d (strophion), a g a rla n d , costly robes o f w hite or purp le, and a
sp ecial w aistb a n d ; he ca rries a s ta ff in his h an d. T h e priestess is often
rep resen ted ca rry in g the large key to ihe tem ple, kleidouchos. In the theatre
sea ls o f h on o ur are reserved for the p rie sts.35 T h e priest is ‘ honoured am on g
the peop le a s a go d ’ , a s the Iliad s a y s .16
In a n u m b er o f eases the priest seem s alm ost lo a p p e a r a s a god. In
T h e b e s, the priest o f A p o llo Ism en ios is a boy of noble fa m ily ; at the
D a p h n cp h o ria festival he follow s behind the lau rel pole, w earin g a golden
g a rla n d and a long festal robe and w ith his h air untied - the epitom e o f
the youth ful god w ith un shorn h a ir .37 A l ihe L a p h ria festival in P atrai. the
p ric sless o f A rtem is rides on a ch ariot d raw n by d e er;38 sim ila rly , when the
H era priestess at A rgo s d riv es to the san ctu a ry on an o x-d raw n ca rt, she is
esp e cia lly clo se lo the cow -eyed go d d ess.39 At P ellen e the priestess o f A th en a
98 R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y II 6
a p p ea rs w ith helmet and sh ie ld ,'" and in A th en s the priestess nf A lh en a
w an d ers th ro u g h the streets w earin g the aegis.*' In m yth olo gy Ip h ig e n eia
is th e victim , priestess, and d o u b le o f A rtem is.
A priestess very com m only officiates for goddesses .ind a priest for gods,
bui there arc im portant exceptions and c o m p l i c a t i o n s .I n A th en s, the
priestess o f A th en a P olias is not a virgin but a m ature w om an w ho has put
co n jugal relations behind h er.11 P allas in A rgo s is cscortcd to the: bath by a
p rie st.M In the D cm eter cull priests a rc com m on, n otab ly hinophantai, though
ihey are, o f course, accom pan ied in office by priestesses and hinnphantide\.
D io n yso s quite frequently has priestesses, and so m ay A pollo and even the
Z e u s o f D odona.
W id esp read and ch aracteristic is the consécration o f boys and girls for a
perii»d o f tem ple service. In A th en s tw o arrhephoroi are allotted to serve on the
A cro po lis; they start the w ork o f w eavin g the peplos for A lh e n a and tend thc
sacred olive tree; at thc end o ft h e year they are disch arged in a m ysterious
n octu rn al ce rem o n y .'5 S im ila rly , in A ig cira and P atrai, a m aiden is
consecrated to A rtem is before m arriag e, w hile in K a la u ria a m aiden is
consecrated to Poseidon;16 in A th en s, girls arc sent to A rtem is at B rau ron as
shc-bears, ark toi.v B o ys are consecrated not on ly to A po llo as in T h e b e s or to
Z eu s as in A ig lo n ,1* but also to A th en a a s in T e g e a and E la te ia .’9 In the
tem ple o f A p h rod ite at S ik v o n ,40 an old w om an serves as neokoros alon g w ith a
virgin know n as the w ater carrier, toulrophoros; these two alone m ay enter the
tem ple, w hile all others m ay p ray to the goddess only from the entrance: thc
goddess o f sexu al life can bc appro ached freely only by those who are
excluded from her w orks. T h e tension seeks d isch arg e : m yth ology tells how
Poseidon, to w hom the virgin in K a la u ria is con sccratcd, ravish ed A ith ra on
the Sacred Island n earb y and sired T h e se u s.4' In th r backgroun d initiation
ritu als m ay be sensed w hich m erge, in m ythology at least, w ith child
expulsion and child sacrifice.
I’he sign ifican ce o f all such details is revealed only in each in dividual case.
A s a com m on d enom in ator o f w hat is required o f a priest there rem ains the
pu rity. hagntiaS* befitting the sacrcd . T h is in volves eschew ing contact with
d eath 4’ and w ith w om en in ch ildbed, and a n egatively ch arged relationship
to sex u a lity. Life-lon g celibacy is sca rcely ever fou n d .44 From tim e to time
d ietary proh ibitions and fasts are to bc ob served , but real asceticism develops
only in protest again st the civilization o fth e polis and its priesthood.4’’ At the
installation o f a priest there a rc frequently special in itiation s, teleisthai. as for
the hosioi in D elphi.4* A s for other requirem ents, the priest should above all be
a w orth y represen tative o f thc com m un ity. T h is m eans that he must possess
full citizen sh ip4’ and also that he m ust bc free from an y ph ysical defect.48
T h c m utilated and crippled are exclu ded. O therw ise, in contrast to m ore
respon sib le positions, it is true that anyon e can becom e a p riest.4''
Il 7.1 TH E FE ST IV A L 99
7 THE FESTIVA I.
7. i Pompe
As tilt* sa n ciu a ry a rtic ú la le s sp acc, so ihc festival articu lates lim e.' C ertain
d a y s - reckoned to in clude the preceding n ig h i - are sei oil" from ihe
e v e ry d ay ; work is laid aside and cu stom ary roles are dissolved in a general
relaxatio n , bul the festival pro gram m e holds new roles in readin ess. G ro u p s
com c together, sellin g them selves apart from oth ers. T h e contrast w ith
n o rm ality m ay bc expressed in m irih and jo y , in adornm en t and b eauty, or
else in m enace and terror.
T h e fun dam en tal m edium o f g ro u p form ation is the procession, pompe.*
T h e a ctiv e p articip an ts sep arate them selves from the am orp hous cro w d , fall
into form ation , and m ove tow ards a go al, though the d ém on stration , the
interaction w ith ih c onlookers, is scarcely less im portant than the goal itself.
H a rd ly a festival is w ithout its pompe. T h e centre to w hich lhe sacrcd action is
d raw n is n atu ra lly a san ctu a ry w here sacrifices take placc; but the p a th w a y is
also im portant and sacrcd. T o reach a cen tre such as lhe A cro p olis in
A th en s, the procession sets oui from lhe city gates and m akes its w ay through
the m arket p la c e .1 A l the E leu sin ian festival the Sa crcd W ay run s from the
sam e g atew ay through thirty kilom etres o f cou ntryside. T h e sacred objects
are first brought a lo n g ihis p a th w a y lo A th en s by the epheboi and then
returned a i the head o f the g rea t procession o f mystai for ihe nocturnal
ce le b ra tio n s/ In P ap ho s the procession leads from the new city to the old
cily w ith its ancien t s a n c tu a ry .1' T h e re are also processions w hich vivid ly
en act the aban do n m en t o f the san ctu a ry, the interruption for a period n f
purification.^
Pompe m eans escort, but how far the procession is an end in itself can bc
seen from lhe expression m ean in g to ccleb ratc a festival, pompas pempein,
literally, to a cco m pan y lhe escorts. T h e re a rc all kinds o f app u rten an ces lo
be carried and co rrespo n din g roles w ith fixed tilles such as basket bearer,
w ater b earer, fire b earer, bow l b earer, and bough b e a re r.7 In the D cm ctcr
and D io n yso s cu ll co vcrcd con tain ers w hose contents arc known only to the
in itiate are carried aroun d in connection w ilh the M ysteries — ih c round
w ickerw o rk basket w ith a lid, kiste, and ihc veiled w innow ing fan, liknon8 and
con sequen tly there a rc kistephoroi and liknophoroi. Sacred app u rten an ces o f
this kind m ay also bc borne alon g on a ch ariot, as is D em eter s basket,
kalathos, in the procession in A le x a n d ria .,J A n especially im pressive form o f
tra n sp o n is the sh ip on w heels, the ship chariot. A b o ve all, the procession
a lm o st a lw a ys includes the v ictim s for the sacrcd w ork and ihe festal
b an q uet. T h e p articip an ts ih cm selves d em on strate their sp ecial sta tu s not
o n ly w ith festal garm en ts, but also w ilh g a rla n d s,'" w oollen fillets, and twigs
w hich they h old in ih eir hands.
loo R IT U A L AN D SA N C T U A R Y II 7.I
T h e classical m onum ent w hich gives the fullest idea o f a great pompe is thc
P arthenon Frieze, o rigin ally 160 m etres in length, which ran around the celia
w all o f the P arth e n o n ." A t the beginning o f the y ea r the P an ath en aic
procession presented the goddess with a new robe, the peplos; the robe had
been carried through the city on a ship chariot and now, represented on thc
east face o v er the entrance to the tem ple, the Erechtheus priest stands
holding the folded robe between thc tw elve O lym p ian gods. T h c procession
m oves along both sides o f the temple tow ards this centre: there are basket
bearers and victim s for A th en a (four oxen and four sheep on one side, and a
suggestion o f a h ccatom b on the other), bow l bearers and w ater bearers (to
donate and earn,· these vessels w as the special privilege and duty o f the
m ctics), m usicians, ven erab le old men. and above all w arrio r youths, some
arm ed w ith shields and som e on horseback w ho arc particu larly eye
catching. T h e re are also w ar chariots with w arriors practising the spécial
sport associated w ith ihc festival - ju m p in g down from the hurtling chariot.
N atu ra lly the civic officials arc also represented, as well as the virgin s and
wom en w ho have m ade the peplos. T h e entire citizenry present them selves in
their essential groupin gs in this, the greatest pompe o f thc year.
A ch aracteristic form o f the A pollo cult is the bay bearing, the Dapfmephoria
festival. W e have a description o f thc T h eb an festival for w hich Pindar
com posed songs:
At sim pler festivals one can im agine a straigh tforw ard bay branch in place o f
the m aypole or C h ristm as tree type o f object described here. So, in thc
D elph ic ritu al, every eight years a boy fetches the b ay branch from the
T em p e valley in T h essaly.
A pollo h im se lf is callcd bay bearer, Daphnephorns. and m yth tells how the
god h im self brought the purifying bay to Delphi after slaying the dragon.
'I h c hoy in T h eb es, sp ecially deckcd out and graspin g thc bay, seem s to
represent thc god him self. In the Hymn to Apollo the poet has the god h im self
leading thc procession to Delphi w ith lyre in hand and playin g sw e etly .'4 I hc
god is present: but for this cult im ages are not nccessary. Processions with
cull im ages are m ore the excep tio n .1' At the G reat D ionysia the im age o f
Dionysos is brought to A thens from E leuthcrai; vase paintings portray the
I I 7 ·2 AtiERMOS tut
advent o f ih r god in ih c sh ip chariot In T h e ra i tn The m ountains of
T a y g cto s, a Kore statue is eseorted (rom the M arsh to thc san ctuary of
Dem etor E leusin ia for the fe stiv a l.'7 T h e M agna M ater m akes her entrance
seated on an o x-d raw n w ago n .'8 T h e n there is thc leading a w ay o f cult
im ages for thc unsettling purification. T erro r sp read s when thc otherw ise
unm oved im age is m oved. T h c im age o f A rtem is o f Pellene ‘ usually stands
untouched in the tem ple, but when the priestess m oves it and carries it out,
no one looks on it, but all avert their gaze; for not only to m ankind is its
aspect aw eful and grievou s, but even trees it causes to becom e b arren and
cast their fruit w herever it is e a r n e d . T h e d ivin e presents a M edu sa head;
those w ho escort it share in its power.
7.2 Agermoi
Processions collecting gifts are w idespread and still survive in som e places in
European popular cu ltu re.*1 In ancient G rccce custom s o f this kind make
only a m argin al appearan ce, but they certainly exist. O nly from a late
B yzantin e source do w e learn by chancc that even the priestess o f A thena
Polias went through the city collecting on certain d a y s / ' O n such occasions
she w ore the aegis o f the goddess, now no longer a real goat skin, but a
garm ent m ade o f woollen fillets, though som ething o f the ancient terror still
attached to it by its very nam e. In p articu lar, the priestess sought out new ly
m arried w ives, w ho no doubt owed gifts to the virgin goddess so that thc
terror w ould bccom c a blessing to them. T h c priestess o f A rtem is at Perge in
P am ph ylia also collccts.3* A esch ylu s had H era a p p ea r as a w andering
priestess seeking gifts for the N ym phs, thc ‘ life-giving daughters o f the river
In a c h o s V 1 In Io nia, thc wom en collect gifts w hile singing a hym n to O pis
and A rge, thc D elian m aiden s.M In S icily , herdsm en enter into the citics in a
special procession, w earing deer antlers, hung about w ith bread in the shape
o f anim als, and carryin g a leather pouch with all kinds o f g rains and also a
w ine skin; as they collect gifts they announce in song the adven t o f peace,
good luck, and h ealth .1' E lsew here, processions o f this sort are staged by
children - in A thens at the T h a rg elia festival in sum m er and at the
P yan o psia in autum n. T h e y ca rry an olive branch wreathed w ith fillets o f
wool and laden w ith num erous firstlings, fruits o f all kind, bread, and little
flasks o f oil. T h e branch is called Eircsione. and they sing: ‘ T h e E iresione
brings figs and fat bread, honey in pots, and oil lo rub dow n, a cup o f strong
wine so you go drunk to bed.*'0 O n Sam os, ihc children sing ‘ W ealth enters
in’ , while on R hodes thc Swallow Song adds light-hearted threats to the
begging requests: ‘or w e ’ll ca rry o(T your door, or yo ur w ife.’ ' 5 T h e se , oncc
ag ain , a rc A pollo festivals. T o thc prom ise o f blessings there corresponds an
alm ost sacral claim to gifts. Elsew h ere such activities, perform ed by societies
o f men or boys, arc often connected with the cult o f ancestors who are
represented in m asks. T h is cannot, or perhaps can no longer, be shown 10 be
thc ease anyw h ere in G reece. T h e public cults are financed from thc public
103 R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y II 7 . 3
p urse. C o lle ctin g therefore ap p ears as a ch aracteristic o f unoflicial sccts;
in ad dition to ih c A p o llo collectors such a s A b a r is / 8 there w ere also the
a d heren ts o f the M ag n a M a te r o f A sia M in o r, the M eie r collectors,
mttragyrlai\"J the true polis G reek treated them w ith disdain .
M asks,*7 the most ancicnt m eans o f surren derin g o n e's ow n identity and
assum in g a new extra o rd in ary identity, com e lo the G reeks through variou s
tradition s. T h e re a rc N eolith ic and also N ear E aste rn con n ection s.45 T h e re
a re an im al m asks, and also, in particu lar, ugly, ridiculous m asks. B esides thc
processions and thc d an cin g o f m asked figures, there are m asks w hich are
raised up an d w orsh ipped, som etim es even becom ing cult idols.'
T h c m ost d irect evidence for ihe w earin g o f an im al m asks com es from
those bull skulls cut into m ask sh ape w hich w ere found in C y p rio t
s an ctu a ries;44 this p ractice, how ever, did not have any direct influence
outside C y p ru s. N everth eless, thc w in e-pou ring youths at ihe festival o f
Poseidon in E ph esu s are callcd bulls, tauroi, m aidens in the Sp artan
L eu k ip p id cs cult a rc callcd foals, poloi, priestly groups o f bees, melissai, are
m ore fre q u e n t, an d th ere a r c also bears, arktoi.** A lo n g ihe selvage o f the robe
on ih e D espo in a sta iu e fro m L yk o so u ra all kin ds o f m usician s a re show n
m asked a s an im a ls, m ostly w ith don kcy-likc m asks, bul also cre aiu rcs w ith
cow and pig h ea d s;46 even though the icon ograp hical m o tif o f thc anim al
o rch estra reach es back to Su m erian lim es, som e ritual context must lie in thc
backgroun d. T h a t h yb rid crcatu rcs such as C e n tau rs and P an s are in reality
104 R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y II 7 .4
m asked figures is h igh ly pro b ab le W e are w ell inform ed about »he costum e
o f ihe Silcn o i and S a ty rs: the flat-nosed m ask w ith an im al ears and the
an im al skin a p p are l or loin cloth w ith horse tail and phallos attach ed. T h is
get-up has adm ittedly bccom c the literary s atyr play from thc end o f the sixlh
cen tu ry, and h as ih ereb y attain ed a different relation to reality from thc
e a rlier ritu a l.4“
G ro te sq u e m asks o f old w om en are found in the sphere o f fem ale deities,
esp ecially A rtem is; strikin g clay specim ens w ere found as vo tive gifts in the
O rth eia s a n c tu a ry .4“ It is said that the m asks w ere properly m ade o f wood
and that the w ea rers w ere called kyrittoi, and biyllichistai\i50 m en could also
a p p e a r in m asks o f ugly w om en. T h e siory w as told that by the river A lp h cio s
in E lis. A rtem is and her n ym phs had sm eared ih cir faces w ith m ud in order
to escape ih c am orou s altern ion s o f the river god - a reflection o f the rilu a l
use o f such gro tesq ue m asks.1 ' T e rra co tta , pot-shaped m asks from ihe H era
san ctu a ry at T iry n s d a le from as early as thc eighth century - thc earliest
G o rg o n heads w ith wild tusk-like fan gs;Si they un doubtedly go together w ith
thc m yth o f the w itch-like m etam orphosis o f the d augh ters o f K in g P roitus,
w hich took place in T iry n s . and w ith the gro tesq ue p ain tin g on the idols Irom
M ycen a e.
I f ihe three aven gin g goddesses, P raxid ikai, w ere w orsh ipped in the shape
o f h eads,*' these w ill doub tless h ave been pot-m asks o f ihis kind. T h e G orgon
m ask ap p ears on its ow n as an a p o trop aic sign, w ith round g ogglin g
eyes, lolling tongue, an d juttin g te eth .* A n ancient G orgon eion w hich w as
said to bc the w ork o f the C y clo p es slood in the m arket place at A r g o s ."
A m ask o f D cm eter K id a ria w as kept in Phcneos in A rca d ia , and ai thc
m y stery festival the priest w ould don thc m ask and ‘ beat thc sub terran ean
d w ellers w ith a ro d ’ . '6 A n elevated, b earded m ask m ay represent thc god
D io n yso s:17 that it w as also w orn to represent thc frenzied god d irectly m ay
bc surm ised.
T h e m ask effccls a transposition into a new and unknow n w orld, b u l ap art
from the petrifyin g G o rgo n , this, for the G reek s, is not so m uch a n u n can n y
and unsettling w orld as a w orld o f a b su rd ity and a g gre ssiv e o b sccn ily. T h e re
a rc m an y v a ria n ts o f ihc procession w ith gian t false phalloi; thc w earers of
these m a ssiv e m em b ra m ust conceal their bourgeois identity by sm earin g
them selves w iih soot or b ran or by w earin g m asks. T h u s a H ellen istic auth or
d escrib es the soot-sm eared phallophoroi and ihe ilhyphalloi w ho m arch
alon g in m asks rep resen tin g d ru n k s.’" M a sk and phallos also go together
in the sa ty r cosiu m e. B ut even in the A rtem is cult there w ere girls w ho
ap p eared in p h allic a ill re.w C lo w n -like m um m ers, p rob ab ly connected w ith
som e p o p u lar d ith y ram b o s, are know n in p a rticu la r from C o rin th ian vase
pain tin gs, w here they p a rad e a m ock nudity w ith their buttocks p added out
in an exag g erated w ay and indulge in all kinds of buffoonery
A s a cou nterpart to this there are ugly say in g s, aischrologia. and obscene
expo sures in w o m en ’ s festivals, especially at thc T h e sm o p h o ria. A s the
w om en celeb rate on their ow n a i the expen se o f thc m en, thc antago n ism
II 7*5 λοον io s
betw een the sexes is played up and finds release in lam poo n ery. A nam e for
m ockin g songs on such o ccasio n s is Iam b o s - developed a s a poetic genre
since A rch ilo c h u s; the ritual backgroun d still show s through in the lamboi on
Women by Sem on id es, w hich tears the opposite sex to pieces type by ty p e /"
la m b e w as m ad e into a m yth ical figure, a m aid w ho w as able to ch ecr up
D cm cicr after her sorrow and fastin g.6' In A th en s, the S tcn ia festival
im m ed iately before the T hesm ophoria w as given over to the exchan ge o f
ab u se betw een the sexes.63 T h e wom en in A egin a , financed by specially
appoin ted choregoi, presented m ocking choruses at the festival o f D am ia and
A u x c sia , though here the ra illery w as directed o n ly at oth er w om en from the
district.''4 O n the islan d o f A n ap h e , how ever, men and w om en je e re d at one
an o th er a t the sacrificc for A p o llo A ig le ie s - a p ractice in itialed , acco rdin g lo
legend , by the sla v e girls o f M e d e a d u rin g the A rgon au t expeditio n .65 D uring
ih c procession lo E leusis gro tesq uely m asked figures sa l at a critical n arrow
p ass n ear ih c b ridge across the brook known as lhe Rheiloi an d terrorized and
insulted the p a ssers-b y .“ A t D ion ysian festivals w agon s d rove through the
streets ca rry in g m asked figures w ho shouted ab u se at everyon e they passed
in a p ro verb ially co arse m ann er. ^
R ile s v\iih sex u a l em p h asis are gen erally understood in term s o f fertility
m agic in F ra z e r ’s sen se.68 T h e G reek evidence, h ow ever, a lw a y s points most
co n spicu o u sly to th e a b su rd ity an d buffoonery o f the w hole affair: there is a
con scious descent to the lo w er classes and the low er p a rts o f the an ato m y,
m irrored in ih c talk o f m yth ical m aids. J u s i a s pom p and cerem o n y contrasts
w ith e v e ry d ay life, so does extrem e lack o f ccrcin on y, a b su rd ity , and
o b scen ity ; a redoubled tension arises betw een ihe two extrem es, adding
further d im en sion s to ih e festival. S im ila rly there are sacrifices w hich
d em an d ihe v e ry opposite to the usual holy silen ce, wild cu rsin g or affected
lam en tation ."9 B y p lu m b in g the extrem es the ju s t m ean is m eant to em erge,
ju st as the sexes w hich gree i each oth er w ith je e rs are depen dent on each
other.
7·^ Agon
T h e ag o n al spirit, der açonale Geist, has. since F riedrich N ietzsche, often been
d escrib ed as one o f the ch a racteristic traits and d rivin g forces o f G reek
cu ltu re .7" T h e n um b er o f things w hich the G reeks can turn into a co n iesl is
astou n d in g: sport an d ph ysical b eau ty, h an dicraft and art, song an d dan ce,
ih catre and d isp u tatio n . W h ateve r is instituted as custom com es alm ost
au to m a tica lly under the ju risd ictio n o f a san ctu a ry. O n L esb o s, a beauty
contest o f the g irls took place a i the an n u al festival in the san ctu ary
of Zeu s, H era, and D io n yso s;7' som e such contest seem s to bc m irrored in
the m yth o f the ju d ge m en t o f P aris. O n a vo tive gift from T a re n tu m , a girl
boasts o f h avin g outshone all oth ers in a w ool-cardin g con tcst;71 the earliest
G reek in scription concerns a boy w ho ‘o f all d an cers p lays m ost g a ily ’ .73
ΐθ 6 R IT U A L AN D S A N C T U A R Y II 7 .5
M u sical contests a p p e a r prim a rily in hon our o f A pollo and D ion ysos; Ilute-
p lay e rs, flu ie -p lay ers w ith sin g e rs, and kith ara-sm gers each com pete w ith
o n e an o th er 3t the P y th ia n G a m e s in D elph i; in A th en s, d ith y ram b s,
com edies, and traged ies are staged co m petitively a t ihe D io n y sia , w hile at
ihe P an ath en aia, rh apsodes v ie w ilh one an o th er in the recitation o f H om er.
E ven m ore pop u lar, o f cou rse, w ere the sportin g contests. T h e sim plest
form , the foot-race, and ils m ost e x tra v a g a n t v a ria n t, thc ch ario t race, w hich
d eveloped from ihc B ro nze A g e ch ariot fight, w ere the m ost im p o rtan t, and
tended to oversh ad o w the oth er events such as w restlin g, b o xin g, long
ju m p in g , and ja v e lin throw ing. N everth eless, th e s p o riin g event is no profane
festival. Funerary· rites are at first a m ajo r occasion for gam es, as evidenced
by the epic description o f the fun eral gam es for P atro clus a n d also by
G eo m etric vase p ain tin gs and later in scription s; the epitaph ws agon persists
into C la ssica l tim es. K a r l M eu li has describ ed how ihe prize contest
proceeds from the g rie f and rage o f those aifected by the d e a th .74 L ater,
h ow ever, attention is focused on thc gam es connected w ith ca lcn d rica lly
fixed festivals, and thc trial o f strength o f the livin g a lso has an in itiatory
c h a racter. In the sixth cen tu ry, four P an h cllcn ic festivals com e to form a
recognized gro u p · the O ly m p ia , the P y lh ia at D elph i, ih e N em cios in honour
o f Z e u s and the Isih m ia for Poseidon n ear C o rin th . O th er city festivals such
as the P an a th en a ia in A th en s o r the H cra ia in A rg os strove to attain an equal
statu s w ithout qu ite su cc ee d in g .75
M ythology associates these gam es also with funeral gam es, w ith a local hero
w hose death had occasioned the first celeb ration ; Pclops o r O in o m ao s in
O lym pia, Archem oros in N em ea, Palairnon on ihe Isthm us, and in Delphi ihe
Python dragon . A s a m atter o f fact, the agon, as transition from an aspect o f
death to an aspect o f life, is in tim ately connected w ith the variou s sacrificial
ritu als. In O ly m p ia , the gam es a re preceded by a th irty-d ay period o f
prep aratio n d u rin g w hich thc ath letes a re required to o b serve a v egetarian
diet and sexu al abstin en ce. T h e festival open s w ith sacrifices, a pre lim in a ry
sacrifice for P clops, and great ox sacrifices for Zeus.
T h e con secrated portions then lay on the a lta r, but had noi yet
been set aligh t; the run n ers w ere one stadion a w a y from ihc altar;
in front o f the a lta r stood a priest w ho g a v e ihe startin g signal
w ith a torch. T h e victo r put fire to the sacred portions an d so
went a w a y O ly m p ic vic to r.7**
T h e oldest siad io n led directly to thc Z e u s a lta r: thc victor in the sim p le foot
race w as thc O ly m p ic victo r w hose n am e w a s recorded from 776 on w ard s.
T h c sprin t m ark s ihc tran sition from the b loody w ork to the pu rifyin g lire,
from the C h ih o n ic to the O ly m p ia n , from P clops to Z e u s. S im ila rly at the
P an a th en a ia. the sp ecial sp o rt, thc leap from thc ch ariot, is in tim ately
connected w ith the sense o f the N ew Y e a r festival; at ih c D o rian K a rn e ia
festival thc race is still inore ritu al than sp o rt.77 A n event cu riou sly
su rro un d ed b y m yth ology is the discus throw : it w as w hile p ra ctisin g this
II 7-6 TH E BAN Q U ET OF T H E GODS I0 7
5po rt that A p o llo h im se lf killed his youth ful favo u rite H y akin th o s - as i f th r
throw w ith the u n pred ictab le stone disc sou ght out a ch ance victim
T h e n atu ral an d stra igh fo rw ard aim o f a festival is feasting - eatin g and
d rin kin g . In G re ek s ac ral p ractice this elem ent is a lw a ys present. T h e meal
in the san ctu a ry m a y bc m arked as e x tra o rd in ary w hen, in co n trast to
norm al civilization , the ancien t w ay o f life is im ita te d :7" a bed o f tw igs,
stibas,;* takes the place o f scats or b an q u etin g couches, and the house is
rep laced by an im provised hut, skene^ - m islead in gly tran slated a s tent. T he
twigs on w hich one sits assu m e a sym b o lic ch a ractcr w hich v a ries accordin g
to d eity and festival: pine o r w illo w for the T h e sm o p h o ria, and wild olive
b ran ches in O ly m p ia ."'
T h e festival is spoken o f as the ‘ fulsom e b an quet of the g o d s’ ;1*' and yet the
portion o f the god s at the n orm al O ly m p ia n sacrificc is som ew hat m ore than
p recariou s. F o r g o d s to be exp ressly en tertained as guests at a m eal is the
exceptio n , but it still gives a n u m b er o f festivals their special ch aracter. So in
A th en s. Z e u s o f the F rien d s. Z e u s Philios,*3 m ay be invited to a ban quet:
a b an q uetin g couch (kline) is p repared and the table is spread w ith all th al is
n ecessary; reliefs show the god present at the feasi. T h e m ortals them selves
o b v io u sly jo in in w ith a w ill. T h is Z e u s w ho is treated on such fam iliar
term s is o b vio u sly not im m ed iately identical w ith the sky god w ho hurls
th un derbolts.
T h e real g u ests at the en tertain in g o f gods, theoxenia, a re the D ioskouroi.
T h e y a re celeb rated abo ve all in the D orian area, in S p a rta , but in A thens
also they are presented w ilh a breakfast in the P rytan cio n w here a tab le is
spread w ith cheese, cakes, o lives, a n d leeks. V a s e pain tin gs and reliefs show
th r d ivin e h orsem en gallo p in g through the a ir tow ards the tw o klinai
p repared for th em .84
In D elp h i,0' ih c T h e o x e n ia are a m ajo r festival w hich also gives a m onth
its n am e. D elegatio n s a rriv e from all o ver G reece and num erous gods are
invited to the b an q u et, though, u n d erstan d ab ly, A p o llo com es to d om in ate
the p ro ceed in gs m ore and m ore. A scu rrilou s agon is fought out: w h o ever can
o lfcr L eto the largest horn onion receives a portion from the sacred table. A ll
portion s from the table o f ih c gods, h ow ever, a re even tu ally d istrib uted to
m en. and the b reakfast o f the gods is follow ed b y gen eral eatin g and drin kin g
on the p art o f m o rtals.
Il w as from D elph i that the R o m an s look over the feasting o f the gods.
lectisternium; but at the sam e lim e, ancient tradition w as p ro b ab ly preserved
and a ctivated in this; the V e d a a fte r all rcp atcd ly sh ow s the in vitation o f gods
to a m eal, and the D ioskouroi m ost p a rticu la rly point 10 In d o -E u ro p ea n
trad itio n .86 A m on g the G re ek s this is in part m ore a m atter o f fam ily custom
than polis religion ; a lo n g w ith Z e u s Philios there is the custom o f m eals for
heroes an d m eals for the dead.
Ιθ8 R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y II 7 . 7
8 E C ST A SY A N D DIVINATION
8 .1 Enthousiasmas
Sin ce the sac rcd , thc d ivin e, a lw a y s a p p ea rs as out o f thc o rd in ary and
w h o lly o th er, thc overw h elm in g experien ces o f a ch an ged an d extended
co n sciousn css arc, if not thc sole o rigin , at least one o f the m ost essential
su ppo rts o f religio n . T h c experien ce m ay rest on n atu ral dispo sition ,
acqu ired tech n ique, or thc influence o f d ru gs, but a t all events, the in dividual
sees, h ears, and experien ces things w hich are not present for o th ers: he
stand s in d irect con tact w ith a h igher being and co m m un icates w ith gods and
spirits. F o r the ancicn t high civilization s it is n cv c rd iclcss ch a racteristic that
the estab lish ed cu lt is to a large extent in dcpcn den i o f su ch abn o rm al
ph en om en a. T h is is also true o f G rcc cc w here ecstatic, in cdiu m istic, and
y o ga-like cx p cricn ccs a rc far from unknow n, but a rc either push ed to the
periphery' o f religio us life or else strictly circu m scrib ed ; they do not bccom e
the fo un d atio n o f a revelation .
T h e w-ords w hich thc G reeks use to describ e such ph en om en a a re varied
and inconsistent. A n an cicn t nam e and in terpretation for an abn orm al
p sych ic state is enlfuosi ‘ w ithin is a go d ’ , 1 w ho o b vio u sly speaks from thc
person in a stra n g e vo icc or in an unin telligib le w ay and in duces him to
perform odd an d a p p are n tly sen seless m ovem ents. A t ih e sam e tim e,
h ow ever, it is said that a god seizes o r ca rrics a person , that he holds him in
lio R IT U A L AN D S A N C T U A R Y II 8 . X
his p o w er, katechti, w hich g iv e s in tran slatio n the term posstssio, possession.*
B a t step p in g o u t, tkstasis, is spoken o fju s t a s m u ch , not in the sen se that the
sou l leaves the b o d y , but th a l the person h as ab a n d o n ed his n o rm al w ay s and
his good sense;* a n d y e l o n e can a lso s a y that his u n d e rstan d in g (nous) is
no lo n g er in h im .4 T h e s e v a rio u s exp ressio n s ca n n either bc recon ciled
sy ste m a tic a lly nor d istin gu ish e d in term s o f an evolu tio n in lhe h isto ry o f
id eas: th ey m irro r the con fu sion in the face o f lhe un kn ow n . T h e m ost
com m on term is therefore mania, fren zy, m adness.
F re n z y is d e scrib e d as a p a th o lo gica l o u tb u rst p rovoked b y the a n g e r o f a
god . A s w ell as the p a th o lo gica l frenzy o f the in d iv id u a l, th ere is a lso ritu al
and in stitu tio n a lize d , co llective fren zy, e sp e cia lly the frenzy o f the w om en o f
a city as th ey break out a t the festival o f licence. T h e a im . n on eth eless, in
re a lity a n d in m yth , is to b rin g m adn ess back to sen se, a p rocess w hich
req u ire s p u rifica tio n and the p u rifyin g p rie st.5 In p a rticu la r, the G re ek s
seem s to h av e d isco vere d ecstatic cu lts connected w ith flute m u sic in
n o rth ern A sia M in o r am o n g lhe P h ry g ia n s; a cco rd in g ly , the possession
m en tion ed m ost freq u en tly is possession by the M oth e r o f the G o d s , w hose
p o w er also ex ten d s o ver the in itiatio n and p u rifica tio n o f the K o ry b an tes.6
N ev e rth eless, H e ra , A rte m is, H ecate, P an , a n d oth er go d s can also send
m ad n ess. E p ile p s y , a s the sacred d isea se , is in terpreted and treated
a cc o rd in g to this sa m e sch e m a , w ith the atta ck o f the god b ein g cou ntered
w ith p u rifica tio n s.7
T h a t d iv in e p resen ce in tran sfigu red con scio usn ess can a lso be e x p e ri
en ced in a p o sitiv e w a y as a b lessin g, n am e ly in son g an d d a n ce, is illu strated
o n ly by one ea rly but later forgotten p a ssag e : the ch o ru ses o f m a id en s on
D elo s kn ow ‘ lo im ita te the d ia le cts an d c h a iic r m g s o f all m en; each w ould
sa y th a t he w ere sp e a k in g h im self: in such a w a y is the b eautiful son g jo in e d
to geth er for th em .’ T h is h as ju s tly been co m p ared to the P en tecostal m iracle
a n d the sp ea k in g in tongues in the N ew T e sta m e n t. T h e discip lin ed h ym n
d isso lv es in to u n con trolled sou n ds w hich a rc n everth eless m ira cu lo u sly filled
w ith m ea n in g for the festival particip an ts.* P erh ap s som e vestige o f the
e p ip h a n y o f the d e ity in d a n ce, as in ferred for the M in o a n religion , is
p re se rv ed here.
In the D io n y so s cult c c stasy p la y s a qu ite un iq ue role, w ith the resu lt that
D io n y so s a lm o st a c q u ire s a m on opoly o v er en th u siasm and ec stasy , but this
e c sta sy is a m b iv a le n t. In m yth olo gy the frenzy m a y a p p e a r on ce a g ain a s a
ca ta stro p h e sen t b y the im p la c a b le H e ra ,0 but since the god h im se lf is the
F ren z ied O n e . th e m ad n ess is a t the sam e tim e d iv in e exp erien ce, fulfilm en t,
an d an end in itself; the m adn ess is then ad m itte d ly a lm ost in se p a ra b ly fused
w ith alco h o lic in to x ic a tio n .'0
A l lh e sam e tim e, there is the phen om en on o f a q u ite differen t, sob er
em otion w hich o v ertak e s the in d ivid u a l. T h e re are peop le w h o a re seized by
the n ym p h s a n d a b a n d o n house an d hom e to h ide in c a v es in the w ild e r
n e s s ;" there is the ca se o f A riste a s w h o is seized by P hoibos and m ira cu lo u sly
tran sp orted to n orth ern lan d s from w hich he return s w ith tales o f A p o llo 's
II 8 .'2 T H E A R T OF T H E S E E R Ilf
rem ote an d w o n d rou s p eop le, the H y p e rb o re a n s .'4 In the seven th an d sixth
cen tu ries, a n u m b er o f such m ira cle m en seem to h ave tra v elled a b o u t; they
h av e been called w an d e rin g s h a m a n s, and in flu en ces from thc realm o f
S c v th ia n n o m ad s a re p ro b ab le.'* W h eth er, like sh a m an s, they g a v e ecstatic
d em o n stratio n s is som eth in g w hich ca n o n ly be in ferred in d irectly from ihe
legend s w hich su rro u n d them , e sp e cia lly ih ose co n ce rn in g their a b ility to fly.
T h e re is also the rep ort co n ce rn in g H erm otiin o s from K la z o m c n a i, w hose
bod y la y a s i f d e ad w h ile his sp irit w en t jo u rn ey in g an d bro ugh t b ack
in fo rm atio n a b o u t d ista n t p lac es an d even a b o u t the fu tu re .'4 M o re
w id esp re ad a n d d o u b tle ss old er is thc co n victio n ih at e v e ry see r m u st stand
in 3 sp écial rela tio n sh ip to thc d ivin e sin ce his w o rd s p re su p p o se a kn o w led ge
w hich is m ore th an h u m an ; an d sim ila rly th c o ral singer is dep en d en t on his
go d d ess, ih c M u se , w h o sen d s him h ap p y in sp iratio n from m om ent to
m om ent.
P lato d istin g u ish e s ih c p ro p h etic m a d n ess o f A p o llo from thc tclestic
m ad n ess o f D io n y so s, before a d d in g , a s oth er typ es o f m a d n e ss, ih c poetic
and thc ero tic o r p h ilo so p h ical e n th u s ia s m .'' B y n am in g A p o llo and
D io n y so s in this w a y . the p e rip h e ral p h en om en a o f co n scio u sn ess are
co n sig n ed w ith in w ell-d efin ed sph eres: d iv in atio n here, in itiatio n there. T w o
b ro th ers, the son s o f Z e u s ru le o v e r ih c resp e ctiv e sp h eres, w h ile Z eu s
him self, th e h igh est g o d , sta n d s a s fath er a b o ve them in the c le a r sp ace o f
th in kin g, phronein.
8 .3 Oracles
It is in thc cu lts w hich a ttach to specific san ctu a ries that the gods are presen t,
an d th eir sig n s, too, are th erefore con cen trated on cult places. B u t su ccess in
the in terp retatio n o f sign s co u ld , m ore than an yth in g else, c a rry ih c fam e o f a
god an d o f his san ctu a ry far an d w ide. In this w ay , from th e eigh th cen tu ry
o n w ard s, a s u p ra -rcg io n al and even in tern atio n al im p o rtan ce w as attain ed
by certain p laces w h e re the god offers a serv ice , chresmos. to those in search o f
counsel; thc G re ek s called a place of this kind chresterion o r manteion, ihe
R o m an s oraculum.'* N ea r E aste rn an d E g y p tia n san ctu a ries had led the w ay
in such sp ecializa tio n ; thc o racles o f D a p h n e n ear A n tio c h e ia ,'9 M o p su estia
in C ilic ia ,4” S u r a 4' and P a ta ra in L y c ia ,*1 and T eltn essos in C a r ia 4* stand in
A sia M in o r trad itio n ; the G re ek s p ro b ab ly cam e to know the A m o n o racic at
the o asis o f S iw a sh ortly after the foun dation o f C y re n e a b o u t 6 3 0 .44 B y that
tim e the L y d ia n K in g G y g e s had a lre a d y sen t offerings o f gold to D e lp h i.'*
T h e m ethod s o f im p a rtin g o racles are alm ost as varied as the cult form s;
a tten tion is a ttra cted first, o f cou rse, to the m ost sp ecta cu la r m ode, that in
w hich the go d speaks d ire ctly from a m ed iu m w ho enters the state o f
enthousiasmes.
D o d o n a, the san ctu a ry o f Z e u s in E p iru s, boasied o f being the oldest
o ra c le .4,1 T h e Ilia d h as A ch ille s p ray to the P clasg ia n Z e u s o f D odon a; ‘a b o u t
yo u d w ell thc H clloi (Scllo i?). the in terpreters, w ith un w ash ed feet, sleepin g
011 tlic g ro u n d .’ 47 T h a t rem a rk a b le body o f priests later d isap p ea red , and
even th eir n am e is d iscu ssed on ly on the b asis o f this Iliad text. O d ysseu s
alleges he h as go n e to D od o n a 'in o rd er to learn thc plan o f Z eu s from the oak
o f lofty fo lia g c V H the H csio dic Catalogues perh aps a lre a d y spoke o f three
d o ves w hich d w ell in the oak tree;4'* a cco rd in g to later traditio n it is three
p riestesses w ho are called the d o ves;50 they enter a state o f ecstasy , and
‘a fte rw a rd s they d o not know a n y lh in g abou t w hat they h ave sa id ."·' T h e
ex c a v a tio n s h a v e expo sed thc sim ple tree san ctu a ry; not until ihe fourth
cen tu ry w as a sm a ll tem ple added, after the M olo ssian kings o f E p iru s had
assu m ed the p ro tectorsh ip o f D odon a. F ro m that tim e o n w ard s, D odona
en jo yed a certain p o p u la rity ; n everth eless, ii is m ostly p riva te in d ivid u als
w ho on the su rv iv in g lead tab lets ap p ro ach tin- god for a d v ice on e ve ry d ay
prob lem s.
T h e O ra c le o f the D ead at E p h y ra 13 must be o f an cien t rep u le and thc
n am e o f the su rro u n d in g T h c sp ro to i cle arly poin ts to their d ivin e m ission;
the a sso ciatio n o f O d y sse u s’ jo u rn e y lo H a d es w iih this spo l is p ro b ab ly
o ld er than o ur Odyssey.'" T h e tw o rivers there w ere then g iv en ih e n am es o f
the riv ers o f the u n d erw orld , A ch ero n an d K o k y lo s .* A b o u l 600 the tyrant
P erian d ro s o f C o rin th co n ju red up the soul o f his dead w ife th ere .” T h e
II 8.2 O RACLES 115
in stallatio n un covered through rcccn t ex c ava tio n s d a te s o n ly from the fourth
ce n tu ry ; e a rlier stru ctu re s w ere d o u b tless lost w hen that m on um en tal new
b u ild in g w as erected. T h e centre is a sq u are com plex w ith w alls o f polygon al
m aso n ry th ree m etres thick givin g a C y clo p e a n a p p ea ra n c e. A roun d this
runs the a p p ro ac h co rrid o r, on ce com pletely d a rk , p assin g a b athroom ,
in cu batio n and d in in g ch a m b e rs, places for p u rificatio n , for th row ing a
stone, and for bloody sacrificc. and fin ally leadin g through a lab y rin th w ith
m anv d o ors into thc cen tral ch am b er, b en eath w hich a vau lted cry p t
rep resen ts the w o rld o f the d ead . P erh ap s there w as a m achin e for producin g
ghostly a p p e a ra n c e s - iron rollers w hich h av e been found a rc interpreted
in this w ay - or p erh ap s thc eatin g o f certain kinds o f b eans had a
h allu cin o g en ic effect; n um in ous experien ce and m an ip ulatio n m a y overlap .
C o m p a ra b le is thc o racle o f T rop h o n io s a t L e b a d e ia .^ A veritab le jo u rn e y
into thc un d erw orld is reported by P au sa n ias from his ow n experien ce. A fter
long p reparatio n ’s, ih c in q u irer at the o racle is led at night tim e into a vau lted
ch am b er from w hich a w hirlw in d m iracu lou sly carries him through a
sm all a p ertu re a b o v e thc g ro u n d ; w hen he return s he is u n ab le to lau gh. T h is
last d e ta il, as w ell a s the descen t, katabasis, is also m entioned in the early
so u rce s,47 but it is not know n to w h at degree the th eatrical, a n d p erh ap s even
m ech an ical, ela b o ra tio n o f the process is a product o f the Im p eria l A g e.
D ream o racles a rc m ore stra igh tfo rw a rd . A fte r p re p ara to ry sacrifices, the
in q u irer sp en d s the night in thc sa n ctu a ry ; priests a rc at hand to a ssist in thc
in terpretation o f the d re am s/'0 I his in cu batio n later flourished a b o v e all in
the do m ain o f the h ealin g go ds, in the A m p h iara io n at O ro p o s5'' an d in the
A sk lcp icia . I he p ractice, h ow ever, also leads b ack into A sia M in o r trad ition :
the o racle o f M op so s in C ilic ia w as a drearn oracle, a s w as thc o racle o f thr
T e lm c ssia n s in C a ria .
M o p so s, gra n d so n o f T e ire sia s and riva l o f K a lc h a s , w as a lso regard ed 3s
loun d er o f rhe o racle at K la ro s n ea r C o lo p h o n /“' 1’his o rac le persisted
through a n u m b er o f crises and destruction s into the Im p eria l A g e, w hen it
en joyed its greatest ren ow n . In the Im perial b uildin g a vault led b en eath the
tem ple to the sacred sp rin g w h ich , a cco rd in g to m yth ology, had gushed from
the tears o f T e ire s ia s ' d a u gh ter M a n io ; the thespiodos d ran k from ih is w ater
and th ereb y b ecam e entheos. W h o ev e r w ish ed to en ter in to the o rac le w as first
req uired to un dergo an in itiation , tnyests.r"
A sacred sp rin g also existed in the oth er great A p o llo o racle o f A sia M in o r
ai D id y m a n ear M ilcto s. H ere it w as a priestess w ho entered a state of
ecstasy w h ile h old in g thc lau rel w an d o f the god in her h an d, w eltin g her feel
w ilh the w ater, and b reath in g in its v a p o u rs.0- In P atara in L y c ia the
priestess w as shut up in thc tem ple at night: sh e w as visited b y the god and
filled w ith pro ph ecy.
T h e r e is no o rac le o f w h ich so m uch is know n or abou t w hich so m uch is in
d isp u te a s that o f P ytho, thc sa n c tu a ry o f the D clp h ian s.''' O rig in a lly , it is
said , the god g a ve respon ses here o n ly once a y e a r at thc festival o f his advent
»n the spring;*'4 but as a result o f the fam e o f thc o racle, services cam e to bc
I ΐβ R IT U A L AND SA N C T U A R Y II 8 .3
offered throughout the entire y ea r; indeed, at tim es three P yth iai held office
at once. T h e P yth ia is a w om an dedicated to the service o f the god for life; she
is dressed as a yo u n g g irl.6' A fter a hath in the C a sta lia u sp rin g and after the
p re lim in a ry sacrifice o f a g o at, she enters lhe tem ple, w hich is fum igated with
b arley m eal an d laurel leaves on lhe ever-b urn in g fuslia. and descends into
lhe adyton, the sun ken area a t the end o f the tem ple interior. T h is is w here the
O m p h alo s stan d s and w here, over a round, w ell-like opening in the ground,
the iripod cau ld ro n is set up: the cauldron is closed with a lid and it is on this
that th e P yth ia takes her scat. Seated over the ch asm , enveloped by the rising
v a p o u rs, and sh ak in g a freshly cul bay b ran ch, she falls into a trance. T h e
H ellen istic th eory lhat vo lcan ic fum es rose up from the earth has been
d ispro ved g eo lo g ica lly ; the ccstasy is self-induced. M ediu m -like abilities arc
not entirely uncom m on. A d m itted ly it w as also regarded as possible to bribe
the P yth ia. T h e utterances o f the P ythia are then fixed by the priests in the
norm al G reek literary form, the H om eric hexam eter.
T h e A p o llo lemenns in D elph i w as o b viou sly not founded before 750;**
neverth eless, the Hind alre ad y speaks o f the rich treasures held fast w ithin the
door-sill o f the go d .6* It is clear that in the founding o f the G reek colonics in
the W est and on the B lack Sea from the m iddle o f the eighth century the
in struction s o f the D elph ian god assum e a leading role.6“ O n ce a gain this is
less a m atter o f prediction than o f helping to m ake decisions in these risky
and often a b o rtiv e un dertakin gs. L ater, im portant state constitutions are also
subm itted to the D elph ian god for a p p ro val; this w as done w ith the S p a rta n
R h etra w hich w'as attrib uted to L vcu rg u s6·' and even w ith the thoroughly
ration al phylai constitution introduced by Cleistlu-ncs in A th en s in 5 1 ο . 1"
A p o llo ’s proper d o m ain is cultic questions - innovations, restorations, and
purification s in the cultic sphere. T h e sacred law o f C vre n e and the uparcht
d ecree o f A th en s w ere both ratified by D elp h i.7' T h a t D elphi m anifestly
failed to fo resee the G reek victory in the Persian W ars an d all too clearly
recom m ended su rren d e r bad ly dam aged its reputation, in spite ol all
attem pts to rein terpret its pronouncem ents. T h e rea fte r political decision s
w ere in cre asin gly taken w ithout reference to the o ra c le .7* In stead, we h ear
o f in qu iries by p riv a te in d ivid u als such as C h aire p h o n 's question w hether
an y o n e w as w iser than S o cra te s.?< Before jo in in g C y r u s ’ adven tu ro us revolt
a gain st the G re at K in g , X en o p h o n inquired at D elphi not w hether he should
becom e in vo lved o r not. but ‘ to w hich gods he should sacrifice in ord er to
rem ain safe and so u n d ';74 in obedien ce to the response he sacrificed to Z eu s
B asilcu s, and even though he ach ieved no great success, he at least returned
safe.
There w as also a lot orach· in D e|ph i;7'J this is also recalled by the form ula
‘ the god took u p 1 (aneilr) for the givin g o f the response. T h e inspired
d ivin atio n is therefore cle arly secon d ary; indeed, it is gen erally believed to be
o f n on -G reek origin . Frenzied w om en from w hose lips the god speaks are
recorded very m uch earlier in the N ear F.ast, as in M ari in the sccond
m illennium and in A ssy ria in the first m illen n iu m ;70 M op su eslia , D aphn e.
II 8-5 ORACLES 117
P atera , anti Ic lm c s so s arc n on -G reek, htii n everth eless h ave no inspired
d ivin atio n ; in the B ran ch os tradition o f D id y m a ·' and also in K la ro s pre-
G reek elem ents m a y he present. In addition there is the tradition abou t the
sibvls. in d ivid u al pro ph esying w om en o f early tim es w ho ad m itted ly are
known on ly through legend. T h e most fam ous sib yl w as connected with
E ryth ra i, but 3 sib y l is also supposed to have rcachcd D elphi; it is interesting
»hat a B ab y lo n ia n sib yl is also m entioned. :H T h e sib yl o f K y m e -C u m a e
becam e most im portant by virtu e o f her influence on Rom e; the conquest of
C u m a e by the O scan s in thc fifth cen tury ad m ittedly destroyed this tradition,
but at the sam e time provides a terminus ante quern.'0 H eraclitu s assum es as
w ell-know n that thc sibyl ‘ w ith ravin g m outh . . . roaches over a thousand
years . . by force o f the god'.*" T h e D elphian sib y l also callcd h erself thc
wedded wife o! the god A p o llo .91 In 458 A esch ylu s presented C a ss a n d ra on
stage as a frenzied prophetess; she refused to satisfy the desire o f the god and
in punishm ent her proph ecies a rc no longer b e lie v e d /' How the sibyl suffers
violence from the god is alluded to by V erg il also .“ ’ T h e re arc hints o f a
sim ilar relatio n sh ip betw een the P ythia and A pollo, even if it w as only
C h ristian s w ho first elab orated this w ith sexual details.*1* T h e priestess in
P atara had a relation sh ip o f this kind w ith her god and p arallels are found
elsew here in A sia M in o r,81 but this is m anifestly not the ease in Scm itic
inspired d iv in atio n ; in K la ro s and on M ou n t Ptoion1* a m ale seer is seized by
the god. In spired divin ation is a gain too com plex for its origin and thc
stations o f its diffusion to bc d e a r ly defined.
T h e p reservation o f oracu lar utterances w as doub tless one o f thc earliest
applicatio n s for the art o f w ritin g in G reece, w hich began to spread about
750. T h e utteran ce is thereby freed from the context o f question and answ er,
from the execution o f thc ritu al, and can becom e o f im portance a t another
place at another lim e. A ge inspires respect; ancient sayin g s especially arc
therefore collected in w ritin g and so are a lw a ys read y to hand. T h a t forgery
begins a s soon as recordin g goes w ithout sayin g. S ib y l oracles w hich last a
thousand years p rob ab ly played a leadin g role am on g the written oracles:
later, p ro b ab ly abou t t5oo, o racles o f Epim en ides o f C rete a p p ea r.*7 then,
o versh ado w in g his. oracles o f the ancient bard O rp h eu s and o f his disciple
M u sa io s.^ T h e o racles ol' B ak is,*' w ho claim ed to ow e his inspiration to
the N ym p h s, becom e im portant at the tim e o f the Persian W ars and even
thereafter; B ak is seem s to bc an A sia M in o r, L y d ia n nam e. H is oracles take
the gen eral form o f a con ditional prediction: ‘ but when . a p articu lar
event is alluded to in bold m etaphors, often d raw n from the an im al w orld,
w hich will b c follow ed by som ething terrible, very rarely som ething
g ra tify in g ; ritu al ad vice is then given . C ities began to m ake official collections
o f oracles. M ost long-lastin g w as the influence o fth e libri Sibyllini - w ritten in
G reek - in R o m e. In A th en s, O no m acritu s w as charged w ith the task of
collecting the oracles o f M u saio s abou t 520; ihe poet L asos proved him guilty
o f a forgery and O n o m acritu s w as forced to leave A th en s.00 W hereas
H erodotus en ergetically defends the auth ority o f B ak is,9' the com edy o f
118 R IT U A L A N D S A N C T U A R Y I I 8. 3
A risto p h a n es presents h igh ly d u b io u s figures touting o rac le books, and in
P lato the m ockery is com pou nded w ith a m oral con dem nation o f thc m isuse
o f ritu al. E v en thc collections o f o racles did not bccom c holy w rit; thc
su rv iv in g collection o f the Sib y llin e O racle s is o f Ju d c o -C h r is tia n origin .
O n o m a critu s instead b ecam e the exe m p la ry nam e for the pro b lem s con
nected w ith thc ed itin g and forging o f lite rary texts.
Ill
The Gods
I T H E SH E L L OF HOMER
2 INDIVIDUAL GODS
2 .i Zeus
T h e sp o rtsm an s b rag is m arvello u sly fused w ith cosm ic fan tasy and the
IU 2.1 ZEU S 137
d ivin e g lim m er o f go ld ; the golden ch ain becam c the sub ject for m anifold
in terpretation by the an cien t e x c g c ic s . '1 T h e oth er god s m ay protest again st
Zeus, they m a y attem pt to d iso b ey him or even plot a gain st him , but nothing
can serio u sly th reaten him - he rem ain s far su p erior.
T h e m yth , esp e cia lly as H esiod tells it, relates lh at this had not alw a ys
been the case, that Z e u s h ad had to win his po w er through stru g gle and
defend it ag ain st revolt. B efore Z e u s the T ita n s held sw a y and Z e u s ' father
K ro n o s ruled. T h a t K ro n o s sw allow ed his ch ildren is m odelled on the N ea r
E astern succession m yth . Z e u s w as saved from this fate by the cu n n in g o f his
m other R h e a , w ho g a ve K ro n o s a stone to sw a llo w instead. O n ce Z e u s had
com e o f ag e, he led the gods in w ar a gain st the T ita n s : sky, ea rth , sea. and
underw orld w ere all con vulsed in the b attle, but Z e u s em erged victo riou s
thanks to his in vin cib le th u n d erb o lts .’4
Z e u s is therefore the kin g, anux, in po st-H o m eric lan g u a g e, basileus. H e is
seen by the G re ek s in tw o im ages: a s the boldly strid in g w a rrio r w ho sw in gs
ih e thunderbolt in his raised righ t h an d , an d a s the figure enthroned w ilh
sceptre in h an d. H is cre atu re is the eag le; lhe orien tal lion is alien to him .
O n the oth er h an d , h e is in tim ately connected w ith bull sacrifice, the o v er
p o w erin g o f the stro n g b y the stron ger.
T h e sto ry o f Z e u s ’ ch ildhood is further elab orated in a post-H esio dic,
C re ta n Theogony'* w hich tells how 3 ban d o f youth ful w arrio rs, the K o u re te s,
d an ced w ith sw irlin g shields arou n d the Z e u s ch ild to prevent his cries from
being h eard. M irro re d here are C re ta n initiation ritu als as found in the Ida
m ysteries: h ere Z e u s w as b orn every y e a r in the glow o f a g rea t fire .'6 In the
w ar d an ce o f the yo u th s the D ictaean Z e u s a p p ea rs as the g reatest Kouros
w ho sp rin gs on flocks, corn fields, houses, tow ns, sh ip s, and yo u n g citizen s .17
W here there is b irth , th ere is d e ath ; it is difficult to a v oid the conclusion that
the in fam ou s G r a v e o f Z e u s on C re te , w here the K o u re te s b u ry Z e u s ,'" is a
polar co u n terp art to the birth o f Z e u s, even though the local traditions
cannot e a sily be lin ked.
T h e fact that Z e u s o verth rew his ow n fath er a lw a y s loom s o m in ou sly in
the b ackg ro u n d . E v e ry u su rp er is threatened w ith the sam e fate. Z e u s , too, is
im perilled b y w om en destined to b e a r a son w ho is greater than his father.
A cco rd in g to H e s io d /y M etis, W isdo m , w as one such w om an , an d so. after
their m a rriage , Z e u s prom ptly sw allo w ed her; since then he h as carried
W isdom w ith in h im self; the on ly child o f ih is union is P allas A th en a.
A cco rd in g to an o th er v ersio n / 0 it is the sea goddess T h e tis whom Z e u s h as to
d eny h im se lf for ihis reason; sh e later becam e the m other o f A ch illes by
P eleus.
I h e on ly a d v ersarie s that are left are m on sters, cast from the very
b egin n in g in a n eg ative role, w ho to their cost rebel ag ain st the rule o f Z eu s.
O n e su ch is T y p h o e u s / ' th e son o f E a rth and T a rta ro s , a h yb rid creatu rc in
h um an a n d serp e n l form , u su a lly p o rtra y ed w ith serpent feet; this flam e-
b reath in g m onster sou ght lo estab lish h im se lf as ru ler o f the w o rld , but Z eus
12 8 T H E GODS II I 2.1
d estroyed him w ith his th u n d erb o lt and hurled him into T a rta ro s. L a te r it
w as a lso said that he la y ben eath M ount E tn a w h ere his fiery breath could
still be seen b elch in g from the crater.
T h e G ig a n t e s ," the g ia n t, arm ed ch ildren o f E a rth , staged a reb ellio n
a g ain st the O ly m p ia n go d s as a w hole. It is im possib le to attrib u te this m yth
w ith certain ty to a n y e a rly lite rary sou rce, but it becam e a fa vo u rite subject
for a rtists in the sixth ce n tu ry : a battle fought out in sin gle co m b at in w hich
thc ev e r victo riou s go d s em p lo y th eir variou s sp ecial w eapo n s - Poseidon his
triden t, A p o llo his bow . and H ep h aistos his fire. H ere, too. it is Z eu s w ith his
th un derbo lt w h o decid es the d a y. P ow er is latent violen ce w hich m ust h ave
b een m a n ifested at least in som e m yth ical on ce -u p o n -a -tin ie. S u p e rio rity is
g u a ra n te e d o n ly by d e fe a te d in ferio rs.
A n d so it is Z e u s w h o gives victo ry. E v e ry tropaion, that m onum ent d ra p ed
w ith booty on the battle field, can be called an im age o f Z eu s.*3 A fte r the
g reatest o f G re e k victo ries at the b attle o f P la ta e a , a san ctu a ry w as set up on
the b attle fiHd for Z e u s the lib era to r. Eleulherios, w here for cen tu ries festivals
w ere celeb rated w ith g a m e s.M A n in scrip tion from the fifth ccn tury pro claim s
p lain ly a n d n a iv e ly / 5
2.2 Hera
2.3 Poseidon
•¿.4 Athena
2 .5 Apollo
2 .6 Arlrrtiis
2 .7 Aphrodite
■2.8 Hermes
2.9 Demeter
2 .1 0 Dionysos
2 .11 Hephaistos
3 .1 lasset Godj
3 .3 Nature Deities
3 .4 Foreign Cods
3 .5 Daimon
F o r daimon and theos are n ever sim ply in terch an geab le cither. T h is is seen
m ost cle arly in ihe ap o strop h e often addressed to a person in ep ic: d a im o n ie it is
m ore reproach than praise, an d therefore certain ly docs not m ean d iv in e; it is
used when the speaker does not understand w h a t the addressee is d o in g anÆ
w h y he is doing it. Daimon is occult pow er, a force thal drives m an forw ard
w here no agen t can bc n am ed. T h e in dividual feels a s it w ere thal the tide is
w ith h im , he a cts w ith th e d a im o n , syn daimoni, o r else w hen ev e ry th in g turns
ag ain st him . he sta n d s again st the d aim on , pros daimoiui, especially w hen a god is
favo u rin g his a d v e rs a ry .7 Illness m ay be described a s ’ a h aled daim on* that
assails the sufferer; but then it is gods, theoi. w ho bring him release.8 E v ery g«Kl
can a c i as daimon; not every act o f Ilis reveals the god. Daimon is the veiled
co u n te n a n ce o f d iv in e a c tiv ity . T h e r e is no im a g e o f a d a im o n , an il there is no
cu lt. Daimon is thus the n ec essa ry co m p le m e n t to the H o m e ric v ie w o f thc
g o d s a s in d iv id u a ls w ith p e rso n a l ch a ra cte ristic s: it co v e rs that e m b a ra ssin g
re m a in d e r w h ic h elu d es ch a ra c te riz a tio n an d n am in g.
O n ly in o n e sp e c ia l ca se do cs Daimun a p p e a r in cu lt an d ic o n o g ra p h y :
as G o o d D a im o n . Agathos Daimon.'* T h e first lib atio n at w in e -d rin k in g in
g en e ral a n d in th e D io n y so s san ctu ary' in p a rtic u la r is m a d e in his h on o u r, h e
is rep resen te d in the form o f a snake. P erh ap s this s u b te rra n e a n b ein g,
u n kn o w n in a n y m y th , is a lso a rem a in d er, som e th in g left beh in d w hen
D io n y so s w a s a ss im ila te d to the d e ath less O ly m p ia n s ; this som eth in g couldj
no lo n g e r b e c a lle d g o d , but n o r co u ld it bc ca llc d h ero, for it cou ld not bd
lo calized in a g r a v e ; o n e sp o k e in stea d , eu p h e m istica lly a n d in co n ju ra tio n , θΓ
the G o o d D aim on .
H e s io d 10 allo tted a p re cise p la c e even lor the co m m o n daimones: the m en of
the G o ld e n A g e . w hen th eir ra ce d ied o ut. w ere tran sfo rm ed b y the w ill ût
Z e u s into daimones. g u a rd ia n s o v e r m o rta ls, good b ein g s w h o d isp en se rich cs.
N e v e rth e le ss, they rem a in in v isib le , kn o w n on ly b y th eir a cts.
A special know ledge of daimones w as claim ed b\ thc m argin al sect o f P ythag
o rean s: they Could not onl\ h ear daimones. but even see them , and expressed
great su rp rise that this w as noi accepted as quite n atural by oth er m e n ."
1 he o rd in a r y m an sees o n ly w h at h ap p e n s to h im . u n p re d icta b le and not
|tI 2-5 DAIM ON 18 1
f his o w n c n a c iin g . and he ca lls ih c d riv in g po w er daimon, so m e th in g like
e bul w ith o u t a n y perso n w h o p lan s a n d o rd a in s b ein g v isib le . O n e m ust
on good term s w ith it: ‘T h e d a im o n a c tiv e abo u t m e I w ill a lw a y s
n sci°u s ly put to rig h ts w ith m e b y cu ltiv a tin g him a cc o rd in g to m y
ç a n s·” * ^ nc e x c la im s, 40 daimon , but w ith no p ra y e r. 'M a n y a rc thc fo rm s
0( ihc d a im o n -ly , m an y th in g s u n h o p ed -for the g o d s b rin g to p a s s ,’ is the
stereotyp«* co n clu sio n to K u rip id e a n tra g ed ie s: a s soon as a s u b je c i o f the
action a p p e a rs , it is g o d s. ‘ T h e g rea t m in d o f Z e u s steers thc d a im on o f
ih r inen w h o m he lo v e s .''1
W hether he is h a p p y o r u n h a p p y is not so m e th in g w hich lies in m a n ’ s
control’, the h a p p y m an is th c one w h o h as a good d a im o n , eudaimon, in
contrast to th c u n h a p p y m an . thc kakodaimon. dvsdaimon. T h a t a sp éc ial being
w atches o v er each in d iv id u a l, a daimon w h o h as o b ta in ed thc person a t his
birth by lot, is an idea w hich w e find fo rm u la ted in P la to ,'4 u n d o u b ted ly from
earlier tra d itio n . T h c fa m o u s, p a ra d o x ic a l sa y in g o f H e ra c litu s is a lre a d y
directed a g ain st su ch a v ie w : ‘c h a ra c te r is for m an his d a im o n .” '
T h c a v e r a g e m a n secs reaso n en ou gh lo fear the daimon·. the eu p h em istic
talk abo u t thc ‘o th er d a im o n " 1’ in stead o f th e evil d a im on in d ica te s a deep
unease in thc fa cc o f a n u n c an n y p o w er. T r a g e d y h as a m p le o cc asio n for
p ortravin g the d re a d fu l b low s o f fate w hich strik e the in d iv id u a l, a n d h ere, in
A csch y lu s e s p e c ia lly , the d a im o n b eco m es an in d ep en d en t, in d iv id u a l fiend
that ‘ falls h ard upon the h o u se1 and g o rges its e lf on m u rd e r - th ough ihis,
too. is ‘ w ro ugh t b y thc g o d s’ . ' 7 U n c a n n y pow ers o f a sim ila r kind a re the
E n n y e s,"’ th e e m b o d ie d c u rse , a n d th e Alastor,'* ih e p e rso n ifie d p o w e r o f
vengeance to r spilled blood: this in deed is a d em o n ic w o rld ; but dwmou is not
a gen eral term w h ich co ve rs all such p o w ers, it is m erely one a m o n g m a n y ,
die pow er o f fate a s it w ere a lo n g sid e thc p o w er o f v en g e an c e or thc po w er
o f the cu rse. Λ g en e ral b e lie f in sp irits is not ex p re ssed b y the term daimon
until the filth ce n tu ry w hen a d o cto r a sse rts that n eu ro tic w o m en and girls
can be d riven to s u ic id e by im a g in a n ' a p p a ritio n s, ‘ evil daimones'." H o w far
this is an ex p re ssio n o f w id esp re ad p o p u la r su p e rstitio n is not ea sy io judge.
O n the b asis o f H e sio d ’ s m yth , h ow e ver, w h a t d id g a in cu rren cy w a s for
great and p o w erfu l figu re s to be h on o u red a fter d e ath as a d a im o n . T h u s , in
A esch y lu s’ Persians, thc d e ad kin g D a riu s is co n ju re d up as a d a i m o n , a n d
in E u rip id e s, th e ch o ru s con so les A d m cto s o ver ihe d e ath o f A lce stis w ith
Ihe w o rd s, n ow she is a b lessed d a im o n , w hile the m u rd ered R h e so s is
transform ed in to a p ro p h esy in g m a n -d aim o n .'* P lato co n ten d s th at as a
general po licy all w h o d ie figh tin g for their co u n try sh o u ld be h on oured as
daimones. L a te r in H e llen istic g r a v e in scrip tio n s it b ec am e alm ost a m a tte r ol
course to d e sc rib e the d e ad perso n a s a daimon/*
W hen So crates sought to find a word for that unique inner experien ce w hich
w°u ld com pel him in all kinds o f situation s to stop, say no. and turn about,
rather than speak o f som ething divin e, he preferred to speak o f som ething
d aim on l), the daimonion that encountered h im .J ’ T h is w as open to m isinterpret
ation as dealin gs w iih spirits, as a sccrct cult. It cost Sócrates his life.
IÔ2 T H E GODS
4 T H E SP E C IA L C H A R A C T E R OF G R E E K ANTHROPOMORPHISM
T h r h is to r y o f re lig io n w a s fo r m e r ly in c lin e d to re g a r d ih r w o r l d · o f
O ly m p ia n g o d s a s s o m e th in g q u ite u n iq u e , a s a c r e a t io n o f H o m e r , th at is, 0p
th e e a r ly G r e e k s a n d th e ir p o e ts .' W ith th e re d is c o v e r y o f th e a n c ie n t N eat!
E a s te r n lite r a tu r e , th is v ie w h a s b ee n o v e r t u r n e d . A s t o n is h in g p a r a lle ls r»>J
th e H o m e r ic w o rld h a v e s p r u n g to lig h t, p a r t ic u la r ly in th r a r e a s rn o jJ
a c c e s s ib le to G r e e c e , in th e H itt ite a n d U g a r it ic d o m a in s . E g y p t re m a in s ai
sp ecial case. B u t E g y p t a p a r t , th e N e a r E a s te r n -A e g e a n koine q u ite e v id e n y j
in v o lv e s a p a n th e o n o f a n t h r o p o m o r p h ic g o d s w h o s p e a k a n d in te ra c t vvifM
o n e a n o t h e r in a h u m a n w a y , w h o lo v e , feel a n g e r , a n d s u ffe r , a n d w h o ■
Mr
m u t u a lly r e la te d a s h u s b a n d s a n d w iv e s , p a re n ts a n d c h ild r e n ; fu r t h e r m o t jj
th ere is th e a s s e m b ly ol th e g o d s , a n d th e m o u n ta in o f th e g o d s in th e n o r t h ]
N o r is M y c e n a e a n G r e e c e a n y e x c e p t io n : Z e u s a n d H e r a a re p a ire d lo g c ih r r j
th e re is th e D iv in e M o t h e r , a n d th ere is D r im io s th e son o f Z e u s . 3
O n ly a m o re e x a c t d iffe r e n t ia tio n w ill a llo w th e s p e c ia l c h a r a c t e r o f tHi
G r e e k . H o m e r ic g o d s to e m e rg e . O n e v e r y c o n s p ic u o u s p e c u la r it y c o n c e rn i
th e d iv in e n a m e s : it is n o t o n ly th e m o d e rn h is to ria n w h o e x p e c ts diviity
n a m e s to e n s h r in e so m e m e a n in g . A m o n g th e R o m a n g o d s a r e n a m e s ;iJt
u n a m b ig u o u s a s D ie s p it e r a n d M e r c u r y , a n d ev e n the n a m e s J u n o o r V eim i
a r e in te llig ib le : a lo n g s id e th e se , o f c o u rs e , a r c n a m e s ta k e n o v e r fro m d
E t r u s c a n s a n d th e G r e e k s . S c lf - t x p la n a t o r y n a m e s a re b o rn e b y Sum eriflJ
g o d s s u c h a s E n k i, L o r d o f B e lo w , o r N in h u r s a g , M is t r e s s o f th e M ou n tain
a n d b y B a b y lo n ia n g o d s s u c h a s M a r d u k , S o n o f th e M o u n ta in ol th e Godl
Isis m e a n s T h ro n e a n d H o ru s th e O n e A b o v e . In U g a r il th e m ost im p o rta i
g o d s a r e E l a n d B a a l, G o d a n d L o r d , a n d fo r th e H itt ite s th e y a r e th e So
o f A r in n a a n d th e W e a t h e r G o d , w h o w a s p r o b a b ly c a lle d T a r h u n t , 10
S t r o n g .1 B y c o n tr a s t, th e n a m e s o f th e G r e e k g o d s a r e a lm o s t a ll im p e l
e n a b le . N o t e v e n fo r Z e u s c o u ld th e G r e e k s fin d th e co rre c t e t y m o lo g y , m
in th is p a r a d o x th ere is p la in ly a s y s t e m :' a t m o st s e m i-in te llig ib ility j
a d m itte d , D e -m e te r D io -n y so s : o th e rw is e th e in te llig ib le n a m e form s* a J
d is p la c e d : E i le iih y ia in ste a d «>f E le u lh v ia , A p o llo n in ste a d o f A p e lld j
H e r m e s in ste a d o f H c r m a a s .
M o s t o r d in a r y G r e e k m en a n d w o m e n n o n e th e le ss h a v e n a m e s w h ic h ®
q u ite p e r s p ic u o u s , w h e th e r o f th e ty p e T h r a s v b o u lo s , b o ld in c o u n s e l, ‘ »I
lik e S im o n . H a t-n o se B u t th e n a m e s o f th e h e ro e s a r e e ith e r, o n ce a g q
♦o a larg<· e x te n t e n c o d e d - A g a m e m n o n in ste a d o f A g a m c n - m o n , th e ilfl
a d m ir a b le fo r s ta n d in g firm - o r e ls e s im p ly in e x p lic a b le lik e A c h ille s a
O d y sse u s. C le a r ly th e o b je c t is to m a k e th e in d iv id u a lity o f a pcrsol
e s p e c ia lly a p e rso n not p h y s ic a lly p re se n t, s ta n d o u t m o re m e m o r a b ly
g iv in g h im a s tr ik in g n a m e , ju s t a s o r th o g r a p h ic a l c o m p lic a tio n s af*
in tr o d u c e d in to m any E n g lis h n a m e s. T he p a r a d o x th u s becom es
d e fin in g c h a r a c t e r is tic : th e G r e e k g o d s a r e p e r s o n s , not a b s tr a c t io n s , i d c d
o r c o n c e p ts ; theos c a n be a p r e d ic a te , but a d iv in e n a m e in th e te llin g s o f r r a T
IJJ T H E S P E C lA t . C H A R A C T E R O F G R E E K A N T H R O P O M O R P H IS M lfi;j
• a s u b je c t W e m a> s a y th a t th e c x p c r ie n c c ol a sto rm is Z e u s , n r th a t th r
15 n(. ric n ce o f s e x u a lit y is A p h r o d it e , b u t w h a t th c G r e e k s a y s is th a t Z e u s
S u n d e r s a n d th a t A p h r o d it e b e s to w s h e r g ifts . F o r th is re a s o n th e n a tu r e
ilcitic s m u st in e v it a b ly ta k e s e c o n d p la c e . T h c m o d e m h is to r ia n o f re lig io n
a y s p e a k o f ‘ a r c h e t y p a l fig u r e s o f r e a l i t y ’ , b u t in th e G r e e k , lo c u u o n a n d
id eatio n is s tr u c tu r e d in s u c h a w a y th a t a n in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lit y a p p e a r s
iJja l h as its o w n p la s tic b e in g . T h i s c a n n o t b e d e fin e d , b u t it c a n b e k n o w n ,
and su cli k n o w le d g e c a n b r in g j o y , h e lp , a n d s a lv a t io n .
T h e s e p e r so n s a s th e p o e ts in tro d u c e th em a r c h u m a n a lm o s t to th e last
d e ta il· T h e y a r c fa r fro m p u r e ly s p ir itu a l. V it a l e le m e n ts o f c o r p o r e a lity
b elo n g in a lie n a b ly to ih e ir b e in g , fo r in p e r s o n a lit y , a fte r a ll. b o d y a n d m in d
a rc in se p a r a b le . T h e i r k n o w le d g e s u r p a s s e s th c h u m a n m e a s u r e b y fa r , a n d
ih eir p la n s a r e d ir e c te d to d is t a n t e n d s a n d g e n e r a lly fin d fu lfilm e n t; b u t e v e n
Z e u s se e m s n o t a lw a y s o m n is c ie n t .' T h e g o d s c a n tr a v e r s e v a st d is t a n c e s , b u t
lliev a r e not o m n ip r e s e n t ; th e y w ill c o m e to v is it th e ir te m p le s , b u t a r c n o t
con fin ed w ith in th e cu lt im a g e . T h e g o d s a r c n ot im m e d ia te ly v is ib le ; th ey
show th e m s e lv e s a t m o st to in d iv id u a ls , o r e lse th e y a s s u m e n o w th is, n o w
that h u m a n fo rm . N e v e r th e le s s , it is p e rfe c tly p o s s ib le for a g o d to h a v e a
p h ysica l e n c o u n te r w ith a m a n : A p o llo s trik e s P a t r o c lu s o n th e b a c k , a n d
D io m ed e s w o u n d s A p h r o d it e a n d A r c s w ith h is s p e a r .11 D iv in e b lo o d is o f a
d ifferen t sort fro m h u m a n b lo o d , ju st a s th c fo o d a n d d r in k o f th c g o d s a re
d ifferen t, d iv in e s u b s t a n c e s , b u t e v e n d iv in e w o u n d s a r e p a in fu l, c a u s in g th e
god to c ry o u t a n d la m e n t. F o r th e g o d s , to o, c a n su ffe r. E v e n Z e u s , th c
high est g o d , is m o v e d a t le a st b y p ity so th a t h is h e a rt g r ie v e s a t th e d e a th o f
a m an w h o is d e a r to h im .’’ A n d e v e n m o re , th c g o d s c a n b e fille d w ith fu ry
an d ra g e , but e q u a lly , th ey m a y s h a k e w ith in e x tin g u is h a b le la u g h te r .
A n in a lie n a b le p a r t o f g o d s is. o f c o u rs e , th e ir s e x u a lit y . T h e h u m a n m a n is
d efined b y s e x u a l a c t iv it y ; fo r g o d s , a ll h u m a n lim ita tio n s la ll a w a y , a n d
here, too, w ish a n d fu lfilm e n t a r c o n e . M o r e o v e r , ‘ th e b e d s o f th c im m o r ta ls
Are n ev e r b a r r e n 1“ — e v e r y a c t h a s issu e . A n d s o th e se g o d s g iv e r is e to a r a c e
o fh e r o e s ; ev e n in h is to ric a l lim e s a v ic t o r m ig h t b c la u d e d a s s ir e d b y a g o d . "
H ie c h a r a c t e r o f th c fa t h e r is m a n ife s t in th c d iv in e o ffs p rin g : a s o n o f Z e u s
" ’ill b c r e g a l, a s o n o f H e r m e s n im b le a n d r o g u is h , a n d a so n o f H e r a c le s
m u sc u la r a n d d a r in g ; b u t a ll th e se c h ild r e n a r c g lo r io u s .
In the c a s e o f g o d d e s s e s , th e re la tio n s h ip to s e x u a lit y is m o r e d iffic u lt;
since (he fe m a le ro le is g e n e r a lly d e s c r ib e d a s p a s s iv e , a s b e in g ta m e d ,
«menai, it a c c o r d s ill w ith th e ro le o f th e M is t r e s s . C o n s e q u e n t ly , it is a s
v *rg m s th a t A r t e m is a n d A t h e n a e n jo y th e ir s p e c ia l p o w e r , w h ile
th e ir^ f0 r ' s o c c a s io n fo r h e r b itte r r a g e .1' H e r a a n d A p h r o d ite fin d
a cti e n l ’ n th e c o m m e r c e o f lo v e ; w h e r e m o re is to ld , th e y a r c th e
seek t ^ a r ln c r s ~ H e r a a t th e d e c e p tio n o f Z e u s , a n d A p h r o d it e w h e n sh e
and d ° Ul ^ n c ^ 's c s · " C h ild b ir t h , w h ic h c a n n o t b c d iv o r c e d fro m th c p a in s
Kodrl , a il^ c rs la b o u r , is a ls o d e b a r r e d fro m th e p o r tr a it o f th c g lo r io u s
the η r d w e lls in ste a d on th c le s s e r d e ity , L e t o , w h o , le a n in g a g a in s t
e >an p a lm , g iv e s b ir th to A r te m is a n d A p o llo . B u t o f c o u rs e , th e
18 4 TH EO O DS III ^
B u r ia ls , w h ic h p re s u p p o s e fu n e r a r y r itu a ls , a re a m o n g th c e a r lie s t c v id c n c d
o f h u m a n c u ltu re . T h e y a ls o c o n s titu te o n e o f th e m o st im p o rta n t c o m p le x a
o f m a te r ia l fo r p r e h is to r ic a n d in d e e d e v e n fo r c la s s ic a l a r c h a e o lo g y , (of|
w h a te v e r is d e lib e r a t e ly b u rie d u n d e rg r o u n d is m o st lik e ly to s u r v iy j
u n d is tu r b e d a c ro ss th e m ille n n ia . T h u s g r a v e a r c h a e o lo g y h a s lo n g s i i n
d e v e lo p e d in to a h ig h ly s p e c ia liz e d a n d c o m p le x s tu d y ; a s a g a in s t th a t, ad
a c c o u n t o f G r e e k re lig io n m u st re s tric t it s e lf to r e la tiv e ly ro u g h outline*]
M o r e o v e r , th e e x c a v a tio n fin d s m u st b c c o n s id e re d a lo n g w ith th c lite r a l]
e v id e n c e o f th e a n t iq u a r ia n s a n d p o e ts, a n d o n c e a g a in H o m e r a ss u m e s « !
s p e c ia l im p o r ta n c e .'
B u r ia l c u sto m s a n d b eliefs a b o u t th c d e a d h a v e a lw a y s g o n e h a n d in h an d
o n e in flu e n c in g th c o th e r, b u t, a s s p e c ia l s tu d ie s s h o w , th e re is n o s tril
c o r r e la tio n b etw e e n th e tw o .J T h e id e a s a r e o fte n v a g u e a n d p r a c tic a lf
a lw a y s d iv e rs e a n d c o n tr a d ic t o r y . I h c u n d e r s t a n d a b le a w e w h ic h in h ib il
s p e a k in g o r e v e n th in k in g a b o u t d e a th m e a n s th a t c e rta in m a n n e rs o f s p e e d
a r e o b s e r v e d w ith o u t th e im p o rt o f th c w o rd s e v e r b e in g m a d e e x p lic it. A n
even m o re , th e c u sto m s p r e v a ilin g in lo ca l and fa m ily tra d itio n a fl
p e rfo rm e d in u n q u e s tio n in g c o n fo rm ity . R itu a l a n d b e lie f a r e c o n c e r n e ·
a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly w ith th e d e a th o f o th e rs ; o n e 's o w n d e a th r e m a in s in ( Λ
d ark .
A s id e fro m th e q u e s tio n o f h is to r ic a l in flu e n c e s a n d su p e rp o sitio n s]
in te r p r e ta tio n s o f th is c o m p le x o f c u sto m s a n d b eliefs m a y b c d ire c te d
p s y c h o lo g ic a l m o tiv a tio n o r s o c ia l fu n c tio n . In th e re a c tio n s to th c lo ss o fa * J
g e n e r a lly o ld e r - p a r tn e r , th c p s y c h o lo g ist d e te c ts a s h a r p a m b iv a le n c e (I
e m o tio n , b etw e e n fu rio u s p a in a n d relie f, triu m p h a n d b a d c o n s c ie n c e .’ T H
re a l r e le a s e a n d e n ric h m e n t o f th e h e ir is c o n c c a le d b e n e a th d e m o n s tr a tiv i
m o u r n in g , h o n o u r in g th e d e a d p e rso n , a n d p o s th u m o u s o b e d ie n c e ; dw j
o r ie n ta tio n a n d d e p re s s io n a re o v e rc o m e b y fe stiv e e a tin g a n d p r c s tig d
b r in g in g s p o r tin g c o n te sts. A t th c s a m e tim e , a s o c ia l fu n c tio n o f th e fu n e r a r t
c u sto m s b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t, for in d ee d a s a w h o le th e y a r c c o n c e rn e d witll
a s s e r t in g tra d itio n a c ro s s g e n e ra t io n s a n d in p a r tic u la r s tre n g th e n in g fa m ilî
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° I G r e e k b u ria l p r a c tic e , th e b re a k w ith th e M y c e n a e a n w o rld a fte r 12 0 0 is
Iced b y th e s p r e a d o f s in g le b u ria l a n d c r e m a t io n . A d m itt e d ly , in so m e
rnar f i s t i n g v a u lte d a n d c h a m b e r to m b s c o n tin u e to b e u s e d : o n C r e t e a n d
places ^ c h a m b e r to m b p e rsis ts a s th e n o r m a l fo rm a n d it is ev e n
• * * d u c e d on R h o d e s. B u t s in g le b u r ia l n e v e rth e le s s co m e s 10 b e th e g e n e ra l
* _ ¡th er i» th e fo rm o f a pit lin ed w ith sto n e s la b s , th e sto n e cist to m b , or
-11 he fo rm o f a s im p le p it in th e g r o u n d ; in th e c a s e o f c r e m a tio n s , th e u rn is
, j lik e w is e . T h e b u rn in g o f th e c o rp s e is th e m o st s p e c t a c u la r c h a n g e
from ih c M y c e n a e a n A g e .4 In B ro n z e A g e G r e e c e th is c u sto m is p r a c tic a lly
u n k n o w n , th o u g h c e r ta in ly it w a s p r a c tis e d b y ih e H ittite k in g s a n d a ls o in
T r o y V I / V I J A . It a p p e a r s in th e tw e lfth c e n tu ry in A t t ic a in th e P e ra ti
cem etery. In H o m e r ic e p ic , th is is the o n ly b u r ia l fo rm a c k n o w le d g e d . B u i in
fact n o w h e re d id it e s ta b lis h i t s e l f e x c lu s iv e ly . T h e c e m e te r y m o st th o ro u g h ly
in v estig a te d is the p r in c ip a l c e m e t e r y fo r A th e n s , th e K e r a m e ik o s o u t s id e th e
D ipylo n G a t e . H e re , in th e p r o to -G e o m e t r ic p e rio d , c r e m a tio n g r e a tly
p re p o n d era tes a n d in th e n in th c e n tu r y it is th e o n ly fo rm : b u t fro m ih e
eighth ce n tu ry o n w a r d s , in h u m a tio n s in c r e a s e a g a in a n d c o m e to c o n stitu te
som e th irty p e r ce n t o f a ll b u r ia ls .
T h e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e e v id e n c e is d is p u te d . D o e s th e s p r e a d o f cist
tom bs in d ic a te th e a r r i v a l o f im m ig r a n t s , p e r h a p s th e D o ria n M ig r a t io n ? '
T h e re is no c le a r c o rr e la tio n b e tw e e n th e in n o v a tio n a n d th e a r e a s w h ic h a r c
d e m o n stra b ly D o r ia n . D o e s it s ig n a l a re s tr a tific a tio n o f s o c ie ty fo llo w in g the
co llapse o f th e M y c e n a e a n k in g s h ip ? W ith s in g le b u ria l th e d e a d p e rso n
is treated m o re a s a n in d iv id u a l, th o u g h to b c s u re th e b u ria l p la c e still
pro claim s th e u n ity o f th e fa m ily ; n o b le fa m ilie s e a c h h a v e th e ir o w n , w a llc d -
olf, g r a v e e n c lo s u re .' B u t it is a ls o p o s sib le to s e e th e s p r e a d o f c is t to m b s a s a
return to a n e a r lie r . M id d le H e lla d ic p r a c tic e w h ic h h a d co n tin u e d a lo n g s id e
the s ta n d a rd M y c e n a e a n fo rm s . T h e m o v e to c re m a tio n h a s b e e n in te r
preted , in p a r t ic u la r b y E r w in R o h d e , a s a s p ir it u a l re v o lu tio n in w h ic h th e
pow er ol th e d e a d w a s b r o k e n , w ith the s o u ls b e in g b a iy s h e d fro m th e re a lm
° f the liv in g . E th n o lo g is t s a n d a r c h a e o lo g is ts h a v e b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly
scep tical o f th is th e o r y .’ In h u m a tio n a n d c re m a tio n a re fo u n d s id e b y s id e in
the sa m e p la c e - in C r e t e th e y e v e n a p p e a r to g e th e r in th e s a m e g r a v e ; in th e
a c c o m p a n y in g rilu a l a n d in th e g r a v e g o o d s n o d iffe re n c e c a n b c d e te c te d ;
nor 15 th e p u rp o s e to d e s t r o y th e c o r p s e , fo r the b o n e s a r c c o lle c tc d a ll th e
m° r e p io u sly a n d p r e s e r v e d in a n u rn . T o e x p la in th e v a r y in g u s a g e , w c fin d
o u rselves th ro w n b a c k o n p o s s ib le e x t e r n a l fa c to rs - s u c h a s w o o d s h o r ta g e —
or sim p ly u n p r e d ic t a b le fa sh io n ; a c h a n g e in re lig io u s b e lie f ca n n o m o re b e
"iv o k e d th a n a d iffé re n c e in trib e .
Th
^ ne stric t s e p a r a t io n o f se ttle m e n t a n d g r a v e p re c in c t g o e s to g e th e r w ith
c d e v e lo p m e n t o f c ity life: th e d e a d m u st b e c a r rie d o u t; h e n c e g r a v e s
^ c u m u la t e a lo n g th e m a in ro u tes o u t o f th e c it y . T h e K e r a m e ik o s in A th e n s
a Case in p o in t. B u r ia l in th e c ity m a rk e t p la c c o r e v e n in th e co u n c il
ιι>2 T H E D E A D , H E R O E S , A N D C H T H O N IC G O D S I\ ,
c h a m b e r b e c o m e s ih e u n iq u e , h o n o rific e x c e p tio n .11 F u n e r a ls fo r in fa n ts ar*J
a lw a y s a n excep tio n .'* T h e e ss e n tia l s ta tio n s in th e n o rm a l fu n e r a r y r i t u â u l
a re th u s th e la y in g out o f t h e c o rp s e , prothesis, th e c a r r y in g o u t, ekphora. arid]
th e fu n e ra l p ro p e r w ith fu n e ra ry s a c r ific e s a n d a fu n e r a ry b a n q u e t — w hi J
a re ta k e n u p a s th e b a s is o f a c o n tin u in g g r a v e cu lt.
T h e prothesis is a lr e a d y re p re se n te d on I,a te M y c e n a e a n s a r c o p h a g i, and
th en tim e a n d a g a in on th c la r g e G e o m e tr ic g r a v e v e s s e ls ." W a sh e d art(J
d re ss e d b y th e w o m e n a n d w ith a fillet o r w re a th w o u n d a b o u t h is h e a d .
d e a d m a n is la id o ut for v ie w in g in his h o u se , s u rro u n d e d b y the l a in c n t ffl
re la tiv e s. T h e la m e n t, w h ic h it is the d u ty o f th e w o m en to p e rfo rm , \%
in d is p e n s a b le . It c a n be b o u g h t or it ca n be c o e rc e d . W a ilin g w o m e n Horn)
C a r i a c o u ld still b e h ired in P la t o ’s tim e. A c h ille s o rd e re d th e c a p tiv e T r o ja ifl
w o m e n to la m e n t fo r P a tro c lu s , a n d S p a r t a c o m p e lle d the s u b je c t M e s s c tfl
ia n s to s h a r e in th e m o u r n in g at th e d e ath o f a k in g .'' T h e sh rill c rie s a r d
a c c o m p a n ie d by te a r in g o f h a ir, b e a tin g o f b re a s ts, a n d s c ra tc h in g o f c h e c k J
I he re la tiv e s d e lile th e m s e lv e s: th ey cu t th e ir h a ir, stre w a sh e s o n th ciq
h e a d s, a n d w e a r filth y , to rn c lo t h in g .'· T h c w h o le h o u se h a s fa lle n fro m i|)H
s ta te o f n o rm a lity . I h c prothesis la s ts the w h o le d a y . T h e n , e a r ly in th e
m o rn in g o f t h e th ird d a y , 1' th c c a r r y in g o ut en su e s. N o b le fa m ilie s e m p lo y ·®
fu n e ra l w a g g o n , as th e G e o m e tr ic v a s e p a in tin g s a ls o s h o w . In th e p ro c e ss io n
to th e g r a v e th e d e c e a s e d is a g a in su rro u n d e d b y n u m e ro u s m o u rn e r s and;
lo u d la m e n ta tio n s. W h e re th ere is to be a c re m a tio n , the fu n e ra l p y re ii
ere cted n e a r the b u ria l p la c e . It is th c d u ty o f the n e a re st r e la tiv e , o f the sorfl
in p a r tic u la r , to g a th e r th e b o n es fro m a m o n g th e a sh e s.
T h e fu n e ra l in v o lv e s fu n e r a r y s a c rific e s . F r o m th e sta n d p o in t o f m o tiv ^ l
tion a n d e x e c u tio n , th ese a r c o f at lea st th ree d iffe re n t kin d s.
In th e first p la c e , th e d e c e a s e d re c e iv e s g ifts a s p o sse ssio n s b e fittin g hit
sta tio n in life; th e s u r v iv o r s th e re b y d e m o n s tr a te th e ir re s tra in t in a p p r o p r i
a lin g th c g o o d s th a t h a v e fa lle n to th em . In th c first m ille n n iu m , th e q u a n tity
a n d v a lu e ol th ese g ifts is re la tiv e ly s lig h t, in c o n tra s t to th c tre a s u re s o f
M y c e n a e a n ro y a l t o m b s ." ’ E a rth e n v e s s e ls, so m e c o n ta in in g food a n d drin k;
re p re se n t th e m in im a l re q u ire m e n t, th o u g h the s y m b o lic fu n c tio n o f th e gift
m e a n s th at m in ia tu re v e s s e ls o f n o p ra c tic a l u se m a y b c su b stitu te d . M en
w ill o fte n b e g iv e n w e a p o n s, k n iv e s , o r o th e r tr a p p in g s o f th e ir tra d e : w om en
a r c a c c o rd e d je w e lle ry , c lo th in g , a n d d is ta ffs. In c h a m b e r to m b s a c h a ir an d
b ed a r c fo u n d . F o llo w in g th e in tro d u c tio n o f c o in a g e , th e d e c e a s e d is a l á
p re se n te d w ith a s m a ll co in w h ic h c a m e to be k n o w n a s the fe r r y in g fee fên
C h a r o n .1'’ A s iro m p r e h is to ric lim e s , fig u re s o f v a rio u s ty p e s a r c freq u en t]]
p la c e d in th e g r a v e ; in te rp re ta tio n s o f th ese flu c tu a te fro m g o d s to d em on i?
b e in g s , s e r v a n t s a n d t o y s .'7 A p o rtio n o f th e g ifts is b u rn e d a lo n g w ith ih r
c o rp s e on th c fu n e ra l p v r c - th e g h o st o f M e lis s a , w ife o f th e ty r a n !
P c fja n d r o s , e x p r e s s ly d e m a n d s th at h e r g a r m e n ts b e b u rn ed in th is w a y '8 ·"
b u t u n b u rn e d g ifts a r e a lw a y s b u rie d in th c g r a v e a s w ell.
In a d d itio n to g r a v e o ffe rin g s, th e re a rc d e s t r u c t iv e s a c rific e s , m o tiv a te d
b y th e h elp less ra g e w h ic h a c c o m p a n ic s g r ie f:“**if th c lo ved o n e is d e a d , t h d
ι B U R IA L AN D T H E C U L T O F T H E D E A D 1 93
r |s cm u st b e d e s t ro y e d a s w ell. W e a p o n s a n d to ols a r c b ro k e n ; d o g s a n d
Γ a n d ev e n th e s e rv a n ts a n d w i f e o f th e d e a d m a n m a y be k illed . A t
h o r s e s ,^ fu n e r a | p y re . A c h ille s s la u g h te rs s h e e p a n d c a ttle , fo u r h orses,
^ l f ° d o g s . a n d tw e lv e c a p tiv e T r o ja n s .10 O n C y p r u s , th e re m a in s fro m
r ,,n ^ c c s 0 f h o rses a n d a c h a r i o t h a v e b een fo u n d in the dromos o f to m b s from
Sa H o m e r ic A g e ; " in d ee d ev e n h u m a n s a c rific e s h a v e b een id e n t ifie d ." I he
d a u g h te r o f a n im a l v ic tim s a t th e g r a v e s id e w a s s ta n d a r d ; S o lo n ’s l a w s
* h ad e th e s a c r i f i c e o f a n o x . '1 T h e g r a v e is a lw a y s a p l a c e f o r lib a tio n s ;
5 0 T T ie lim c s th e lib a tio n v e s s e ls w ere b ro ken a n d left th e re .H
F in a lly , n o b u ria l w a s w ith o u t a fu n e ra ry b a n q u e t, w h ic h a g a in pre*
oses a n im a l s a c r ific e s .^ E v e n b e fo re th e fu n e ra l p y re is lit, A c h ille s lets
his c o m p a n io n s ’ fe a st th e c h e e rin g b u r ia l', fo r w h ic h o x e n , s h e e p , g o a t s , a n d
• a re s la u g h te re d , a n d ‘ e v e r y w h e re a b o u t the d e a d m a n th e b lo o d Howcd
sts* could be d r a w n in c u p s.* '" D e s tru c tiv e s a c rific e s a n d fu n e r a ry b an q u et
stand sid e b y s id e ; th eir tra c e s a r e not e a s y to d is c r im in a t e a r c h a c o lo g ic a lly .
In G e o m e tric tim e s, food w a s co o k e d a n d e a te n a t th e g r a v e s id e .·'7 S o m e tim e s
a n i m a l s h a v e b een b u rn e d on th e fu n e ra l p y re , b u t fire site s a r e a ls o foun d
b e s id e the fu n e ra l p y r e , w ith s p lin te re d b o n es fro m th e fe ast. L a t e r , the
Itin erary b a n q u e t, perideipnon, in sp ite o f its n a m e , is n o lo n g e r c e le b ra te d
a rou n d the d e c e a s e d o r ro u n d a b o u t th e g r a v e , b u t a fte r w a r d s in th e h o u se ;'*
here the d e a d m a n is re m e m b e re d w ith h o n o u r, b u t h is p re se n c e is not
indicated in a n y w a y . N e v e rth e le s s , th e d e c e a s e d , d u ly p ro v id e d fo r, is,
c o rre sp o n d in g ly, often im a g in e d at a b a n q u e t, a s the la r g e g ro u p o f s o -c a lle d
Totenmahl relie fs s h o w s .^
In th e e a r ly p e rio d , th e b u ria l o f a n im p o rta n t fig u re w a s fo llo w e d b y an
agony a s w e k n o w fro m th e I lia d a n d o th er e a r ly p o etry a s w ell a s fro m th e
G e o m e trie g r a v e v e s s e ls .1" R a g e a n d g r ie f sp en d th e ir fu ry , a n d th e ro les o f
thc liv in g a re a p p o r tio n e d a n e w . In p a r tic u la r , it w a s v ir t u a lly o n ly fo r su ch
agones th at th e B ro n z e A g e w a r c h a rio t co n tin u e d in u se. H e sio d recited his
poem s a l th e fu n e ra l g a m e s fo r A m p h id a m a s in C h a l k i s ." F ro m th e sev e n th
century o n w a r d s , th e g a m e s c a m e to b e ce n tre d on th e h ero cu lts o f
in d ivid u al s a n c t u a r ie s , a n d e v e n tu a lly th e fu n e ra l g a m e s g a v e w a y to the
P an h cllen ic g a m e s in stitu tio n a liz e d a ro u n d th ese c u lts. B u t agones a r e still
celeb rated to h o n o u r th ose w h o fell at th e b a ttle o f P la ta e a , a n d H e lle n is tic
en d o w m ents still m a k e p ro v is io n for g a m e s to h o n o u r h cro iciz e d d e a d . 1'
T h e g r a v e is m a rk e d w ith a sto n e , the s ig n , sem a ." T h is m a y be an
unw 'roughi sto n e . B u t r e lie f s te la e a re a lr e a d y set u p in th e S h a ft G r a v e
C irc le a t M y c e n a e . F ro m the ro u g h ly h ew n o b lo n g sto n es c u s t o m a r y in the
dark ce n tu rie s, th ere d e v e lo p s fro m the eig h th c e n tu ry o n w a rd s th e c a re fu lly
fo r k e d g r a v e s te le , n o w p ro v id e d w ith a n in sc rip tio n a n d a r e lie f o r a
P a n t in g . T h e in sc rip tio n re c o rd s th e n a m e o f th e d e c e a s e d , o fte n w ith an
‘•’P 'g ra n i in v e r s e fo r m .“ A p ro d u c t o f th e a d v a n c e d p la s tic a rt o f th e sixth
cn tu ry w a s th e s ta n d in g fig u r e o f a y o u th o r w o m a n a s a g r a v e m o n u m e n t;
. c r c *icf s te le a tta in e d its h igh e st p erfec tio n in the A ttic a rt ol th e fifth an d
Urm c e n tu rie s. E v e n the s im p le stele m a y to so m e e x te n t be tre ated a s
19 4 T H E D E A D , H E R O E S . A N D C H T H O N IC G O D S l\
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th c d c c c a s c d : a t ih c fe s tiv a l o f th c d e a d th c s te la e ¿
w a s h e d , a n o in te d a n d w o u n d w ith fille t s :15 th e ta ll v e s s e ls, lekythoi, w h ic h
o fte n sh o w s c e n e s o f th e g r a v e a n d th c a fte r w o r ld , s e r v e fo r th e lib a tio n s
o il. T h e s ig n , h o w e v e r, m a y a ls o b c u n d e rsto o d a s a m y ste rio u s g u a rd ia n ,
th c d e a d p e rso n ; th u s lion a n d s p h in x a re fo u n d a s g r a v e m a r k e r s .3*
T h c s ig n , sema, p ro c la im s th e d e c e a s e d to all e t e r n it y .37 T o c a r e fo r
g r a v e s is a d u t y w h ic h fa lls on th e d e s c e n d a n ts . In the first in sta n c e . (3
fu n e r a r y s a c r ific e s a n d fu n e ra ry b a n q u e t a r e re c a p itu la te d a t in crcag ffl
in te r v a ls : on th e th ird d a y a n d o n th e n in th d a y . foo d is b ro u g h t a g a in to |M
g r a v e , th en on the th irtie th d a y a c o m m u n a l fe a st is h eld to m a rk th e en d fl
th e m o u r n in g p e r io d .'8 T h e r e a ft e r th e h o n o u rin g o f t h e d e c e a s e d is in c o r p o j
a te d in to th e g e n e r a l c e le b r a t io n s w ith w h ic h th e c ity h o n o u rs its d e a d ever
y e a r : d a y s o f th e d e a d , nekysia, o r d a y s o f th e fo re fa th e r s, gerusia.™ O u suçj
d a y s th e g r a v e s a r c a d o r n e d , o ffe rin g s a r e m a d e , s p e c ia l foo d is e a te n , a n d ¡
is s a id th a t th e d e a d c o m e u p a n d g o a b o u t in th e c it y .4" T h e o ffe rin g s fo r tfa(
d e a d a r e p o u rin g s , choai:4' b a r le y b ro th , m ilk , h o n e y , fre q u e n tly w in e , and
e s p e c ia lly o il, a s w ell a s th e b loo d o f s a c rific e d a n im a ls ;4’ th e re a re also
s im p le lib a tio n s o f w a t e r , w h ic h is w h y th ere is ta lk o f t h e b ath o f th c dcad<?
B o tto m le s s fu n e ra ry v e s s e ls o r c y lin d r ic a l s ta n d s m a y th e re fo re m a r k the
g r a v e .44 A s th e lib a tio n s see p in to ih c e a r th , so, it is b e lie v e d , c o n ta c t w i n
th e d e a d is e s ta b lis h e d a n d p r a y e r s c a n re a ch th em . T h e s in k in g o f t u b a
in to th c e a r th in o r d e r to feed th e b u rie d c o rp s e q u ite lite r a lly ,4'' is a r a a
o ffsh o o t o f th e fu n e r a r y ritu a l. T h e n th e re is enagizein,40 th c co n sc c ra tiç fl
a n d b u r n in g o f fo o d s a n d s a c r ific ia l v ic tim s : b u t th e liv in g , too, h a v e tlieii
fe a st. In d e e d , it is th ro u g h th e ‘ m e a ls o f m o rta ls o rd a in e d b y c u s t o m ,' I n
‘e n jo y a b le , fa t-s te a m in g , b u rn t o ffe rin g s o f th e e a r t h ,’ th a t th e d e cea se^
re c e iv e s h is h o n o u r .47
F r o m th c tim e o f S o lo n a t le a s t , th e la w -g iv e r s in G r e e k c ities a lw a y s säV
th e ir task a s o n e o f r e d u c in g th e e x p e n d itu r e o n fu n e ra ls : lim its a r e set o n the
n u m b e r o f th o se w h o m a y d e file th e m s e lv e s, on th c n u m b e r o f p a r tic ip a n ts ifl
th e fu n e r a r y p ro c e ss io n , a n d o n th e ty p e s o f s a c rific e s a n d g r a v e m o n u
m e n ts.4® E m o t io n a l e x c e s s a n d se n se le s s w a s te a r e c o u n te re d h ere b y a d e g ret
o f r a tio n a lity , a n d a t th e s a m e tim e the c la im s o f th e p o lis a r e a sserted
a g a in s t p re te n tio u s d is p la y s b y p o w e rfu l kin g r o u p s . T he cu lt o f th e dead
r e m a in s th e fo u n d a tio n a n d e x p r e s s io n o f fa m ily id e n tity : ih e honotli
a c c o rd e d to fo r e b e a r s is e x p e c te d fro m d e s c e n d a n ts : fro m the rem e m b ran c e
o f th e d e a d g ro w s th e w ill to c o n tin u e .49
2 AFrERLlFE MYTHOLOGY
T h e c u lt o f th c d e a d s e e m s to p re su p p o se th a t th e d e c e a s e d is p re se n t a n d
a c t iv e a t th e p la c e o f b u r ia l, in th e g r a v e b e n e a th th c e a r th . T h e d e a d d rin k
th c p o u r in g s a n d in d e e d th e b lood - th e y a re in v ite d to c o m e to th c b a n q u e t,
to th c s a tia tio n w ith b lo o d ; a s th e lib a tio n s se e p in to th c e a rth , s o th c d e a d
A F T E R L IF E M YT H O LO G Y tor.
<y 2
sen d g o o d th in g s u p a b o v e .' The d e a d m a y b e c o n ju rc d to c o m c u p
^ aV C S, a s w ^ en D a r iu s a p p e a r s b y h is g r a v e in A e s c h y lu s ' Persians.
th e G r e e k s , a s a m o n g a ll p e o p le s, th ere a r e g h o st e x p e rie n c e s , a n d
^ Ιϊΐ°κ κ ·> ^ c r c a rc ta lc s o f jh c d e a d w h o c a n fin d n o re p o se a n d w h o w a n d e r
th eir g r a v e s m e n a c in g p a s s e r s -b y a T h e a n g e r o f th e d e a d is p a r tic u la r ly
- th e y m u st b e a p p e a s e d a n d kept in g o o d s p irits b y c o n tin u a l
& mtilissein, hilasktstha ι. . μ
T h e m o st u n s e ttlin g o f c r e a t u r e s lo r m a n is the s n a k e : u n c a n n y tn s h a p e
j b e h a v io u r, it w ill a p p e a r w ith o u t w a r n in g , p e rh a p s to lick lib a tio n left
overs then w ill v a n is h a s s w iftly a s it c a m e . It is a g e n e r a l b e lie f a m o n g the
C re e k s th at the d e c e a s e d m a y a p p e a r in th e fo rm o f a s n a k e :' se m i-ra tio n a l
u l a i i ° n c la im e d th a t th e s p in a l co rd o f th e c o rp s e is tra n sfo rm e d in to a
n ak c.4 T h e d e a th s n a k e is. e s p e c ia lly in ic o n o g r a p h y , a c o n v e n ie n t a n d
th erefore a lm o st o m n ip re s e n t m o tif. 'I h e c h a r a c t e r is tic v e s s e ls o f th e B ro n z e
A g e sn a k e c u lt, w h ic h w a s c le a r ly a h o u se c u lt, n o w a p p e a r o n ly in th e c u ll o f
the d e ad '■
In o u r lite rary te x ts th ese m a tte r s a r e s c a r c e ly e v e r to u ch e d o n . E v e n th e
fu n erary rites a r e not p re se n te d w ith a n y t h in g a p p r o a c h in g fu lln e s s o f d e ta il
except in th e a tre s c e n e s; o th e r w is e , th«* te x ts s im p ly s a y to d o w h a t is
cu sto m a ry , w ith o u t so m u c h a s a c k n o w le d g in g the q u e s tio n a s to w h y th in g s
a re do n e th u s. F o r the p a r tic ip a n ts , th e r itu a l s e e m s s c a r c e ly less b e w ild e r in g
than the p h e n o m e n o n o f d e a th itself. T h e y co n te n t th e m se lv e s w ith a n o n -
exp licit u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d fin d s ile n c e m o st fittin g.
E p ic p o e tr y ’ s s a lly in to th e a fte r life w a s th ere fo re a ll the bolder.*1 F o r the
co n ce p tio n s o f th e e d u c a te d G r e e k , tw o H o m e ric sce n e s w e r e d e c is iv e : in the
Iliad, th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e d e a d P a tro c lu s in a d r e a m ; a n d in th e Odyssey,
the jo u r n e y to H a d e s . J o u r n e y s to H a d e s w e r e n o n e th e less a ls o c o n ta in e d in
oth er a n c ien t e p ic s , e s p e c ia lly in th e c o n te x t o f th e H e ra c le s a n d T h e s e u s
m y th s;7 then in th e s ix t h o r fifth c e n tu r y , th e w r itin g s o f O r p h e u s a p p e a r e d ,
o u td o in g e a r lie r a c c o u n ts . N o n e o f th ese te x ts p o s se ss e d the in c o n te sta b le
a u th o rity o f r e v e la t io n , b u t a w a y o f s a y in g th e u n s a y a b le w a s n e e d e d .
In H o m e ric la n g u a g e , a s o m e th in g , th e psyche,8 le a v e s m a n a t th e m o m en t
o f d eath a n d e n te rs th e h o u se o f j4 »j, a ls o k n o w n a s A ides, Aidoneus a n d in A ttic
a s Hades. Psyche m e a n s b re a th j u s t a s psychein is th e v e rb to b r e a th e : a rr e s te d
b reath in g is th e s im p le s t o u t w a r d s ig n o f d e a th . In the d e a d m a n . o r d e a d
a n im a l, so m e th in g h a s g o n e m is sin g - s o m e th in g w h o s e p r e se n c e a n d p o w e r
,n l ^ c liv in g c r e a t u r e is n e v e r g iv e n a se co n d th o u g h t; o n ly w h e n th ere is a
qu estio n ol life a n d d e a th is th ere a n y q u e s tio n o f psyche. Psyche is n ot th e so u l
3 s a b e a re r o f s e n s a tio n s a n d th o u g h ts , it is not th e p e rso n , n o r is it a kin d o f
°ppelgànger. Y e t fro m th e m o m e n t it le a v e s th e m a n it is a ls o te rm e d a n
a olon * a p h a n to m im a g e , lik e th e im a g e re fle cte d in a m irro r w h ic h c a n be
seen, th o u g h not a lw a y s c le a r ly , b u t c a n n o t be g r a s p e d : th e d re a m -im a g e a n d
. e g h o s tly im a g e , th e fo rm s in w h ic h th e d e a d m a n c a n s till a p p e a r , a r c
c n tificd w ith th e b re a th w h ic h h a s left th e b o d y . T h u s the psyche o f a d e a d
an Can on a p p r o p r ia t e o c c a s io n s b c seen a n d a t a ll ev e n ts c a n b e im a g in e d ;
19 6 T H E D E A D , H E R O E S , A N D C H T H O N IC G O D S IV
ju d g e m e n t o f th c d e a d : th e E r in y e s a r e s im p ly an e m b o d im e n t o f th e a ct ol
s e lf-c u r s in g c o n ta in e d in the o a th . N e v e rth e le s s , th e E r in y e s ca n n o t b c a c tiq |
on s h a d e s th a t a r e e n tire ly d e v o id o f c o n s c io u s n e s s. P e rh a p s the m o jí
p o p u la r p a rt o f th e u n d e rw o rld b o o k o f th e Odyssey is the d e sc r ip tio n o f th r
g r e a t s in n e r s in H a d e s : S is y p h u s p u s h in g a s to n e u p h ill w h ic h fo r e v e r rolfo
b a c k d o w n a g a in , a n d T a n t a lu s s tr iv in g to g r a s p th e fru it a n d to d r in k tfti
w a t e r w ith o u t e v e r re a c h in g it .r* B o th fig u re s h a v e b ec o m e u n fo rg ettab ly
s y m b o ls p r e c is e ly b e c a u s e th ere is n o c o m m e n ta ry , n o fa b u la docet, not a word
a b o u t th e ir o ffe n c e o r g u ilt - w h e re a s th e th ird o f th c p e n ite n ts, le w d T ity o s
o n w h o s e liv e r tw o v u ltu r e s a re fe e d in g , n e v e r a tta in e d p r o v e r b ia l fam e;
N e v e r th e le s s it is s ta te d , a n d it w a s u n d e rsto o d , th at g rie v o u s o ffe n c es mav
m ee t w ith e n o rm o u s a n d e te rn a l p u n is h m e n t in th e o th e r w o rld . Λ m ore'
g e n e r a l s ta te m e n t o f th e c a se m a k e s its a p p e a r a n c e in th c H o m e ric Hymn to
Demeter. 13 P e rs e p h o n e , q u e e n o f th e d e a d , h a s th e a u th o rity to e x a c t (ha
p u n is h m e n t o f e v ild o e rs ‘ a ll d a y s ', lo re v e r; so it is a d v is a b le to w in h e r fa v o u r
b y a p p r o p r ia t e o ffe rin g s . F ro m th e fifth c e n tu ry a t th e la te s t, th e id e a s a b o u t
ju d g e m e n t a n d p u n is h m e n t in th e o ilie r w o rld w e re e la b o ra te d w ith m ore
g r a p h ic d e ta il in co n n e c tio n w ilh O r p h ic d o c ir in c s , n o t. it s e e m s, w ith out
E g y p tia n in flu e n c e .14
A t th e o th e r e x tre m e (h ere is (he m en tio n o f (he E ly s ia n F ie ld s in (he fourth
b o o k o f (he Odyssey: M e n e la u s is not g o in g lo d ie , b u l th e g o d s w ill le a d him
to th a t field a t th e e d g e o f th e e a rth , th c a b o d e o f R h a d a m a n th y s . T h e r e , in a
m o st fa v o u r a b le c lim a te , th e ‘ ea sie st life ’ a w a its h im , ‘ b e c a u se H ele n is
y o u r s , a n d y o u a r e ih e so n -in -la w o f Z e u s .MS T o e n te r in to E ly s iu m is (o a v o id
d e a th : (h is is th e e x c e p tio n a l la te o f th e ele ct few . E ly s iu m is an o b s c u r e an d
m y ste r io u s n a m e th a l e v o lv e d fro m a d e sig n a tio n o f a p la c e o r p e rso n stru c k
b y lig h tn in g , enelysion, enelysios,*6 D e a th b y lig h tn in g is b o th d e str u c tio n an d
ele c tio n . I n te r w o v e n w ilh th is is th e m y th ic a l m o tif o f m ira c u lo u s tra n sp o rta
tion to a p u re a n d far-olT is la n d , a m o tif w h ic h s e e m s to g o b a c k lo th e
S u m e r ia n s to ry o f th e flo o d . ' 7 T h u s A c h ille s is tra n sp o rte d to th c W h ite Islfl
a n d b e c o m e s th e R u le r o f th e B la c k S e a , a n d D io m e d e s b ec o m es th c d iv in e
lo rd o f an A d r ia tic is la n d .,a A g e n e r a liz a tio n o f th ese ele m e n ts m a k e s île
a p p e a r a n c e in th e c.on lext o f th e m y th o f a g e s in H e s io d : the h ero es w h o fell
a t T r o y o r T h e b e s a r e g iv e n a life a t th e e d g e o f the w o rld on th e I s la n d s ôC
th e B le ss e d n e a r O c é a n o s , w h e re the e a rth b e a rs fru it th ree tim e s a y ea r/
A lin e w h ic h w a s in te rp o la te d at a n e a r ly d a te m en tio n s K r o n o s a s th e ir king*
th e g o d o f th e first a g e , o f r e v e rs a l, a n d p o s sib ly o f th e la s t a g e .w
A n e x c e p tio n o f a d ilT crcn i kin d is H c ra c le s . W h e re a s th e I lia d b lu n tlÿ
s p e a k s a b o u t h is d e a th , th e Odyssey a n d the H c s io d ic Catalogues a n n o u n c e th a l
h e liv e s a s a go d o n O ly m p u s a n d h a s H e b e , th c flo w e r o f y o u th , a s h ii
s p o u s e .4“ T h u s he h as s u c c e e d e d in a tta in in g the h igh e st g o a l im a g in a b le ;
T h e fig u r e o f H e r a c le s , h o w e v e r u n iq u e in m y th , w a s to b e c o m e t h j
p r o to ty p e fo r th e m o st d a r in g h o p es fo r a n a fte r life .41
T h e id e a s a b o u t d e a th a n d a fte rlife , ju s t b e c a u se ih c y w e re le s s e x p lic it
a n d less u n ifo rm th a n th c id e a s a b o u t th e g o d s , w e re s u b je c t to g r e a te r an d
. OLYMPIAN AND CHTHONIC IQO
By 3 λ .
r a d i c a l c h a n g e * T h e v a rio u s im p u ls e s a n d s ta tio n s in th e e v o lu tio n o f
¡ ¿ c a s c a n o n ly b c h in ted 3 l h ere . S e c re t c u lls , m y ste rie s, a p p e a r e d lh a t
^ s c d in itia te s b le s se d n e s s in th e a fte rlife , in c o n tra s t to w h a l n on-
P r. . s Wo u ld e x p e r ie n c e . E th ic a l re fle c iio n led to th e p o s tu la te th at the
anc| just m a n h ad a c la im to b le s se d n e s s w h ile th e e v il m a n sh o u ld
^ w ith p u n is h m e n t u n d e r a ll c ir c u m s ta n c e s . In th e d o c trin e o f m etem -
^ c h o s i s , th e s o u l, psyche, a s th e b e a r e r o f p e rso n a l id e n tity , s e p a r a t e fro m
h b o d v . a c q u ire d a strik in g ly n ew a n d im p o rta n t s t a t u s .4“ In the e a rly
o f n a tu re th e id e a e m e rg e d th a l th e sou l is s o m e h o w a k in to th e
siars and the s k y , w h ile th e d iv in e e n te rs in to m o re a n d m o re d ire c t re la tio n s
w ith ih e c o s m o s.41 T h e re fle c tio n s o f th e s o p h is ts m a d e the s o u l, psyche, the
centre ol fe e lin g , th in k in g , a n d d e c isio n -m a k in g a n d th u s g a v e e m p ir ic a l,
clto lo gical c o n te n t to th is c o n c e p i.“ F in a lly in th e g re a t s y n th e sis w ro u g h t
by P lato the n ew co n ce p t o f th e sou l w a s a b le to b ec o m e th e fo u n d a tio n o f
both p h ilo so p h y a n d r e lig io n .45 A t th e s a m e tim e , P la to , d r a w in g on a n d
t r a n s fo r m in g m a n y v a rie d tra d itio n s , c re a te d th o se m y th s o f th e a fte rlife th a l
were to e x e rt la s tin g in flu e n c e .4f‘ T h e y a r c p re se n te d in a p la y fu l m a n n e r,
without the a r r o g a n c e o f re v e la tio n , b u t th ey p o in te d ih e w a y to m a n y
an a p o c a ly p s e . B y c o m p a r iso n th e e a rlie r p o e tic te x ts fa d e d in to a lm o st
irrelevan t fa iry ta le s.
T h e cu lt o f the d e a d a n d th e cu lt o f th e g o d s h a v e m u c h in c o m m o n b o th in
the p a tte rn s o f r itu a l a n d in th e ir p sy c h o lo g ic a l a n d so c ia l fu n c tio n s. In both
there a re fix e d p la c e s o f w o rsh ip set a p a r t fro m p ro fa n e use, a n d in b o th th ere
arc s a c ra l m e a ls th ro u g h w h ic h c o m m o n fe llo w sh ip is e s ta b lis h e d , w ith
an im al s a c rific e s , fire , food o ffe rin g s , lib a tio n s , a n d p ra y e r s . G o o d a n d ill.
an g e r and g r a c e flo w fro m th e o n e a s m u c h a s fro m th e o th e r, a n d in both
do m ain s w e e n c o u n te r th e h e a lin g o f th e s ic k , m a n tic re v e la tio n a n d
ep ip h a n y . A n d v e t p r e c is e ly th o se rite s w h ic h a r e co m m o n o r s im ila r a rc
d ifferen tiated in su c h a w a y th a t th ey a r c p la c e d u n m is ta k a b ly on o n e s id e o r
the o th er, so e m p h a s iz in g a fu n d a m e n ta l o p p o s itio n . O n th e o n e s id e a re
those w h o b e lo n g to th e e a r th , chlhonioi, a n d o n th e o th e r th e h e a v e n ly g o d s:
thus it h a s b e c o m e u s u a l to s p e a k o f th e O ly m p ia n a s o p p o s e d to the
C h th o n ic .' T h e g o d s a r e a p p r o a c h e d b y th e p u re , in fe stiv a l a ttir e a n d w ith a
garlan d in the h a ir ; th e g r a v e s a rc a p p ro a c h e d b y th e d e file d , w ith o u t a n y
Çarland a n d w ith h a ir u n tie d .a O n th e o n e h a n d th ere is e x a lt a t io n , o n the
°th c r d e sp o n d e n c y . B u r ia l, a n d then ih e cu lt o f th e d e a d a n d h e ro cu lt* a r e
a tte n d ed b y w e e p in g a n d la m e n ta tio n , w h ile a l a s a c r ific e lo th e g o d s, th e
m ust n e v e r b c b ro k e n b y a n y so u n d o f la m e n ta tio n . T h e a lt a r fo r th e
& *** »s b u ilt u p fro m s to n e s ; for the d e a d th ere is a g ro u n d -le v e l h e a rth ,
or a p it. bolhros,4 w h ic h p o in ts in to th e d e p th s. A t a s a c rific e to the
δ s the h ea d o f th e v ic tim is p u lle d b a c k so th a l th e th ro a t is p o in tin g
20 ») 1H E D E A D , H E R O E S , A N D C H T H O N IC G O D S IV
u p w a r d s w h e n it is c u t ,4 b u t w h e n v ic tim s a r e s la u g h te re d fo r th e st]H
t c r r a n c a n p o w e rs th c b lo o d flo w s d ir c c tlv in to thc bothros. T h c fittin g tim e m
s u c h s a c r ific c is th c e v e n in g o r n ig h t, w h e re a s th e fe s tiv a l fo r th e g o d s b e g in
a t s u n r ise . T h c te m p le o f th c g o d s, nans, is ra ise d on a th re e -s te p p e d Dase
w h e r e a s fa m ily s h rin e s a r c c o n c e n tr a te d in a s a c re d h o u se , oikov, m y s t e m
a ls o ta k e p la c e in a h o u se“ a n d a n o ffc r in g -p it m a y h a v e a ro u n d b u ild in g , ¿
tholos, b u ilt a r o u n d it .7 T o s a c iific c to th c go d s is to c o n s e c r a te , hureuein, and'
in p a r tic u la r to fu m ig a te , thuein, s in c e th c fa tty s m o k e rises to th c s k y ; but |f.
s a c r ific e to th c dead is to d e v o te , to ta b o o , enagi& in , or e lfl
to cu t in to th c fire , entemnein.* W h ite c a ttle o r s h e e p m a y b c ta c rific c d to
»he h e a v e n ly o n e s a n d b la c k to th c s u b te r r a n e a n ones/* T h c lib a tio n s fo r the
s u b te r r a n e a n p o w e rs a re c a lle d choni, w h e re a s spondai a re p o u re d to th t
g o d s .'°
It is not o n ly th e d e a d w h o b e lo n g to the e a rth - th ere a rc a ls o chthori)(
g o d s. A d m itt e d ly th ese g o d s a re m en tio n e d o n ly w ith m is g iv in g a n d u su ally
o n ly b y w a y o f a llu s io n . T h e ru le r s o f th e d e a d . H a d e s a n d P e rs e p h o n e , ar^
w ell k n o w n a n d o p e n ly re c o g n iz e d th ro u g h th e H o m e ric p o e m s ;" b u t they
a r c n ot a lo n e . T h e r e a re p o w e rs w h ic h b rin g o n ly d a n g e r s a n d e v il, p o w c rj
w h ic h it is b est not to n a m e a n d w h ic h m u st b e tu rn ed a w a y b y a p p ro p r ia te
s a c r ific e in o r d e r to be rid o f th e m ." In o n e p la c e the I lia d n a m e s th e T ita n s
a n d in a n o th e r p la c e th c E r in v c s b en e ath thc e a r t h .n T h e y a rc in vo k ed «n
o a th s a n d th e ir te rrib le p o w e r is h a rn e s s e d to c u r se s a n d h a r m in g magfc^
w h e n o n e ’ s a d v e r s a r y is d e liv e re d u p to th c u n c a n n y g o d s in th e d ffix io .A I
B u t thc te rro r o f d e s tru c tio n is o n ly o n e sid e o f th c ch th o n ic p o w e r. F o r as
lo n g a s th c lan d h a s b ee n tilled , it h a s b ee n k n o w n th a t food a n d h e n c e |jfl
g r o w s fro m th e d e p th s o f th c e a rth : th e c o rn c o m e s fro m th c d e a d .” 4 H aded
is a ls o P lu to , th e g u a r d ia n a n d g iv e r o f w e a lth in c o r n ; a n d th e c o rn mothcC
D e m c tc r is in a v e ry s p e c ia l s e n se th e Chlhonia in w h o se c a re th c d e a d too
a r c h id d e n . In H e rm io n e th e D e m e te r fe stiv a l is c a llc d s im p ly Chlhonia
P a u s a n ia s '“ d e s c r ib e s th e p ro c e ssio n a n d th e u n c a n n y c o w s a c r ific e in sid e CM
c lo sed te m p le : h e p o in ts o u t th at th c flo w e rs w o v en in to th e g a r la n d s w o rn by
th c c h ild r e n in th e p ro c e ss io n s ig n ify m o u r n in g , a n d he a ls o a llu d e s to secro)
rite s in th c a n c ie n t sto n e c irc le . In th e m y ste rie s th c c o rn -g iv in g g o d d e d
m a k e s d e a th lo se its te rro r. T h e se cre t o f m y ste rie s a ls o s u r ro u n d s the
ch th o n ic D io n y s o s , th e so n o f P e r s e p h o n e .'7 C h th o n ic is a ls o fo u n d a s an
e p ith e t o f H e c a t e , th c g o d d e s s o f n o c tu rn a l s o r c e ry w h o is a b le to e n te r t h l
u n d e rw o rld ;* 8 a n d n a t u r a lly it is a n e p ith e t o f H e r m e s ,14 th c e sco rt o í so û ls
w h o c ro s se s th e b o u n d a r y w ith th e u n d e rw o rld . B u t the go d w h o ¡4
m en tion ed m ost fre q u e n tly is th e ch th on ic 7.eus. th e o th er Z e u s. ;t sub«
tc r r a n c a n c o u n te rp a r t to th c s k y fa th e r. I h e o th e r Z e u s , th e Z e u s o f tÜrç
d e a d " ' m a y s im p ly b c a n o th e r n a m e fo r H a d e s ; b u t n e v e rth e le ss it is frûin
h im th at th e g ro w th o f th e c ro p s is e x p e c te d . W h en s o w in g the se e d tbjï
fa r m e r p r a y s to c h th o n ic Z e u s a n d p u re D e m c tc r·" a n d s a c rific e s ‘ fo r thé
fr u its' a r e m a d e to th e c h th o n ic Z e u s a n d th c ch th o n ic E a r t h ’ .” T h e oraCH
. . OLYMPIAN AND CHTHONIC 201
lV 3
0j' L c b a d c ia w h o im p a r ts d r e a d fu l k n o w le d g e tu a ll w h o d e sc e n d to h im ,
^ „ cd psiourisher, Z e u s T r e p h o n io s o r Z e u s T r o p h o n io s .* 5 F in a lly , th ere
*5 C*w id e s p re a d w o r s h ip o f a s u b te r r a n e a n Z e u s w h o w a s in v o k e d a s th e m ild
WilS XU ilichias, A f U i c h i o s In A th e n s , ih e g re a te st Z e u s fe stiv a l, th c D ia s ia .
o n - h c,d ¡ n h is h o n o u r, w h e r e a s in S e lin u s a fa m ily w 'ould set u p a n d w o rs h ip
fcfeilich io s in th e fo rm o f a sto n e stele . In A rg o s th c s e ttin g u p o f a n im a g e
|!f Z e u s M c ilic h io s s ig n ifie d p u r ific a tio n a fte r a b lo o d y civ il w a r . T h c g o d is
° resented e ith e r a s a p a te r n a l s e a te d fig u re o r s im p ly a s a s n a k e ; th c
r j h e r l y fiß u re s ig n ifie s re c o n c ilia tio n w ith th c d e a d , ju st a s h is n a m e
ite m iz e s th e a p p e a s in g efTect o f th c o ffe rin g s to the d e a d .
T h e w o r sh ip o f c h th o n ic p o w e rs u n d o u b te d ly c o n ta in s m u c h th a t is v e ry
n cie n i, b u t it is n o lo n g e r p o s sib le to e q u a te th e o p p o s itio n b etw een
O iv n ip ia n a n d C h t h o n ic w ith the o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n G r e e k a n d p r e -G r e e k
o r betw een I n d o - E u r o p e a n a n d M e d it e r r a n e a n . H e a v e n ly g o d s a re fo u n d in
S u m e r ia n -Me s o p o ta m ia n , H ittite , a n d W e st S e m itic tra d itio n , a n d s u b t e r r a
nean g o d s su c h a s O s ir is a r e fo u n d p a r tic u la r ly in E g y p t . T h e S k y F a th e r is
In d o -E u ro p e a n , but so is a n a n c e s to r c u lt , w h ic h is w h y I n d o -E u r o p e a n cu ll
w o rds su ch a s chein a n d enagizein a p p e a r in th e c h th o n ic r itu a l, in c o n tra s t to
spfndcin a n d h i c r e u e i n In C e lt ic a n d p r e -C e ltic w e s te rn E u ro p e thc s h rin e s o f
the cu lt o f the d e a d o b v io u s ly h a v e p r im a c y o v e r th e te m p le s o f th e g o d s / 6
Even th c M e s o p o ta m ia n s a lr e a d y d is tin g u is h iw o c la s s e s o f g o d s , sk y g o d s
and s u b te r r a n e a n g o d s, a n d th c H ittite s s p e a k in e v e n c lc a r c r te rm s o f u p p e r
and lo w e r g o d s ;'7 in U g a r it e a rth g o d s a r c m e n tio n e d in co n n e c tio n w ith the
path in to th e re a lm o f th c d e a d / 8 T h e a n tith e s is o f a b o v e a n d b e lo w , h e a v e n
and e a rth , is so fu n d a m e n ta l a n d o b v io u s th a l it a ls o a ro s e a s a re lig io u s
stru ctu re q u ite in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e s p e c ific d e v e lo p m e n t o f G r e e k c iv iliz a
tion. It h as, m o re o v e r, a ls o b ee n fo u n d in M in o a n c u ltu re , in th e a r c h ite c tu r e
o f thc T e m p le T o m b a n d in th c frie ze on th e A v i a T r i a d a S a r c o p h a g u s / 0
W h at is u n iq u e a b o u t the G r e e k tra d itio n is the r a d ic a l a n d th o ro u g h g o in g
w ay in w h ic h ih e o p p o s itio n b etw een th e re a lm o f th e g o d s a n d th e re a lm o f
the d e ad w a s w o rk e d o u t. T h c g o d s a r e th e im m o rta ls . alhanaloi\ th e e p ith et
becom es a d e fin itio n . T o n a m e a fe stiv a l th e ‘ d a y o f th c b u ria l o f th c d iv in it y ’ ,
as the P h o e n ic ia n s d o , 3“ is im p o s sib le in G r e e k . A g o d b e w a ile d a s d e a d , su ch
as A d o n i s , i s a lw a y s fe ll to b e fo re ig n ; w h e n ih c C r e ta n s s h o w a G r a v e o f
¿ c u s it o n ly s e n e s to p ro v e th a t ih e y a r e lia r s .1 * B irth m y th s m a y b e told
abo u t the g o d s, b u t th en ih e y a r e c r y s ta lliz e d in a n id e al fo rm , w h e th e r in th e
flow er ol y o u th lik e A p o llo a n d A r te m is , o r a t th c h eig h t o f m a tu rity lik e Z e u s
and H e r a . E v e n o ld a g e is u n k n o w n to th em : th e o n ly tru ly a n c ie n t c h a r a c t e r
15 d ie o ld m a n o f th e s e a . a n d he b elo n g s in th e lo w ly re a lm s o f folk b e lie f.v‘
B u t a s for m en , th e y m o v e to w a rd s d e a th a s m o r ta ls , broloi, ihntloi. A s lo n g
a s lh c >' liv e th ey a re d e p e n d e n t o n th e g o d s w h o g iv e g o o d g ifts a n d w h o ca n
su cco u r a n d s a v e th em ; the la s t b o u n d a ry o f d c a i h re m a in s. E v e n Z e u s h o ld s
3 ck w h e n ι h at b o u n d a ry is re a c h e d a n d p u n is h e s A s k le p io s w ith his
u n d erb o lt fo r tr y in g to w a k e th e d e a d . A p o llo a b a n d o n s H e c to r w h e n the
J 02 T H E D E A D , H E R O E S , A N D C H T H O N IC G O D S Ιγ
s c a le s sin k , a n d h e le a v e s th e h o u se o f A d m e tos w h e n D e a th a p p r o x
A lc e s tis . A rte m is b id s a sw ifi a n d u n c o m p ro m is in g fa re w e ll to th«.· j ä
H ip p o ly to s w h o h ad b ee n c lo s e r to h e r th a n a n y o n e a n d w h o is d e stro y e d * ·
th at v e r y re a s o n .'4 M o r e o v e r , a n y o n e w h o k n o w in g ly go es to m eet d ea* i f ·
A n tig o n e d o es, ta k e s le a v e o f th e g o d s .3i T h e O ly m p ia n g o d s a n d th e <f(
h a v e n o th in g to d o w ith o n e a n o th e r; the g o d s h ate th e h o u se o f H a d es
k e ep w ell a w a y .
T h i s co n tra st w a s o b v io u s ly fu rth e r sh a rp e n e d a n d d e v e lo p e d m w
h isto ric a l p e rio d : h ere th e b e g in n in g o f self-co n scio u s th eo lo gy is a t w o 3
N o t u n til the tim e o f P is is tra tu s w a s it d e c id e d to p u rify D e lo s o f g r a v e s cta|
a s m u c h o f th e isla n d a s co u ld be seen fro m th e s a n c t u a r y , a n d not until
y e a r 4 2 6 /5 w a s the p u rific a tio n e x te n d e d to c o v e r th e w h o le is la n d ;16 tn th,
e a r lie r c e n tu rie s w h e n ih e s a n c t u a r y w a s flo u ris h in g , n o o n e h ad taken arq
ex c e p tio n to the g r a v e s . T o w a r d s th e en d o f the s ix th c e n tu ry X en o p h an ejjf
critic iz e d the L e u k o th e a fe stiv a l in E le a a t w h ic h s a c rific e s w ere m a d e to tin
W h ite G o d d e s s a m id s t la m e n ta tio n s, sta tin g th at if sh e w a s a g o d d e ss tl
th e la m e n ta tio n w a s w ro n g , a n d i f sh e w as not a g o d d e ss then th e saenfij
w a s o u t o f p la c e . C r it ic is m o f th is kin d w a s s u c c e s sfu l, a n d th ere is n o läjf
e v id e n c e for s im ila r a m b iv a le n c e in G re e k ritu a l. In lite ra tu re th e a u t i t h c S
b etw e e n the u p p e r a n d lo w e r g o d s a p p e a r s v e ry c le a r ly in the d r a m a s of
A e s c h y lu s;* ” a n d ih e m o st r a d ic a l a p p lic a tio n o f this o p p o sitio n is later
a tte m p te d b y P la to in his L a w s.™ G u liic re a lity , h o w e v e r, re m a in e d a rich
c o n g lo m e ra te o f O ly m p ia n a n d C h th o n ic e le m en ts in w h ic h m a n y m o re
s u b tle g r a d a tio n s w e re p o ssib le .
M o s t o f a ll, th e o p p o s itio n b etw een O ly m p ia n a n d C h th o n ic co n stitu te s«
p o la r ity in w h ic h o n e p o le ca n n o t e x is t w ith o u t ih e o th e r a n d in w h ic h each
p o le o n ly re c e iv e s its full m e a n in g from th e o th er. A b o v e a n d b e lo w , heaven,
a n d e a rth to g e th e r fo rm th e u n iv e rse . S t a tu e s o f Z e u s , Z e u s Chlhonios aiui
Z e u s the H ig h e st, Hyftsislos, sto od sid e b y sid e in C o r in t h .4" A s ih e re is ησ
s u n r is e w ith o u t a p re c e d in g n ig h t, so C h th o n ic a n d O ly m p ia n ritu a l arc
c o n s ta n tly b o u n d up w ith ea ch o th e r. I h e fe stiv a l h eg in s in ih e e v e n in g , and
a s d a y fo llo w s n ig h t, O ly m p ia n s a c r ific e s fo llo w p re lim in a r y Chlh on ife
s a c r ific e s. M a n y s a n c t u a rie s h a v e a ch th o n ic o ffe rin g s ite in a d d itio n to th*
a lt a r a n d te m p le , w h ic h in m y lh is d e sc rib e d a s ih e g r a v e o f a h ero . T w
P e lo p s s a n c t u a r y is a s m u c h p a rt o f O ly m p ia a s th e Z e u s a lt a r ; E re c h th e ijj
a n d A th e n a s h a re ih e h o u se on th e A th e n ia n A c r o p o lis ; P y rrh o s fro m his
g r a v e w a tc h e s o v e r th e A p o llo s a c rific e s in D e lp h i; E p o p e u s is b u rie d n ext to
th e a lt a r o f A th e n a in S ik y o n ; a n d th e g r a v e s o f th e H y p e r b o r e a n M a id ç M
re m a in in th e D e lia n s a n c t u a r y .4’ I hc re m a rk a b le b ro n ze im a g e o f A p o llo al
A m y k la i s ta n d s o n a p e d e s ta l sh a p e d like an a lt a r w h ic h is sa id to b c thfl
g r a v e o f H y a k in t h o s : b efo re the s a c rific e lo A p o llo fu n e ra ry o ffe rin g s affl
m a d e to H y a k in th o s th ro u g h a b ro n z e d o o r.4’ In m y th , c o rre sp o n d in g ly !
th e g o d s o fte n h a v e a m o rta l d o u b le w h o co u ld a lm o st b e m istak en fo r the
go d e x c e p t fo r th e fa ct th a t h e is su b je c t 10 d e a th , a n d in d ee d is killed b y (Ηβ
g o d h im se lf: H y a k in th o s a p p e a r s w ith A p o llo . Ip h ig c n c ia w ith A rte m is,
TH E HERO ES 203
IV ^ w j th P o se id o n a n d lo d a m a w ith A th e n a . In cu lt Ip h ig e n e ia is
& ' h ip p ed a s A r te m is ,41 E r r c h th c u s b c c o m c s P o se id o n E rc c h th c u s ,
* l* ° ^ a in a jiv e s a s th e a lt a r o f A th e n a on w h ic h th e e te rn a l fire b u r n s .44
* ,,C* ι c «eoa ra tc d in to tw o fig u re s w h a t in the s a c r ific ia l ritu a l is p re se n t as
j^fyth na S 5 y
Λ t ^ . o n o rid ^ ^ H o m e ric G r e e k g o d s o w e s its sh in in g s p le n d o u r to its
ness fro m d e a t h ; to ed u c a te d G re e k s C h r is t ia n ity w a s to a p p e a r a s a
r^fïl° o f the g r a v e .45 T h e c o n to u rs o f th e e v e r la s tin g O ly m p ia n fig u re s
rC^ i d c d a s ta n d a rd a n d a sen se o fd ir c c tio n ; a n d y e t in th e re a lity o f th e c u ll
■ f t ja r k e r c o u n te r p a r ts w e re re ta in e d in su c h a w a y that s u p e r fic ia lit y w as
ded N e v e rth e le s s , th ese g o d s co u ld not re p re se n t ih e a ll-e m b ra c in g
* 1 ness u f re a lity ; relig io n w a s not co n fin e d to ih c cu lt o f th e g o d s, but
ip d u d rd re la tio n s w ith ih e d e a d a n d ih c h ero es. A n d w h e n , b y d r a w in g on
λ esscd o r n o n -G re e k tra d itio n s , m y ste rie s b e g a n to feed th e h op es o f
i n d iv i d u a ls w ith u n iv e r sa l s p e c u la tio n a n d s o u g h t to o v e rc o m e the c h illin g
(isolation o f m a n in d c a ih . this w a s for a lo n g tim e m o re a c o m p le m e n t th a n a
dangerous riv a l lo the G r e e k s ss te m .
4 T H E H ERO ES
5 .1 Heracles
W0 |a r |y s u ite d lo th e g y m n a s ia a n d th e efihfboi,,a fo r th e re is s o m e th in g
p;ir< C v o u th fu l a b o u t th c h e ro w h o is a lw a y s w a n d e r in g , fig h tin g , a n d
k ^ ^ ' r c a t h o m e . T h e m a in fe a t u r e o f H e r a c le s fe s t iv a ls is g r e a t m ea t
Λ0" th e K y n o s a r g e s g y m n a s iu m H e r a c le s h a s d is tin g u is h e d A th c n -
*'"* as ta b le c o m p a n io n s , parasilo i, w h e n th e ta b le is s p re a d fo r h im .’ 9
*®nS „ j j n e l v , H e r a c le s is p o r tr a y e d a s a s a c r ific e r ,1“ m e n iio n e d a s a fo u n d e r
Ii rs a n d im a g in e d a s a v o r a c io u s c a t e r h im s e lf;1' it is in th is g lu tto n o u s
I ih » · he a p p e a r s in c o m e d y in p a r t ic u la r . H e r a c le s is a lw a y s a c lo s c a n d
ted frie n d : q u ite a p a r t fro m th e c u lt h e is a n o m n ip re s e n t h e lp e r , in v o k e d
cvt'rv o c c a s io n . T h e w o r d s o v e r th e h o u se d o o r p r o c la im : 'T h e s o n o f
2 eus th e fa ir v ic t o r io u s H e r a c le s d w e lls h ere . N o e v il m a y e n te r in .’ v H e is
ih c .i v e rte r o f e v il, Alexikakos. I m a g e s o f H e r a c le s a r c p r o d u c e d a s a m u le ts -
revealin g o n c e a g a in a m e r g in g o f N e a r E a s te r n a n d G r e e k e le m e n ts .” T h c
vase p a in tin g s a ls o d e m o n s tr a te th e u n p a r a lle le d p o p u la r ity o f H e r a c le s , h is
light w ilh the lio n b e in g d e p le te d m a n y h u n d re d s o f tim e s .“ H e r a c le s a ls o
entered E tr u s c a n a n d R o m a n m y th o lo g y a n d c u lt a t a n e a r ly d a t e ,15 a n d the
ex cla m atio n mehcrcuh b c c a m c a s fa m ilia r to th c R o m a n s a s H erakleis w a s to
the G re ek s.
A t the s a m e tim e , h o w e v e r, H e r a c le s a tta in e d th c h ig h e st s o c ia l p re stig e
through h is a p p o in tm e n t a s o ffic ia l a n c e s to r o f th c D o r ia n k in g s . T h is
p ro b ab ly se rv e d a s a fic tio n a l le g itim a tio n fo r th e D o r ia n m ig r a t io n s in to th c
P e lo p o n n ese: H y llo s , th c e p o n y m o u s h e ro o f th e o n e D o r ia n p h v le , b e c a m e
ihc son o f H e r a c le s , w h o w a s n a tiv e to th e A r g o li d .’ 6 W h e r e a s th e D o r ia n
kingship in A r g o s s o o n d is a p p e a r e d , th e k in g s in S p a r t a c u lt iv a t e d th e
gen e alo g ica l tra d itio n a ll th c m o re a s s id u o u s ly ; ih c L y d ia n a n d la t e r th c
M a c ed o n ian k in g s , a s ru le r s o f th c s a m e r a n k , a ls o b e c a m e H c r a k l c i d a i .'7
T h c legen d c o n n e c te d w ith th e E g y p t ia n k in g s h a d a lr e a d y b ee n tra n sfe r r e d
to the p r o g e n ito r o f th e G r e e k r o y a l h o u se s in A r c h a ic tim e s: th is le g e n d te lls
how thc h ig h e st g o d , a c c o m p a n ic d b y h is s e r v a n t , th c m e s s e n g e r o f th c g o d s,
assum ed the s h a p e o f th e kin g in o rd e r to g a in a cce ss to th e q u e e n 's b ed to sire
the fu tu re r u le r - a s to r y w h ic h e n te re d w o rld lite r a tu r e a s th c A m p h itr y o n
co m ed y.3"
T h c fig u re o f H e r a c le s w a s la t e r a b le to b e c o m e a n in flu e n tia l s p ir itu a l
force for tw o re a s o n s a b o v e a ll. F ir s t , h e is th c p ro to t y p e o f th e r u l e r ® w h o b y
Virtue o f h is d iv in e le g itim a tio n a c ts in a n ir r e s is tib le w a y fo r th e g o o d o f
"Ja n k in d a n d fin d s h is fu lfilm e n t a m o n g th e g o d s ; th u s A le x a n d e r s ta m p e d
e im a g e o f H e r a c le s o n h is c o in s . S e c o n d ly , h e is a m o d e l fo r ih c c o m m o n
an ' v* '° m a y h o p e th a t a fte r a life o f d r u d g e r y , a n d th ro u g h th a t v e r y life, he
m a y e n te r in to th e c o m p a n y o f th c g o d s . H e r a c le s h a s b ro k e n th c te rro rs
c a ,h; a s e a r ly a s th c fifth c e n tu r y it w a s s a id th a l h is in itia tio n a l E le u s is
P r o t e a « ) h im fro m ih e d a n g e r s o f th c u n d e r w o r ld ; b u t th c p o w e r in h e r e n t in
cra clcs le a v e s e v e n E le u s is b e h in d . H e r e th e d iv in e is clo s e a t h a n d in
an l ° r m , n o t a s a n A p o llo n ia n a n t ity p e , b u t a s a n in s p ir in g p ro to ty p e .* '1
Cracl« c o n ta in e d th e p o te n tia l to s h a tte r ih e lim its o f G r e e k re lig io n .
2 12 THE D EAD, HEROES, AND CHTHONIC GODS
5 .2 The Dioskouroi
T w o o f ih c m o st m e m o r a b le fig u r e s in G r e e k m y t h o lo g y a r e ih e d iv in e , j
C a s t o r a n d P o ly d e u c e s ( P o llu x in L a l i n ) , ih e b r o th e r s o f H e le n , ih e y o u t h s #
Z e u s , D io s kou roi.' I h e w o r s h ip o f th e D io s k o u r o i c le a r ly d e r iv e s front \ \ \
I n d o - E u r o p e a n h e r it a g e , a s is s h o w n a b o v e a ll b y th c p a r a lle l o f th e shinii
h o r s e - o w n in g b r o t h e r s . A svin , in V e d i c m y t h o lo g y .2 B u t th e n a m e w hicjjl
fo u n d in S p a r t a , T in dn rida i (o n in s c r ip tio n s ) o r T yn da ridai (in lit e r a r y texts) ä
p u z z li n g ;’ m y th in v e n te d a fo s te r fa th e r, T y n d a r c o s , to s o lv e th e prob lctjfl
A n d in th e n u m e r o u s r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e ty p e , th e D io s k o u ro i in ^
s e r v ic e o f a g o d d e s s / 4 th e D io s k o u r o i m e r g e w ith th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s ofaUw
s o c ie t y o f m en w h ic h s u r r o u n d s th e A n a t o lia n G r e a t G o d d e s s . O n m o re than
o n e o c c a s io n a n c ic n t in te r p r e t e r s w o n d e r e d w h e th e r lo c a l G u a r d ia n l o r ^ l
A n a k (l)es o r G r e a t G o d s , w e r e to b e id e n t ifie d a s K o u r c t e s , K a b c ir o i or
D io s k o u r o i. a n d th c t w in s ’ r e la tio n s to th c g o d s o f S a m o t h r a c e a r e a ls o c lo s e fl
In a c t u a lit y th e D io s k o u r o i a r e to a la r g e e x te n t a re fle c tio n o f t h e body of
y o u n g m e n c a p a b le o f b e a r in g a r m s . T h e y in v e n t th e w a r d a n c e s / ' and
m o u n te d w a r r io r s th e y rid e o u t in s e a r c h o f a d v e n t u r e , r u s tlin g c a ttle and*
s t e a lin g b r id e s , b u t th e y a ls o r e s c u e th e ir s is te r. T h c d u a l k in g s h ip o f S p a r t n
b e a r s a s p e c ia l r e la t io n s h ip to th e D io s k o u r o i. I h c T y n d a r i d a i a r e in v o k e «
w h e n th e a r m y m a r c h e s in to b a t tle , a n d i f o n e o f t h e k in g s re m a in s b c h lr fM
th e n so d o e s o n e o f th e T y n d a r i d a i / I n th is w a y th e r e a l p o litic a l ord er
s e c u r e d in th e r e a lm o f th e g o d s .
The Theban tw in s Z e th o s and A m p h io n arc a lm o s t d o u b le s o f llws
D io s k o u r o i. T h e y too a r e s o n s o f Z e u s a n d h o rs e m e n - k n o w n a s th c w hitr
h o rs e s o f Z e u s .“ I n m y th it is n ot th e ir s is t e r w h o m th e y r e s c u e , b u t lltfi/i*
m o th e r , A n t io p c : a n d th e y c a u s e the w ic k e d q u e e n D ir k e to b c d r a g g e d to her
d e a t h b y a b u ll. I h e w h e r e a b o u t s o f D ir k e ’s g r a v e w e r e k n o w n o n ly to «líe·
c a v a lr y c o m m a n d e r , th e hipparchos o f T h e b e s . W h e n h e re tire d fr o m o l T i e c J V
w o u ld ta k e h is s u c c e s s o r to h e r to m b at n ig h t: th e r e th e tw o m en w o u ld
s a c r ific e s w ith o u t u s in g fire a n d c o v e r u p a ll tr a c e s o f th e ir a c t iv it y b e fo re the*
b r e a k o f d a y ." In th is w a y th e tw o c a v a lr y le a d e r s g u a r a n t e e d th e c o n t ft jU
o f c o m m a n d b y b in d in g th e m s e lv e s to e a c h o th e r in se c re t c o m m t t i H ^
fo llo w in g th e m o d e l o f t h e w h it e h o r s e m e n -tw in s w h o h a d fo u n d e d T h g f l |
In m y t h o lo g y th e D io s k o u r o i C a s t o r a n d P o ly d e u c e s a r e n a t iv e to S p ^ fl
T h e y g r o w u p w ith H e le n in th e h o u se o f K i n g T y n d a r c o s : th e y fe tc h the
s is te r b a c k Iro m A p h id n a in A t t ic a w h e n T h e s e u s c a r r ie s h e r o f f ;1" a n d a s W
rid e r s w ith w h it e h o r s e s , l e u k o p o l o i th e y c a r r y o f f in tu rn tw o c o rrc s p o n lQ
s is te r s , th e L c u k ip p id c s . P h o e b e a n d H ila e ir a . F o llo w in g th is e s c a p a d e .'
e ls e a ft e r a c a t t le - s t e a lin g a d v e n t u r e , a fig h t ta k e s p la c e w ith a c o n t r a t a
p a ir o f b r o t h e r s , I d a s a n d L v n k c u s , w h o a p p a r e n t ly b e a r th e w o r d s Wl
a n d ly n x in th e ir n a m e s a n d a r e lo c a te d in th e e n e m y c o u n t r y o f M e ssc i
C a s t o r , th e m o r ta l b r o th e r , fa lls in th is e n c o u n te r , b u t P o ly d e u c e s , \vhflj
im m o r t a l, s u r v i v e s , a n d y e t th c tw in s r e m a in u n s e p a r a te d . T h i s p a r a d o x a l
t. ". TH E DIOSKOUROI M13
J
R l t im m o r t a lit y a n d d e a th a r c n o lo n g e r in o p p o s itio n is c irc u m *
lifí* , a v a r ie t y o f w a y s . In th e Odyssey it is s a id th a t th e c o r n - g iv in g
5 ,(”h o ld s b o th liv in g ; · - · n o w th e y a r e liv in g , d a y a n d d a y a b o u t, n o w th e y
fd rtlj 10 TM A)c m a n s e e m s to h a v e s p o k e n o f th e ir m a g ic a l s le e p , koma, in the
:
a l T h e r a p n e n e a r S p a r t a . '4 A c c o r d in g to P in d a r th e y s p e n d o n e
5 .3 Asklepios
A s k le p io s ' a ls o p o in ts b e y o n d th e c h th o n ic re a lm in w h ic h h e is n ev c rth ey
ro o te d . In s o fa r a s h e w a s b o rn th e son o f A p o llo b y a m o rta l w o m a n ,
c h ild r e n , a n d d ie d , h e b e lo n g s a m o n g thc h e ro e s; a n d heros is w h a t Pini
c a lls h i m / B u t his g r a v e p la y s n o ro le in th e c u lt, a n d h e is o ven tü 1·
w o r s h ip p e d th ro u g h o u t th c w h o le o f G r e e c e a s a g o d , c lo s c ly a ss o c ia te d
h is lu m in o u s fa th e r. T e m p le s w ith c h r y s e le p h a n tin e im a g e s w e re b u ilt in hij
h o n o u r, a n d in s ta tu e s h e a p p e a r s a s a n a m ia b le kin d o f Z e u s , but instaniWjj
r e c o g n iz a b le b y h is stalT w ith th e s n a k e co iled a ro u n d it. A s k le p io s is s c a r ® ^
e v e r im a g in e d in th c c o m p a n y o f th c o th e r g o d s on O ly m p u s , b u t h e belol
ev e n less in th c k in g d o m o f the d e a d ; he is p re se n t a m o n g m e n , a n d a p p e a l
d ir e c tly in th c s h a p e o f th e s n a k e w h ic h is in fact kept in his s a n c t u a r y . When
h is s a n c t u a r y a t S ik y o n w a s e s ta b lish e d in th c fifth c e n tu ry , th e g o d in the
lik e n e ss o f a se rp e n t w a s b ro u g h t fro m E p id a u r u s on a c a r r ia g e d ra w n by
m u les.*1 In th e c h ro n ic le o f th e A th e n ia n A s k lc p ie io n th e s a m e p r o c e s s «
d e s c r ib e d , b u t w ith s o m e w h a t m o re re s e rv e : th e g o d ‘ h ad th e serpeflg
b ro u g h t fro m h o m e ’ - from E p id a u r u s - on ‘ a c h a r io t ’ .4 S o p h o c le s olfercd
s h e lt e r to th e g o d in his o w n h o u se u n til th e te m p le w a s b u ilt, a n d ihn
b ro u g h t h e ro ic h o n o u rs on S o p h o c le s h im s e lf a s th e W’c lc o m e r. Dexion .5 Th<* |
n a m e o f th e G o d , A sklapios. Aisklapios - a n d so A e s c u la p iu s in L a t in - eludes^
in te r p r e ta tio n .
U n lik e th e o th e r g o d s w ith th e ir c o m p le x p e rs o n a litie s , A s k le p io s o w e s his
s ta tu s a n d p o p u la r ity lo o n e s in g le , but im m e n s e ly im p o r ta n t, fu n c tio n , ihc
h e a lin g o f s ic k n e s s . In the I lia d h is son s P o d a le irio s a n d M a c h a o n a r e a lre a d y !
at w o rk a s d o c to rs , a n d th eir fa th e r is c a lle d the b la m e le ss p h y s ic ia n ; thc*|
co m e fro m T r ik k a in T h e s s a l y .6 T h c c u rio u s m y th s u r r o u n d in g Asklepio&V
b irth a n d d e a t h , w h ic h w a s re la te d in d e ta il in th e H c s io d ic C a t a lo g u e s take*
u s to L a k e r c ia o n L a k e B o ib e in T h e s s a ly . A p o llo ta k e s C o r o n is a s his lovc,|
b u t a fte r h e h a s m a d e h e r p re g n a n t s h e sle e p s w ith a m o rta l m a n a n d in
p u n is h m e n t is s tru c k by th e d e a d ly a r r o w o f A r te m is . A s h er b o d y lies o n · ilit
fu n e r a l p y r e . A p o llo re s c u e s ih e u n b o rn c h ild , A s k le p io s , w h o g r o w s u p w ilh
the C e n t a u r C h e ir o n a n d b e c o m e s the b est p h y s ic ia n . W h e n A sk lep io T |
u ltim a te ly e m p lo y s h is a rt to w a k e s o m e o n e fro m th e d e a d . Z e u s in tr r v e n c S |
a n d k ills h im w ith his th u n d e r b o lt. I h is a lm o st le a d s to a b a ttle a m o n g the
g o d s: A p o llo k ills th e s m ith s , th e C y c lo p e s , w h o fo rg e d th e th u n d e rb o lt foi
Z e u s , a n d Z e u s is on th e p o in t o f k illin g A p o llo w h e n L e to in te rv e n e s and
b r in g s a b o u t a re c o n c ilia tio n . T h e r e a ft e r A p o llo m u st sh u n th e c o m p a n y <JI
th e g o d s fo r a y e a r a n d b e e n s la v e d to a m o r ta l, A d m c to s . th e h u s b a n d d
A lc c s tis . A n d th u s th e m y th le a d s us b a c k to T h e s s a ly . T h e r e is a rem a rk a b le ]
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n th e b e g in n in g a n d th e e n d : A p o llo r e s c u c s life fro!
ih e fu n e ra l p y r e , b u t th e h e a v e n ly fire sets a n ir r e v o c a b le lim it to th e lil£
w h ic h w o u ld se e k to b re a k th ro u g h to im m o rta lity .
A lo n g s id e th c T h e s s a lia n tra d itio n , th ere a r e in d e p e n d e n t c la im s
A S K L E P IO S 'J »5
I T H O U G H T P A T T E R N S IN G R E E K P O L Y T H E ISM
General Considerations
1 A th e n a a lw a y s a r m e d , b e lo n g s to th e in n e rm o s t c e n tre o f the
h e r la m p a n d h e r w o rk a t th e lo o m , w h ile A r te m is r o a m s o u t o f
>us<> to lh e v e r y b o u n d s o f v ir g in it y a n d e x p r e s s in g h e r n a t u r e in
>0TS rcacnd j a n c in g . c l o s e to c a c h o f th ese g o d d e s s e s s ta n d s o n e o f th e
jn “ ng ds b u t in th e c a s e o f th e m a le th e e v a lu a tio n o f th e in d o o rs/ o u td o o r s
¡VinCS° n ’ is a lt e r e d . A t h e n a ’s p a r tn e r H e p h a is t o s lo se s in s ta tu s a s a
p p o s iw o ih c tw in b r o lh c r 0 f A r te m is , b c c o m c s th e id e a l o f p o w e r fu l
^ " ' ‘'b e a u t y a n d s p ir it u a lit y . A r e s , th e w a r g o d , is a n u n p r e d ic t a b le
,CfgJ ' w h o h ks in tim a te c o n ta c t w ith A p h r o d ite . O u ts id e r s ' to o, b u t in a
t sen se a rc th e g o d s w h o c ro s s th e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n th e re a lm o f th e
T *n d th e r e a lm o f th e d e a d , H e r m e s a n d H e c a t e . F in a lly , D io n y s o s is
* an t a lto g e th e r, a t th e o p p o s ite p o le to th e O ly m p ia n c la r ity a n d o r d e r ;
u ï f o r th at v e r y re a s o n h e b e a rs a c o m p lic a te d a n d fru itfu l re la tio n to th e
thcrs.
>ei>j oj Gods
The m o st im p o r ta n t p a ir o f g o d s is Z e u s - H e r a , lh e a r c h e ty p e o f th e m a rr ie d
lc | n ,h c g r o v e o f Z e u s a t O ly m p ia , H e r a h a s th e o ld e st te m p le , in
vhich a s ta tu e o f Z e u s s ta n d s n e x t to th e c u lt im a g e o f th e g o d d e s s .'"
Recording to tr a d itio n , Z e u s a ls o h a s h is p la c e a l th e H e r a fe s t iv a ls in A r g o s
in d o n S a m o s . In h is to r ic a l tim e s A r g o s c o m b in e d th e H e r a ia fe stiv a l w ith
Jic festival o f Z e u s o f N e m c a , so th a t Z e u s N c m e io s a n d H e r a a p p e a r s id e b y
side a s the p r in c ip a l g o d s.·" T h e m a r ita l p r o b le m s o f Z e u s a n d H e r a , w h ic h
ihe po ets lo v e to d e s c r ib e , m ir r o r th e in n e r te n sio n o f a p a t r ia r c h a l o r d e r
which c o n tin u a lly re a ffir m s it s e lf th r o u g h its o p p o s ite .
A s a b r o th e r -s is te r p a ir fre e fro m s e x u a l te n sio n s - th o u g h th ese a r e h in ted
at in a n a p o c r y p h a l m y th * ' - A p o llo a n d A r te m is a r e p e c u lia r ly c lo s e ly
associated in th e G r e e k m in d . T h e I lia d m e n tio n s th e m to g e th e r w ith L e t o ,
and this s a m e trio is fo u n d re p re s e n te d in th e h a m m e re d b ro n z e c u lt im a g e s
from D r c r o s .34 T h i s g r o u p in g w a s s h o w n in th e s ix th c e n tu r y on th e east
pedim ent a b o v e the e n tr a n c e to th e A p o llo te m p le a t D e lp h i, a n d in d ee d
the D e lp h ic amphiklyones s w o re b y A p o llo , L a t o , a n d A r te m is . 5 O n D e lo s
ihc A p o llo te m p le w ith its m o n u m e n ta l g ild e d im a g e s to o d n e x t to th e
A rte m isio n .36 F r o m th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s v a s e p a in tin g s s h o w th e
m eeting o f b r o th e r a n d s is t e r .17 T h e y c a n b c re c o g n iz e d a s th e a r c h e ty p e s of
adolescen t y o u th : a t th e fe s t iv a ls o f th e g o d s th e m o r ta ls h o n o u r th e ir o w n
arch ety p e . In K a r y a i y o u n g g ir ls d a n c e fo r A r te m is , a n d in S p a r t a th e b o y s
celeb rate th e G y m n o p a id ia fo r A p o llo ;30 on D e lo s g ir ls a n d b o y s d a n c e th e
tta n e d a n c e to g e th e r .39 T h e re la tio n s a r e a ls o re v e rse d : a t th e a lt a r o f
A rte m is O r t h e ia it is b o y s w h o p re se n t th e b lo o d y s p e c ta c le , a n d on D e lo s
s in g th e h y m n fo r A p o llo w h ic h r e a c h e s a s ta te o f e c s t a s y .’ 0 N c v e r th e -
CS8. the h is to ria n c a n a n d m u s t s e p a r a t e A p o llo a n d A r te m is . T h e c e n tr a l
San ctu ary on D e lo s q u ite c le a r ly b e lo n g s to A r te m is ; A p o llo 's te m p le w a s
W ilt o n ly in th e m id d le o f th e s ix t h c e n tu r y a t th e e d g e o f th e p re c in c t.
n D e lp h i, m o r e o v e r , A r te m is h a d n o c u lt p la c e o f h e r o w n a n d w o m e n a n d
220 P O M S A N D P O L Y T H E IS M V ·
g ir ls w e r e r e p re s e n te d b e fo r e th c te m p le b y A th e n a P r o n a ia . N o th in g I
h e a r d o f A p o llo in th e cu lt fo r y o u n g g ir ls at B r a u r o n , a n d n o th in g is h e a r d *
A r t e m is a t A m y k la i. T h c fa c ts o f th e c u lt h is to ry , h o w e v e r, a r e e c lip se d ( 9
th e fo rm o f th o u g h t, b y th e im a g e o f th e y o u th fu l b ro th e r a n d s is te r .
H e p h a is t o s a n d A th e n a a r e n a m e d to g e th e r in H o m e r a s th e g o d s «
h a n d ic r a ft s ,3' a r e la tio n s h ip th a t is s tre n g th e n e d and deepened in i l 1
s p e c ific a lly A th e n ia n tr a d itio n w h ic h m a k e s E r c c h th e u s -E r ic h th o n io s de fa3 k
th e ir c h ild .5' A th e n a h a s a s ta tu e in th e te m p le o f H e p h a is t o s
o v e r lo o k s th c A g o r a , a n d c o n v e r s e ly the e v e r -b u r n in g la m p in th c te m p le am
A th e n a P o lia s on th e A c r o p o lis m a y b c u n d e rsto o d a s the p re se n c e o f the
g o d . ” A t th e S m ith fe s t iv a l, th c C h a lk e ia . th e p ro c e ss io n o f s m ith s tu r n j
to w a r d s th e g o d d e s s . A t h e n a .:M A lth o u g h A th e n a m a y to w e r a b o v e th e smitjj]
g o d a s m u c h a s h e r te m p le o n th c A c r o p o lis to w e rs a b o v e th e H e p h a istc io n i
th e a x is w h ic h r u n s b e tw e e n th c tw o b u ild in g s a c r o s s th e c e n tre o f th e A g o m
s till c a tc h e s rh e e y e to d a y .
A r e s a n d A p h r o d ite a re lin k ed in th a t fa m o u s fa r c ic a l e p is o d e in the
Odyssey w h ic h p o r tr a y s th em a s a n a d u lte r o u s c o u p le c a u g h t in flagranti a n j ·
exp osed to th e in e x tin g u is h a b le la u g h te r o f th e g o d s. T h e re la tio n sh ip !
b e tw e e n th e tw o is fu r th e r a tte ste d in n u m e ro u s v a s e p a in tin g s a n d in cullei
a n d p o e ts c a ll A r e s th e co n so rt o f A p h r o d ite w ith o u t h e s ita tio n .31 T h e y have
a c o m m o n te m p le b e tw e e n A r g o s a n d M a n t in c ia a s w ell a s o n e a t L a t o îa ·
C r e t e , a n d a t K n o s s o s th e y h a v e a p rie st in c o m m o n .3" A p h r o d ite rctaiicM
so m e w a r - lik e tr a its fro m h e r N e a r - E a s t e r n o r ig in s , b u t th e a r m e d A p h r o d id
r e m a in s a r a r it y a m o n g th c G r e e k s .37 H e r r e la tio n s h ip w ith A r c s is develop*»]
m o re a s a p o la r it y , in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e b io lo g ic a l-p s y c h o lo g ic a l rhyltunJ
w h ic h lin k s m a le fig h tin g a n d s e x u a lit y : th u s th e polemarchoi o f T h c b o l
s a c r ific e to A p h r o d it e a t th e en d o f th e ir te rm in o ffic e . T h c d a u g h t e r o f A ft fl
a n d A p h r o d ite is H a r m o n ia , J o i n i n g , w h ic h a t th c s a m e tim e d e n o te s m usical!
e u p h o n y , s p r u n g fro m th e c o n flic t o f w a r a n d lo v e .38
T h e lia is o n s o f D e m e te r a r e a ll d a r k a n d u n c a n n y , w h e th e r it is Z c u ·
P o se id o n , o r I a s io n w h o a p p e a r s a s h e r p a rtn e r .-* Ia s io n is s tru c k b y W
th u n d e r b o lt, P o se id o n tr a n s fo r m s h im s e lf in to a h o rs e , a n d Z e u s
a p p e a r s in h is lia is o n a s a c h th o n ic Z e u s E u b o u le u s .4" H e re in c e st fan tasi^w
m a y b e fo u n d : is not D e m e te r a ls o the m o th e r o f Z e u s ? T h e m y ste ry 4 1 1
g e n e r a t io n , th e b irth o f a n im a ls , a n d th e g e r m in a tio n o f th c g r a in , le a d s »nH
an a g e b e fo re d e fin itio n in w h ic h th c in d iv id u a l fig u re s d is a p p e a r ; a ll th*1
r e m a in s is th c m a te r n a l p o w e r, d e m a n d in g s a c r ific c a n d b e s to w in g life. I
I he c o m in g to g e th e r o f H e r m e s and A p h r o d ite a p p ears n ot a s JH,1
o p p o s itio n b u t a s a n a t u r a l c o m p le m e n t: th e p h a llo s fig u re a n d th r n a k ®
g o d d e s s . C o m m o n c u lts o f H e r m e s a n d A p h r o d ite a re a tte ste d in a n u m b e r * !·
p la c e s s u c h a s , fo r e x a m p le , the s h r in e n e*xt to th
x t tr *L c- u
H e—
r a -------
te m p1------
le o nc Sam
— CW H
T h c H e rm e s a n d A p h ro d ite s a n c tu a r y o f KCato
a t o S y m c on C re te sta n d s in
c o n tin u ity w ith M in o a n tr a d itio n .4* T h ep b is e x u a lit y o f th e N e a r - E a s tc 1**?
A p h r o d it c - A s t a r t r lies in th e b a c k g r o u n d .41 T h u s H e rm e s a n d A p h r o t ®
c o u ld e v e n b c fu se d in to th e b is e x u a l fig u r e o f H e r m a p h r o d ito s 44 - anCjj ?
O LD AN D YO U N G 221
lo g ic a l s p e c u la t io n is tr a n s fo rm e d in to a n a r t is t ic e x p e r im e n t in
10 n is ô c s c u lp tu r e In G r e e k m y th o lo g y th is is little re fle c te d .
H "" ( t|,c v ir g in s A th e n a a n d A r te m is s ta n d in o p p o s itio n to A p h r o d it e is
c le a r ly a r tic u la te d . T h is p o la r it y , w h ic h fo u n d its d e e p e s t e x p re s s io n in
p ftrn L |v lo s t r a g e d y , a ls o b e c a m e a n e v e r y d a y c o m m o n p la c e . In the
d '1’ ra | id y ll th c s h e p h e rd e s s m a id c rie s o u t, A r te m is , d o not b e a n g r y ," to
I Ç - , D a p h n is r e s p o n d s , Ί w ill s a c r ific e a h e ife r to E r o s a n d a n o x to
h m d ite h e r s e lf.’ " B e fo r e th e m a r r ia g e c e r e m o n y g irls m a k e a p r e lim in a r y
crific<‘ ¡n o ttln a , to A r t e m is , to ra n s o m th e m s e lv e s , a s it w e re , fro m h e r
!·? m s' y e t w h e n th e y c o m e to g iv e b irth th ey a r c s till d e p e n d e n t on h e r
S v o u r *6 A p h r o d ite , o n th e c o n t r a r y , d is p la y s h er p o w e r in th e a c t o f lo v e.
A tlicn a lik e A r te m is , m a y d e m a n d p e r io d s o f s e rv ic e in h e r te m p le fro m
oung g irls; fo r h e r p rie s te s s s h e re q u ir e s a m a tu re w o m a n w h o is p a st the
o f A p h r o d ite .* 7 In a ll th is m a r r ia g e a n d s e x u a lit y a r e not e x c lu d e d , but
w o rk s
Dionysos
2 THF. RHYTHM OF TH E FE ST IV A LS
2 .1 F estiva l Calendars
A ll m a jo r g o d s len t th e ir n a m e s to m o n th s: D io s. H c r a io s , A th e n a ú J
F o s c id o n io s , A p o llo n io s . A n a m it io s . A p h r o d is io s . D a m a t r io s , D io n y si < 3
H e r m a io s , A r c io s , a n d H e p h a is tio s a r e re c o rd e d , a n d a ls o H e ra k U ^ J j
H r s t ia io s . L a to io s , a n d F a n th e io s . T h e n th ere a r e th c n a m e s ta k e n fr<w
fe s t iv a ls , su c h a s A p e lla io s , A g r ia n io s , K a r n c io s , a n d T h c o x c n io s . A m o n fi
s u c h n a m e s a r e a n u m b e r w h ic h a ls o a p p e a r a s e p ith e ts o f g o d s: L y k e io s anti·. '
A p o llo L y k e io s . L a p h r io s a n d A r te m is L a p h r ia . T h e I o n ia n - A t t ic m o n th !
n a m e s in -on a r e a ll d e r iv e d , in w o rd fo rm a tio n a s w e ll, fro m fe stiv a l n a m c ^ l
B e st k n o w n is the A tt ic c a l e n d a r / It w a s e s ta b lish e d in th is fo rm a s p a n nf
S o lo n 's la w -c o d c ; la te r, in th e y e a r s a fte r 4 1 0 , a c e rta in N ik o m a c h o s w a jj
c h a r g e d b y p u b lic d e c r e e w ith th e ta sk o f c o d ify in g a n d p u b lis h in g th e valid
c a le n d a r s o f s a c r ific e s ; th e re su lt w a s th e lo n g e st in s c rip tio n in A th e n s , set |jp
in th c K i n g ’ s S t o a in th e m a rk e t p la c e ; o n ly s m a ll fra g m e n ts h a v e s u r v i v e d j ·
T h e A tt ic c a le n d a r b e g in s w ith th e Hekalombaion. a m o n th n a m e d after a
H e k a t o m b a ia fe s tiv a l in h o n o u r o f A p o llo . T h e m o n th s w h ic h fo llo w are
M elagcilnion w ith a n e ig h b o u rh o o d fe stiv a l, M elageitnia, Boedromion w ith a
fe stiv a l o f A p o llo th e H e lp e r , a n d Pyanopxion w ith th e b o ilin g o f th e beait$#j
pynnopsia\ th e m o n th s M a im a k tenon a n d Posideon p re su p p o se fe s t iv a ls w hich]
a r e e ffe c tiv e ly u n k n o w n to u s: Gamelion fo llo w s w ith a m a r r ia g e fe stiv a l!·
g a m elia , a n d then Anlhesterion w ith th e A n th e s te r ia , a fe stiv a l a b o u t w h ic h wc
a re w ell in fo r m e d ;0 Elaphebolion is n a m e d a fte r a fe stiv a l o f A rte m is th e Deer-
sh o o te r , a n d Munichion is n a m e d a fte r th e fe stiv a l o f A r te m is o f M unichta.*)
T h e lhargelia in the m o n th Thargelion in tro d u c e th e c o rn h a rv e s t, a n d ihr
sku a o f Skirophorion b e lo n g to th e y e a r e n d in g .7
It is r e m a r k a b le h o w little ih e c a le n d a r ta k e s a c c o u n t o f the n atu ral
rh y th m o f th e a g r ic u ltu r a l y e a r : th e r e is n o m o n th o f s o w in g o r h a r v e s t and
110 g r a p e - g a t h e r in g m o n th : th e n a m e s a re ta k e n fro m th e a r tific ia l fe stiv al*
o f th e p o lis. T h is is a ls o tru e o f th e o th e r G r e e k c a le n d a r s . C e r ta in W j
a g r ic u ltu r e , w h ic h is d e p e n d e n t o n rhe w e a th e r , w o u ld o th e rw is e c o n s ta n c y
c o m e in to co n flict w ith th e c h a n g e a b le lu n a r m o n th s. T h c c a le n d a r th e re fo re
a c c e n tu a te s th e a u to n o m o u s rh y th m o f th e life o f the c o m m u n it y ; 1I1&
r l n t h m s of n a tu r e w ill fit in fro m tim e to tim e , i f o n ly b e c a u se in th e re la tio n s!
b etw e e n m en a n d g o d s e v e r y th in g h a s its o rd e r.
T h c fe s t iv a ls w h ic h g iv e th e ir n a m e s to m o n th s vary' g r e a tly in th eir statu s.
As fa r a s c a n b e see n fro m o u r e v id e n c e . Ih e fe stiv a ls o f P y a n o p s ittl
A n th e s te r ia , T h a r g c lia , a n d S k ir a w e re o f s o m e im p o r ta n c e . B u t in o th er
m o n th s o th e r fe stiv a ls a re m u c h m o re s ig n ific a n t: th e g re a te st A thenian^
fe s tiv a ls s u c h as th e P a n a th e n a ia in H e k a t o m b a io n ,11 th e M y s t e r ie s in
B o e d r o m io n ,'' a n d th e G r e a t D io n y s ia in E la p h e b o lio n a r e not re fle c te d in
th e m o n th n a m e s, n o r a rc th e T h c sm o p h o ria in P y a n o p s io n ,10 the ru ra l
D io n y sia in P o sid e o n . o r th e L c n a ia in G a m e lio n . O th e r Io n ia n c a le n d a r s ,>1
h o w e v e r , d o in c lu d e m o n th s su c h a s T h e s m o p h o r io n a n d L e n a io n , and·
P ly n te rio n a n d B o u p h o n io n a r e a ls o re c o r d e d , j u s t a s th ere a rc P ly n te r i*
a n d B o u p h o n ia fe s t iv a ls a t A t h e n s ;" th ere w e re a g r e a t m a n y m o re than
Y E A R E N D IN G A N D N E W Y E A R 227
Λ
V fe stiv a ls in the y e a r . T h e G r e a t D io n y s ia w e re in tro d u c e d o n ly in the
K T f l c n w r y a l a l *m c w ^ cn c a le n d a r ^ ac^ a lr e a d y lo n g b een e s ta b lish e d .
T ? o rjg in o f th e G r e e k fe stiv a l c a le n d a r s a p p e a r s n o w a d a y s m o re c o m p il
ai than b efo re . In a s e rie s o f le a rn e d m o n o g ra p h s M a r t in P N ils s o n 11
, d d ie th e o ry th a t the m o n th n a m e s a r e la t e r th a n H o m e r a n d H e sio d
the a p p c a r a n c c η ™ 0 1 *1 l-e n a io n in H e sio d w a s th e re fo re r e g a r d e d a s
in te r p o la tio n '5 - a n d th at th e G r e e k c a le n d a r s h a d b een re g u la te d
rrally fro m D e lp h i in th e e ig h th c e n tu ry , fo llo w in g a B a b y lo n ia n
len cc. T h e d e c ip h e rm e n t o f L m e a r B h a s n o w p ro v id e d a n ew b a s is fo r
d is c u s s io n : w h a t a rc c lc a r ly m o n th n a m e s a r e fo u n d a t K n o s s o s a n d a t
p los '* A m o n g th e se th e m o n th o f Z e u s , D ios (d i-w i-jo ), c o r re sp o n d s to la te r
n a m e s ; a n d th e re is a ls o Lapatos (ra-pa-to), a m y ste rio u s m o n th n a m e -
n o m alo u s in w o rd fo rm a tio n a s w ell - w h ic h s u r v iv e s in A r c a d ia . It is
n o t ic e a b le th at ih c I o n ia n - A t t ic m o n th n a m e s d iffe r fro m th o se o f th e o th er
G reeks; the fo rm in -on lin k s th em w ith fe s tiv a l n a m e s o f th e kin d a ls o
reco rd ed in M y c e n a e a n :'5 a fu r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t h a s o b v io u s ly ta k e n p la c e in
p o s t-M y c e n a e a n tim e s, b u t th is m u st n e v e rth e le s s p re d a te th e m ig ra tio n s o f
ih c Io n ia n s to A s ia M in o r a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e m ille n n iu m , fo r o n ly in th is
w ay ca n th e id e n tity in th e b a s ic s tr u c tu r e o f th e c a le n d a r s in I o n ia a n d
A ttica be e x p la in e d : th is c o n c lu s io n a ls o h o ld s fo r the im p o r ta n t c o m m o n
festivals su ch a s th e A p a t o u r ia , th e A n th e s te r ia , a n d th e T h a r g e lia . C o m m o n
D o ria n -n o rth w est G r e e k tra d itio n is a ls o e v id e n t in th e m o n th n a m e
A p e lla io s, w h e r e a s th e fe stiv a l a n d m o n th K a r n e i a a rc re g a rd e d a s e x c lu
sively D o r ia n .16 T h e d e c is iv e e la b o r a tio n o f th e c a le n d a r o rd e r a s e x h ib ite d in
the m onth n a m e s m u st th e re fo re g o b a c k lo the P r o to -G e o m e tric A g e a t lea st.
L ater ch a n g e s a s w ell a s s u b s e q u e n t a c c o m m o d a tio n s a n d h a rm o n iz a tio n s
must a lw a y s b c rec k o n ed w ith . M o n th n a m e s c o u ld a lw a y s b c a lte r e d s im p ly
by p u b lic d e c re e . F r o m th e e n d o f th e fo u rth c e n tu ry th e p r a c tic e a r o s e o f
callin g a m o n th not a fte r O ly m p ia n g o d s, b u t a fte r m o n a r c h s , a n d th is
even tually g a v e Ju liu s a n d A u g u s tu s a p la c e in o u r c a le n d a r.
ï*hc m e a n in g a n d m o v e m e n t o f a fe stiv a l m a y b c e x p re ss e d b y a n d fo r th e
celeb ran ts in th ree w a y s , in a kin d o f trip le c o d e . T h e m o st s e lf-c o n s c io u s ,
and to th at e x te n t th e la te s t, w a y is to d e s c r ib e fro m a n e x te rn a l p o in t o f v ie w
w hat is d o n e , in a s e q u e n c e o f p u rific a tio n s , p ro c e ss io n s, s a c r ific e s , d a n c e s ,
and co n te sts. A s im p le r w a y is to re c ite th e h e ro e s a n d g o d s h o n o u re d ,
a list, b u t o n e w h ic h re v e a ls a h o st o f re la tio n s h ip s to th o se fa m ilia r
With the la n g u a g e o f p o ly th e ism . F in a lly , th e re a r e ta le s w h ic h m a y b c to ld,
^etiological m y th s w h ic h re la te to th e fe s t iv a l; th e se o fte n see m a r b it r a r y ,
fa r-fe tc h e d , a n d y e t fre q u e n tly th ey ec h o d e e p a n d p e r v a s iv e r h y th m s ,
^Specially a s th e y h a v e g r o w n fro m th e e x p e rie n c e o f p a r tic ip a n ts at the
v a '· T h e m o d e rn in te r p r e t e r fo r his p a rt w ill see k to re c o rd in h is o w n
228 P O L IS Λ Ν Ι) P O L Y T H E IS M V 2
la n g u a g e th e p s y c h ic te n sio n s a n d th c s o c ia l d y n a m ic s o f ih c e v e n ts a t r
fe s t iv a l. B u i h e re it m u st b c b o r n e in m in d th a t a c c r ta in a t m o s p lf
p e r v a d e s a ll o r g a n iz e d a n d d e s c r ib a b le a s p e c t s o f a fe s t iv a l, lik e a u n ir la ,
fr a g r a n c e w h ic h is u n fo r g e tta b le fo r th o se w h o h a v e e x p e rie n c e d * it | J
w h ic h c a n s c a r c c ly b e d e s c r ib e d : a t b est it m ig h t b c p o s s ib le to c ir c u r n s c ijf
it, a s it w e r e , th r o u g h th e v a r io u s fo rm s o f its c o m m u n ic a t io n . Ï
O n ly a fe w e x a m p le s fro m th e m u ltit u d e o f G r e e k fe s t iv a ls can
p r e s e n te d h ere . F o llo w in g a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t e r n tr a d itio n , th e m o st imp«»*
ta n t fe s t iv a l o f th e c ity is th c N e w Y e a r o n e . S in c e th e m a jo r fe s t iv a ls musi Ί
la k e p la c e d u r in g th e s la c k p e r io d s o f ih e a g r ic u lt u r a l y e a r .' th e re a r c Uv«y*J
p o s s ib le tim e s fo r N e w Y e a r , in th c s p r in g o r a fte r th e c o rn h a r v e s t . T h r
la t te r is th e c a s e in A th e n s : th c y e a r b e g in s w ith th e P a n a lh c n a ic fe stiv a l in
th e m o n th H e k a t o m b a io n , a r o u n d J u l y .
T h e n e w a r c h o n a s s u m e s o ffic e w ith th e p r o c la m a t io n : ‘ W h a t e v e r each
m a n h a d b e fo re h e e n te re d h is o ffic e , th a t h e s h a ll h a v e a n d h old u n til Uir
en d o f h is o ffic e :'* a le g a l a m n e s t y is a n n o u n c e d , b u t a t th e s a m e tim e it n
c o n fin c d to th e d u r a t io n o f th e y e a r . N o t e v e n m u r d e r tria ls c a n b c carried
o v e r fro m o n e y e a r to th c n e x t .' B e t w e e n o ld a n d n e w th ere y a w n s a d ia îijf i
w h ic h r itu a l m a r k s a n d e n a c ts. A t th c N e w Y e a r fe s tiv a l in B a b y lo n the king
is d e p o s e d , h u m ilia te d , a b u s e d , a n d fin a lly re s to re d to h is th r o n e .4
I n A t h e n s th e c y c lc o f fe s t iv a ls w h ic h m a rk th e en d b e fo re th e n ew begin
n in g c o m m e n c e s a s m u c h a s tw o m o n th s b e fo re th c P a n a th e n a ia fe stiv a l. The 1
p u r ific a tio n o f th e c e n tr a l s a n c t u a r y o f A th e n a P o lias fa lls d u e , b e a u t if yin ^J,
a n d w a s h in g : th e K a lly n te n a a n d P ly n tn ia s a r e c e le b r a t e d . W o m e n from i j
n o h le fa m ily , th e P r a x ie r g id a i, a r e e n t r u s ie d w ith th e ta s k : th e y ta k e olTthe
o r n a m e n ts fro m th e a n c ie n t c u lt im a g e in th c E r c c h t h e io n , a n d o b v io u s ljS
its r o b e a s w e ll, th e n th e y v e il th e im a g e w ith a c lo th / ' T h e n th e re i? 4
p r o c e s s io n , d o u b tle s s to e a r n - th e r o b e s to th e w a s h in g p la c e to re m o v e lb*
d ir t ; a fig p a s t r y is c a r r ie d in fro n t o f th e p ro c e ss io n 'b e c a u s e th is w a s th e lltsi
c u lt iv a t e d food w h ic h m en t a s t e d .’ 7 T h e r e w a s a ls o a sto ry th a t a fte r thr
d e a th o f A g la u r o s , the d a u g h t e r o f C c c r o p s a n d firs t p rie ste s s o f A th en a *
c lo th e s w e r e w a s h e d fo r a y e a r .8 D e a th a n d p r im itiv e tim e s a r e re c a lle d , but
at th e s a m e tim e a n e w b e g in n in g w ilh c u lt iv a t e d fo o d is a n t ic ip a t e d , though
th e fig , fo r a ll its s w e e t n e s s , a lw a y s h a s s o m e th in g p r im itiv e , d a r k , a n d C n
o b s c e n e a b o u t it. T h e o r d e r o f e v e r y d a y life is in te rr u p te d : on th is d a y 0**
g o d d e s s is a b s e n t fro m h e r c it y . T h e d a y is th e re fo re re g a r d e d a s a n unludtfl
d a y , apophras;·* A l c ib ia d e s , to h is m is fo rtu n e , re tu r n e d to A th e n s o n th is very
day.
A t th e b e g in n in g o f th e fo llo w in g m o n th th e m y s t e r io u s n o c tu r n a l l‘e stiv^ H
th e A rrh eph ona. ta k e s p la c e ; a t th is fe s tiv a l th e tw o y o u n g g ir ls , th e ArrfitphOl^M
w h o h a v e liv e d fo r a lm o s t a y e a r o n th e A c r o p o lis , c o n c lu d e th e ir ierm OH
p r ie s t ly s e r v ic e .
T h e y p la c e o n th e ir h e a d s w h a t th e p r ie s t e s s o f A th e n a g iv e s
th em to c a r r y , b u t n e ith e r th c p rie s te s s k n o w s w h a t it is s h e is
YEAR ENDING A N D N E W YEAR 330
iv m g th e m , n o r d o tlir g ir ls w h o c a r r y ii. B u i in th c c ity th e re is a
je e r e d p r c c in c t n o t l a r fro m th a t ol' A p h r o d ite in th c G a r d e n s .
n d th r o u g h it th e re ru n s a n a t u r a l u n d e r g r o u n d p a s s a g e : h e re
"the v ir g in s d e s c e n d . D o w n b e lo w th e y le a v e b e h in d w h a t th e y
h a v e b r o u g h t a n d la k e s o m e th in g e ls e a n d c a r r y it, v e ile d a s it is.
T h e n th e tw o v ir g in s a r e d is c h a r g e d fo r t h w it h .10
w a s c a r r ie d d o w n in ih e c lo s e d b a s k e ts (k is la i), a n d w h a t w a s b ro u g h t
w ra p P c<^ 3 v e *^ c a n ° n ^ Ku c s s c d a t; Arrhephoros s e e m s to m e a n d ew
:- r w ith d e w s y m b o liz in g b o th im p r e g n a tio n a n d n e w o ffs p r in g . T h e
.« lio n s on th c n o rth s lo p s o f th e A c r o p o l is " h a v e r e v e a le d a s te e p
ia jrw a y ~ w h ic h o r ig in a lly , in th e la te M y c e n a e a n c it a d e l, led d o w n to a
ftrine - a n fl· l° ta sl l ^ is . a s m a ^ s h r in e o f PLro s in th e ro c k fa c e ; th u s
fair the p a th w a y o f t h e A rr/tephoro ι m a y b e tr a c e d . T h e ritu a l is m ir r o r e d in ih e
m yth o ft h e d a u g h t e r s o f C e c r o p s ,1’ th e v e r y first k in g o f t h e A t h e n ia n c it a d e l,
h alf sn a k c a n d h a l f m a n . A t h e n a g a v e th e d a u g h t e r s A g la u r o s , H e r s e , a n d
Pandrosos a kiste, s tr ic t ly fo r b id d in g th em e v e r to o p e n it: b u t a t n ig h t , w h e n
A thena w a s a b s e n t , c u r io s ity g o t th c b e tte r o f th e m . A g la u r o s a n d H c r s e
opened th e c o n ta in e r and saw E r ic h th o n io s , th e m y s t e r io u s c h ild of
H ep h aistos, b u t a t th e s a m e tim e o n e o r tw o s n a k e s d a r te d o u t o f th e b a s k e t
causin g the g ir ls to fa ll in t e r r o r o v e r th c n o rth fa c e o f ih c A c r o p o lis lo th e ir
death, T h e r e a t ih e foot o f th c ro ck w a ll lies th e s a n c t u a r y o f A g la u r o s ;
P androsos, w h o se n a m e a ls o c o n ta in s th e w-ord d e w , drosos, a n d w h o in th e
myth re m a in s fre e o f g u ilt, h a s h e r p re c in c t in fro n t o f t h e E r e c h th c io n , w h e r e
•he sa c rc d o liv e tre e g r o w s ; m o ist w ith d e w , it e m b o d ie s th e c o n tin u ity o f th e
order o f t h e p o lis .13 I h i s o r d e r is a ls o e x p r e s s e d b y th e a lm o s t y e a r -lo n g
vcrvicc o f t h e A rrhephoroi w h o a ls o s ta r t th c w o rk o f w e a v in g th e peplos fo r th e
P an a th en a ia. P e r h a p s ih c k is la i s im p ly c o n ta in e d the o ffs c o u r in g s fro m th c
cleaning o f A t h e n a ’ s la m p , w h ic h h a d b e e n b u r n in g th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r ,
wool a n d o il; m y th m a k e s s im p le th in g s s y m b o ls o f th in g s u n h e a rd of.
A thena used w o o l to w ip e H e p h a is t o s ’ se m e n fro m h e r th ig h , a n d th re w it on
the ea rth , a n d th e e a rth g a v e b irth to E r ic h t h o n io s .1* W h e re th e h id d e n ch ild
within the v ir g in a l p r e c in c t c o m e s fr o m , n e ith e r th e p rie s te s s o f A th e n a n o r
d*** yo un g g ir ls m u s t k n o w - b u t th e ir n o c tu r n a l p a t h w a y ta k e s th em to
A ph rod ite a n d E ro s. T h e sn ak e b e lo n g s to A t h e n a , te r r ify in g and yet
scin atin g - a ls o in th e s e n s e o f p h a llic im p r e g n a tio n : th a t th c s n a k e w a s a n
cp ip h an v of E r ic h t h o n io s - E r c c h t h e u s w a s s a id a n d b e lie v e d .15
cc au se th e g o a t is a n e n e m y to th e o liv e tre e n o g o a t c o u ld b e d r iv e n o n to
^ CroP ° l i s , e x c e p t o n c e a y e a r fo r th e ‘ n e c e s s a r y ’ s a c r ific e .10 It is te m p tin g
a ss o c ia te th is e x c e p t io n w ith th e u n c a n n y fe s t iv a l o f th e Arrhephoria. T h e
Jjtythical d c â th o f a m a id e n a n d g o a t s a c r ific e c o rre s p o n d e ls e w h e r e . F ro m
So a*aC n ^ CC a n a n *n ial th e sk in is left, fr o m th c s a c r ific e o f a g o a t (a ix ), th e
’ th e A ig is , A t h e n a 's p e c to ra l w h ic h s p r e a d s p a n ic ;'7 a c c o r d in g to th e
•0 A th e n a r e tu rn e d a t th e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n th e d a u g h t e r s o f C e c r o p s
ncd th e kiste a n d fell to th e ir d e a th s .
230 P O LIS A N D P O LY T H E ISM V 'f l l l
N in e d a y s la te r, on tin- 12 th S k ir o p h o r io n , th e S k ir a fe stiv a l is c e l e b r a r a I
w ith a c u r io u s p ro c e ssio n . W a lk in g b en e ath a c a n o p y 'th e p rie ste s s ,,j
A th e n a , th e p rie st o f P o se id o n a n d th e p rie st o f H e lio s m a k e th e ir w a y frojjj
th e A c r o p o lis to a p la c c c a lle d S k iro n : th e E tc o b o u t a d a i c a r r y th e c a n o p y ] ®
T h e E tc o b o u t a d a i a r e th e n o b le A tt ic fa m ily w h ic h a ls o s u p p lie d \ l lç
p rie ste s s o f A th e n a a n d th e p rie st o f E re c h th e u s: th e ir a n c e s to r B o u te s w a*
re g a r d e d a s th e b ro th e r o f E r e c h th e u s .1" T h e p la c e c a lle d S k ir o n is a hcrii
p re c in c t a n d lies o u tsid e th e city on the ro a d to E le u s is : clo s e b y fc 3
s a n c t u a r y o f D e m e te r a n d K o r e w h e re A th e n a a n d P o se id o n a re aljm
w o r s h ip p e d .70 T h is s a n c t u a r y is c le a rly th e g o a l o f th e p ro ce ssio n : A th p r a
a n d P o se id o n a re re c e iv e d th e re a s g u e sts b y the E lc u s in ia n g o d d e sse s. iQd
th is d a y th e p rie sts o f E re c h th e u s a n d A th e n a d o not go u p to th e ir te m p le qji
th e A c r o p o lis , but a w a y fro m it a c r o ss th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e c it y . T h is \s η»
n o r m a l pompe. b u t a le a d in g a w a y , a n apupompe: the city g o d d e s s a n d the king
o f o ld , r e p re se n te d b y th e ir p rie sts, le a v e th e c ita d e l a n d th e city . Other
m e m b e rs of th eir fa m ily e sco rt th em ; th ey c a r r y th e ra m -sk in o f Z e u s which In
u sed to p u r ify th o se p o llu te d b y m u rd e r.* 1 T h e e x o d u s in th e d ire c tio n ol
E le u s is a p p e a r s in m y th a s th e p a th ta k e n b y E r e c h th e u s in th e w a r against]
the E le u s in ia n s u n d e r E u m o lp o s, in w h ic h th e A th e n ia n k in g m et his
m y ste r io u s e n d . S k ir o s is in tro d u c e d a s th e se e r o f the E le u s in ia n s w h o fell in
th e fig h tin g a n d w h o se g r a v e g a v e th e p la c c its n a m e ; the w ife o f Ercch th cU s
is in sta lle d a s the first p rie ste s s o f A th e n a - a c c o rd in g to E u rip id e s in his play.
E r e c h t h e u s In th is w a y th e m y th g iv e s the apopompe its m ost radical
in te r p r e ta tio n : th e d e a th o f th e k in g is c e le b ra te d in th e m id d le o f the month
b e fo re th e en d o f th e y e a r , a t a b o u t the tim e o f th e so lstice .
T h e S k ir a a re a s p e c ia l fe stiv a l fo r th e w o m en o f A th e n s . T h is is o n e o f the
fe w d a y s in th e y e a r w h e n th ey m a y le a v e the se c lu sio n o f th eir w om en 's
c h a m b e r s a n d a ss e m b le a c c o rd in g to a n c ie n t cu sto m . T h e y fo rm th e ir own
o r g a n iz a t io n ; to p re sid e o v e r the fe stiv a l is a h ig h h o n o u r. F o r th e m en , the
w h o le b u s in e s s is d e e p ly u n s e ttlin g : A r is t o p h a n e s d e sc r ib e s how- on this
o c c a s io n th e w o m en h a tc h th eir plot lo s e iz e p o w e r in lh e sta te th ro u g h n
‘ W o m e n ’ s A s s e m b ly V ·1 T h e p a tr ia r c h a l o r d e r o f th e h o u se is a ls o dissolved!
w h e n th e h ig h e st a u th o rity d is a p p e a r s fro m th e c ita d c l.
T h e o th e r p u rific a tio n s a n d s a c rific e s o f th e d a y a r e n ot d e s c rib e d . T h r
w o rd skiros s e e m s to m e a n s o m e th in g lik e w h ite e a rth ; it is s a id o n ce that
T h e s e u s , b efo re h e left A th e n s , m a d e an im a g e o f A th e n a fro m g y p s u m and
c a r r ie d it .Ji F u r th e r a llu s io n s p o in t to d ic e -p la v in g a n d w a n lo n n e s s ‘on the
S k ir o n '.
T w o d a y s la te r, on th e 14 th S k iro p h o rio n , th e m o st c e re m o n io u s a ifij
c u r io u s b u ll s a c r ific c o f th e y e a r, the o x -m u rd c r , Bouphunia, la k e s p la c e on the
d e se rte d A c r o p o lis in h o n o u r o f Z e u s o f the C it y , D ii P oliei. A lr e a d y f ° r
A r is t o p h a n e s the D ip o lie ia w ere s y n o n y m o u s w ith a p ie ce o f a n tiq u a te d
n o n se n s e .3* T h e s tra n g e s e rie s o f ev e n ts b eg in s w h e n th e b e a st h a s lo select
i t s e lf fo r s a c r ific e : a lin e o f o x e n is d riv e n ro u n d an a lt a r o n w h ic h g r * 9
o ffe rin g s a r e la id ; th e first a n im a l to s ta r t m u n c h in g the sa c re d g r a in is struck
Y E A R E N D IN G A N D N E W Y E A R 23J
V ** rl th e sp o t w ilh a n a x e . A c c o rd in g to lege n d a p io u s p e a s a n t h ad
d ° wn lte(j o rig in a l o x -m u r d c r in s p o n ta n e o u s a n g e r a t the d e se c ra tio n ol
Tju . a c t o fk iU in g m e a n s g u ilt; th e o x - s la y e r th ro w s th e a x e a w a y
r 5 . o th crs b u ic h c r th e v ic tim a n d h a v e a b a n q u e t. A fte r w a r d s , q u ite
\ ro u sly. a tr ’ a * is ' n l ^c to e s ta b lish g u ilt fo r th c o x-
, Y h e s la y e r h a s a lr e a d y d is a p p e a r e d , so th c o th e r p a r tic ip a n ts p u sh
? J U B lain e on to e a ch o th e r - ih e w a t e r-c a rr ie rs b la m e th ose w h o w h e tted the
and the k n ife , th ese b la m e th e m a n w h o h a n d e d o v e r th c a x e , h e b lam e s
K b u tch er, the b u ic h c r b la m e s thc k n ife , a n d thc k n ife, u n a b le to sp e a k in
0wn d e fen ce , is th ro w n in to the s e a . T h e o x h ide is stu ffed , a n d th c stuffed
is raise d u p a n d y o k e d to a p lo u g h : th ro u g h re s u rre c tio n the m u rd e r is
annulled
•C o m ed ies o f in n o c e n c e ’ o f th is kin d a n d th e fe elin g s o f g u ilt w h ic h they
rJ(p ress h a v e b een s h o w n b y K a r l M e u li to d a te b a c k to th e tim e w h e n m an
uras a h u n te r.*0 H y p o th e s e s w h ic h c o n je c tu re th at th is b u ll is re a lly o r
o r ig in a lly the g o d h im s e lf o r else a to tem , th e v e g e ta tio n sp irit o r the kin g,
sim ply a d d fu r th e r m y th o lo g y r a th e r th a n o ffe rin g a n y c la rific a tio n . T h e
killing o f the v ic t im , a se lf-e vid e n t p a rt o f e v e r y s a c rific c , is c n a c te d h ere in
such a w a y th a l a n u n se ttlin g a tm o sp h e re o f g u ili a ris e s , a n a tm o sp h e re
which h as its p ro p e r p la c e in th e la s t m o n th o f th e y e a r . T h is s a c rific e is
connected in n u m e ro u s w a y s w ith th e S k ir a : it is m e m b e rs o f a n E le u s in ia n
fam ily, th c K e r y k e s , w h o c a r r y o ut the ο χ -m u rd e r tw o d a y s a fte r E r c c h th c u s
and A th e n a h a v e d e p a rte d to w a rd s E le u s is ; m o re o v e r, the K e r y k e s tra ce
their lin e b ack to H e rm e s a n d H e r s e (o n e o f th e d a u g h t e r s o f C e c r o p s ), w h ile
ihe h ie ro p h a n t fro m th e lin e o f E u m o lp o s is a p e r m a n e n t g u e st at th e
A thenian P ry ia n e io n . A th e n s a n d E le u s is a ct lo g e th c r in a ritu a l o f in v e rsio n
:ind d isso lu tio n .
D isso lu tio n , P la to w r it e s ,'7 is n o less g o o d a n d n e c c s sa ry th a n th c g en e sis
o f the n ew ; for th is re a so n h e see k s in ih e sta te o f the L a u s lo d e d íc a te th e last
month o f the y e a r to P lu to . T h e te rrib lc n e ss o f ih c d e stru c tio n o f life is
d em on strated in ih e ritus: m en m a y d is ta n c e th e m se lv e s from th c d e ed b y
flight a n d e x c u lp a tio n , b u t a s th e a c tio lo g ic a l leg e n d p a r a d o x ic a lly tells, thc
only w a y to c o m c to te rm s w ith the d e ed is th ro u g h a re p etitio n in v o lv in g
E veryone; the m u rd e r is th e re fo re a t th e s a m e lim e an a ffirm a tio n o f the c ity .
*n hon our o f Z e u s , lord o f the p o lis.
The n ew m oon b rin g s a n ew b e g in n in g . F irst co m e th e Hekatombai for
AjXillo on th c seven th d a y , a i th c fe stiv a l w h ic h g a v e th e m o n th ils n a m e ; on
»He eighth d a y , it w as s a id , T h e s e u s re tu rn e d to A th e n s .'8 B u i ih cn o n thc
^ c r c >s o n ce a g a in a fe stiv a l o f in v e rsio n a n d e x c h a n g e d ro les:
c Kronos fe stiv a l, K r o n i a A t th is fe stiv a l the fixed o r d e r o f so c ie ty is
p en d ed , b u t ih e re v e r s a l is o f a d iffe ren t kin d fro m th at a t th c S k ir a : the
h ν? ' · 0 l ^ c r w *sc w ith o u t rig h ts, o p p re ss e d a n d ill-tre a te d , a r e n o w in v ite d
Hot th*r m a slc r s 10 j ° i n in a lu x u rio u s b a n q u e t; th ey a re a ls o p e rm itte d to run
oto c‘ ly» sh o u tin g a n d m a k in g a noise. T h e r e m ust a lso h ave been
n cial s a c r ific c ; K r o n o s a fte r a ll s h a re s w ilh R h e a a te m p le a n d an a lt a r .
232 FO L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M V 1 ·
K r o n o s r e p r e s e n ts ih e p e rio d p r io r to the o rd e r e sta b lish e d b y Z e u s . In i]
c o n te x t o f th e m y th o f th e w o rld a g e s he b e c a m e th e ru le r o f th e G o t
A g e .’0 O p p r e s s io n a n d la b o u r, th e c o n s tra in ts o f e v e r y d a y life , d id not
h o ld s w a y ; a n d so a t h is fe stiv a l th ere is a re v e rsio n to th a l id e a l fo rm er
b u t a r e v e rsio n th a t o f co u rse ca n n o t last. In m a n y Io n ia n c ities th e m oftj
o f K r o n io n o c c u p ie s the p o sitio n o f the A ttic S k ir o p h o rio n ; in A th e n s I
d u p lic a tio n o f m o tifs is p ro d u c e d , u n d e rlin in g th e co n tra s t b etw een d is so n i
tion a n d n ew b e g in n in g w ith c h a n g in g a sp e c ts.
N e x t, on the 16 th H e k a to m b a io n co m e s the Synoikia fe s t iv a l,'1 w hich A
r e g a rd e d a s a c o m m e m o ra tio n o f th e Synoikismos (c a rrie d o u t b y T h e se » m j]__
the u n ific a tio n o f a ll th e v illa g e s o f A t t ic a in to a s in g le s ta te . S a c rific c is tna < |/9
to Eirene, P e a ce , a n d th is s a c r ific e is m a d e on th e A c ro p o lis ; the p o iis s t a n f lH
fo rth o n ce m o re in c le a r d e fin itio n , th e w o m en a n d s la v e s a re a g a in c o n E n
w ith in th e ir p ro p e r lim its.
T h e n , at la s t, co m e s th e b irth d a y fe stiv a l o f th e c ity , th e P a n a t h e n a i a Thu
fe stiv a l is free fro m a ll th e c u rio u s, n o c tu r n a l, u n s e ttlin g , o r lu d ic ro u s a s p e c t
o f th e p re c e d in g fe stiv a ls; w h a t re m a in s is a ll c la r ity a n d s p le n d o u r, like the*
m a r b le frie ze o n the P a rth e n o n . F ro m th e y e a r 56 6 th e G r e a t P a n a t h e n a i& l
w e re c e le b r a te d e v e ry fo u r y e a r s a s a P a n h c llc n ic agon\ b u t the e s s e n t i a l ·
e le m e n ts o f th e fe stiv a l, th e s a c rific ia l p ro ce ssio n a n d the agon, a re a ls o foun^y
a t th e ’ s m a ll' a n n u a l p a n a t h e n a ia . A s a p re lu d e to th e ce le b ra tio n th ere ii 4
n o c tu rn a l fe stiv a l, pannychis. A t s u n ris e n ew fire is fe tch ed : it is c a rr ie d in «1
to rch r a c e from th e g ro v e o f A k a d e m o s o u tsid e the c i t y , '1 w h e re sacrifice!*
m a d e lo E r o s a n d A th e n a to g e th er, th ro u g h lh e A g o r a a n d u p to the altar ol
A th e n a on th e A c r o p o lis . B y lh e D ip y lo n G a t e w h e re th e S a c r e d W a y IromJ
E le u s is e n te rs th e c ity , th ere lo rm s th e g re a t p ro ce ssio n w h ic h is p re se rv e d til·
tim e le ss b e a u ty on th e P a rth e n o n F rie z e . A ll the m e m b e rs ol the community·!
h a v e ih e ir p la c e , th e y o u n g h o rsem e n a n d the v e n e ra b le e ld e rs, a n d ihv
y o u n g g irls w ith th e a p p u r te n a n c e s o f sa c r ific e , b a s k e ts a n d ju g s ; then th e ir
a re the v ic tim s. E v e n a t th e L ittle P a n a th e n a ia th ere a re s a c rific e s fo r A thena
H y g ie ia a n d o th e r s , w ith lh e o ffic ia ls, the prytaneii, the archontes, a n d die.
slrategoi, all b ein g a c c o rd e d th eir sh a r e o f th e m ea t: then m o re th a n a h u n d r e é i
s h e e p a n d c o w s a r c s la u g h te re d at lh e G r e a t A lta r , a n d th e meat U
d is tr ib u te d to th e w h o le p o p u la c e in th e m a rk et p la c e .* 4 T h e c e n tr a l festive.]
a ct p r io r to th is is th e p re se n ta tio n o f the n ew ro b e to th e a n c ie n t xoanon of
A lh e n a P o lia s. F o r m on th s before the w om en o f A th en s h a v e w orked togeihCŒ
to m a k e it; th e tra d itio n a l m o tif w o rk ed in to th e cloth is ih e b a ttle
th e G ig a n t e s , w h ic h h ad a ls o been sh o w n on the p e d im e n t o f th e e a r l i c ·
P is is tr a tid T e m p le o f A lh e n a . W h e re a s ih e p re se n ta tio n o f th e peplos ib m tfi
th e c e n tre p ie c e o f th e in n e r P a rth e n o n F rie z e , lh e east p e d im e n t, w h ic h rise?]
a b o v e , s h o w s th e b irth o í A th e n a a m id th e g o d s: th e b a ttle w ith ih e C e n i a u l e
on lh e o th e r m eto p es a d d s a set o f v a r ia tio n s 10 th e th em e o f v ic to r y o v e r ill*
fo rce s o u tsid e c iv iliz a t io n ; w ith th e h u m b lin g o f the low a n d ih e t r iu m p h
th e h ig h , e v e ry th in g is set in its p ro p e r p lac e.
Ί he agon at th e P a n a th e n a ia in c lu d e s a c u rio u s, a n c ie n t fo rm o f ch M P
Y E A R E N D IN G A N D N E W Y E A R 2*3
i r 'J - ®
h ich re p re s e n ts a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e B ro n z e A g e c h a r io t fig h t: the
T*cr lfl w h ic h thc a rm e d w a r r io r le a p s from th e h u rtlin g c h a rio t a n d then
A r° ' p0 0 t. A c c o r d in g to tra d itio n , the in v e n to r o f c h a rio te e rin g in b attle
n*c. js £ r ic h th o n io s, th e fo u n d e r o f th c P a n a th e n a ia . H o w ih c c h ild in th c
AClll^ 3 5 g ro w n to b c a m a n is g r a n d ly p a sse d o v e r b y m y th o lo g y : it is en o u gh
* 1ίΙ* ι the P a n a th e n a ia th e k in g is p re se n t a t th e h eig h t o f h is p o w e r a n d
^ ^ js w a r r io r 's le a p seiz es p o sse ssio n o f h is la n d . F ro m ih c s e c rc ts o f thc
\ r o h o r ia n ig h t h as co m e the g lo rio u s d o m in io n o f th e d a y . I his is the
Y e a r fe stiv a l o f th c p o lis o f A th e n s a n d its G o d d e ss .
’I'his N e w Y e a r fe stiv a l is s tre tc h e d in to a lo n g s e rie s, b u t is th e re b y m a d e
vib rate in a rich a n d m e a n in g fu l r h y th m . O f co u rse m a n y e le m en ts h av e
i^ cn d ra w n in to th is fe stal s e q u e n c e in a co n tin g e n t w a y - th c S k ir a a n d
ttro n ia on th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e H c k a to m b a ia , S y n o ik ia , a n d P a n a th e n a ia
an the o th er, se e m a lm o st d u p lic a t e s o f e a ch o th e r; th c B o u p h o n ia m a y be
o m itted or else m a y re p re se n t th e N e w Y e a r fe stiv a l o n its o w n . a s a m o n th
B ouphonion e ls e w h e re s e e m s to in d ica te . B u t th e s e q u e n c e o f th ese fe stiv a ls
is not v a ria b le - A th e n s is th c city o f A th e n a ; but th is c y c le o f fe stiv a ls is not
lim ited b y th a t fa ct. A lm o s t a n e n tire p a n th e o n o f g o d s a n d a h ost o f hero es
3re set in m o tio n : A th e n a . A g la u r o s , P a n d ro s o s, K o u r o t r o p h o s , E re c h th e u s,
A phrod ite, a n d E ro s at the b e g in n in g ; A th e n a , P o se id o n -E r e c h th e u s , A p o llo -
H clios. D e in e tc r a n d K o r e , a n d th c H e ro S k iro s a t the S k ir a ; Z e u s P o lic u s;
then A p o llo , K r o n o s , T h e s e u s , a n d E ire n e , a n d fin a lly , a lo n g w ith A k a d e m o s
and P an d ro so s, E r c c h th c u s . a n d a b o v e a ll A th e n a , w h o s ta n d s a i th c en d as
w ell as at the b e g in n in g . T h e rh y th m o f th e N e w Y e a r fe stiv a l is a lso
expressed in the s e q u e n c e o f s a c rific ia l v ic tim s : g o a t , ra m , a n d b u ll, w ith thc
norm al v ictim s, sh e e p a n d c a ttle , c o m in g o n ly a t th c e n d . V a r io u s p a tric ia n
fam ilies a rc in v o lv e d in tu rn ; thc P r a x ie rg id a i. th e E tc o b o u t a d a i, the
K eryk es, a n d fin a lly all th c d e m o c ra t ic a lly elc c tc d o ffic ia ls. In a d d itio n , thc
opposition b etw een ce n tre a n d b o u n d a r y , in d o o rs a n d o u td o o rs , is e n a cte d :
from the A c ro p o lis to th e S k iro n , a n d A k a d e m o s to thc A c r o p o lis ; the
b oundary lin es w ith in s o c ie ty a re a ls o r e d r a w n fo r th c w o m en a n d th e s la v e s ,
and thc b o u n d a rie s o f life it s e lf a r c to u ch e d on w ith th e d e a th o f th c kin g,
procreation , thc v irg in , th c c h ild , a n d E ro s. W h a t is m is sin g h ere , in co n tra st
to the B a b y lo n ia n fe stiv a l fo r e x a m p le , is th c ex te n sio n to a co sm ic
dim ension: th e c re a tio n o f the w o rld a n d th c b a ille w ith th e d ra g o n . In
A thens, w h e re e v e n th e e a rth -b o rn G ig a n t e s a rc h o p lite s, wrh at u n fo ld s is. a s
w ere. a n a n th ro p o m o r p h ic o rg a n is m fitted to h u m a n p ro p o rtio n s a n d
hum an ex iste n ce.
T h e ce n tra l plot w h ic h ru n s fro m th c A r r h c p h o r ia th ro u g h th c S k ir a to the
a n ath cn aia is c le a r ly jo in e d to th e fig u re o f th c first k in g, E re c h th e u s. T h c
ritual o fth e city w h ic h b e c a m e a m o d el o f d e m o c ra c y p e r p e tu a te s a k in g sh ip
c *t in re a lity ca n not h a v e lo n g s u r v iv e d th c M v c c n a c a n p e rio d . T h is is
η.» 4_
lu sa y th. ■ - 4 _
a t th e fe stiv a l c y c le a s su ch b e lo n g s to th e B ro n z e A g e . T h c
el'vcn ih n tu ry d a le w h ic h a rc h a e o lo g is ts h a v e e s ta b lish e d for the re sto ra -
o f the A r r h c p h o r ia s ta irw a y * 5 m a y p e rh a p s p ro v id e a d a te fo r the
234 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M V Λ
in stitu tio n o f th c ritu a l; in p la c e o f th c rea l fo u n tain th ere w a s n o w f
n o ctu rn al d c sc c n t to th c d e p th s. T h c re lig io u s force o f th c ritu a l perfo
p ro ce ed s from th e n ew , s y m b o lic , n o lo n g e r re a l, k in g sh ip .
F o r th c o th e r G re e k citie s, s im ila r fe stiv a l p e rio d s m a y be p re s
so m e th in g o f th c sa m e rh y th m c a n c e rta in ly b c p e rceiv e d in H c r a ‘s c i t y j L
A r g o s .36 F o r th c rest, d o c u m c n ia iio n is lack in g
2 .3 K am eia
■
Ί h e K a m e i a a re thc m ost im p o rta n t a n n u a l fe stiv a l of the D o ria n s , a fcstiifl
w h ich g e n e ra lly g iv e s its n a m e to a late s u m m e r m o n th .' T h c fact th at vv;u-
co u ld not bc w a g e d d u rin g the pe rio d o f th e fe stiv a l h ad serio u s c o n s e q u e n c e
for th c m ilita ry a ctio n s o f A r g o s a n d S p a r t a on a n u m b e r o f o c c a s io n s , mosi
n o ta b ly d u rin g th e P e rsia n W a rs : it w a s d u e to th e K a r n e ia th at the S p a rta n |1
a r r iv e d too late a t the b a ttle o f M a ra th o n a n d th a t L e o n id a s w a s sent in
T h e r m o p y la e w ith an in a d e q u a te c o n tin g e n t.'
T h e ex a ct d a te in th e m on th ca n no lo n g e r be a sc e rta in e d ; in C y r c n e t|M·
7th d a y is m en tio n e d , in T h e r a th c 20 th a n d in S p a r ta th c full m o o n .1 I f we
co m b in e thc d a te s fro m C y r e n e a n d S p a r t a w e a rriv e at th c 7th to th e 151h
K a r n c io s , so th at the fe stiv a l en d s w ith th e full m oon.
T h c fe stiv a l in S p a r t a is s a id to bc a ‘ c o p y o f a s o ld ie r ly w a y o f life':* Nine
s h a d e s, skiades, a kin d o f hut o r tent a rc e re cte d ; in ea ch o f th ese n in e chosen
m en c a t to g e th er a n d e v e r y th in g is d o n e a t co m m a n d ; th ree p hratn ai are
rep resen te d in ea ch sh a d e . T h is is th erefo re a re p re s e n ta tiv e b o d y o f men
m ee tin g for a co m m u n a l sa c rific ia l b a n q u e t b en e ath a m a k e sh ift roof o u tsid e I
the sp h e re o f e v e r y d a y life, s e p a ra te d , yet b o u n d 10 o n e a n o th e r in a q u a s i-
m ilita r y c a m p life.
In a d d itio n , five u n m a rrie d p e rso n s a rc ch o sen b y lot fro m e a ch phylr,
K a m c a t a i w h o . in ‘ s e rv ic e fo r th e K a r n c io s '. a re re q u ire d to b e a r th c costs Of
th c fe stiv a l, for s a c rific e s a n d ch o ru ses. D a n c e s b y y o u th s a n d y o u n g g irls a ir
p a r tic u la r ly c h a ra c te r is tic o f this fe stiv a l: a v a s e p a in tin g s h o w s a pillar
in sc rib e d w ith th c w o rd Karntios, a n d , b esid e it, b o y s a n d a g irl w ith wide
le a fy c r o w n s, kalalhiskoi, c ith e r a d o r n in g th e m se lv e s o r a lr e a d y w h irlin g it*
th e d a n c c .6 A p o llo h im s e lf re jo ic e s a s , eve n b efo re th e fo u n d in g o f C y r e n e , he
sees th e D o ria n w a rrio rs w h irlin g in th e rin g d a n c e w ith th e blon d e-h aired
L ib y a n g irls, ‘ w h en thc a p p o in te d sea so n o f th e K a m e ia h a d co m e round'.1 !
F ro m 6 7 6 th e K a r n e ia in S p a r t a w ere d e v e lo p e d in to a m a jo r m u sica l ogon
w h ic h p la y e d a c e n tra l ro le in th c d e v e lo p m e n t o f G re e k m u sic a n d poetry» |
I he h y m n s a n d d a n c e s c o n tin u e ‘ not o n ly o n e d a y ’ , fo r A p o llo is rich Ú*
h y m n s .9
A n u m b e r o f th e Kam eatai en ter a cu rio u s foot ra c e ; th ey a rc c a llc d g ra p e
r u n n e rs , slaphylodromoi. R u n n in g a g a in s t them is so m e o n e w h o d o e s not run
n a k e d , a s is u su a l for G r e e k a th le te s, b u t w h o is d ra p e d w ith fillets o f wool.
U n d o u b te d ly he is a t a d is a d v a n ta g e in th e ra c e , a n d th is in d ee d is th e point.-J
H e b eg in s th e ra c e w ith a p r a y e r to the g o d s for goo d fo r th e c ity ; th c o th ciS 'j
5 3 K A R N E IA 2 3 5
T h is is h o w a n A t t ic lo c a l h is to r ia n d e s c rib e s th e b e g in n in g o f th c fe s tiv a l on
the n t h A n th e s tc r io n .6 T h c b e g in n in g o f the n ew v in ta g e , the first fru it
offering, is set in th c s a n c t u a r y w h ic h is o n ly o p e n e d a t s u n se t. T h e d a y is
filled w ith p r e p a r a tio n s ; th e c la y v e s s e ls a r e c a rte d in fro m th e s m a ll v in e
yards s c a tte re d th r o u g h o u t th c c o u n t r y s id e , s m a ll-h o ld e r s , d a y - la b o u r e r s ,
and s la v e s c o m e in to th c c it y , a n d frie n d s a n d s tr a n g e r s w a il fo r n ig h tfa ll
outside th e s a n c t u a r y . T h e n , a s th e j a r s a r e b ro k e n o p e n , th e g o d is h o n o u re d
^ •ih thc first lib a tio n s .
O n the d a y o f th e W in e J u g s , th e d r in k in g o f th c n ew w in e tu rn s in lo a
contest. E a c h p e rso n re c e iv e s h is m e a s u r e o f m ix e d w in e in a s p e c ia l ju g (w e ll
ow n a r c h a c o lo g ic a lly ) w h ic h h a s a c a p a c it y o f m o re th a n tw o litre s. T h e
-, t0 d r a in th e j u g is ih c w in n e r . S la v e s a ls o j o i n in th is d r in k in g a n d so d o
thé f n ® n c c c h ild r e n h a v e re a c h e d th c a g e o f th ree th e y a r c in tro d u c e d to
ή a n i‘ ly a s s o c ia tio n a t th c A p a t o u r ia fe stiv a l a n d a ls o ta k e p a rt in th e
oes d r in k in g , u s in g a v e r y m u c h s m a lle r ju g l c t . 'B i r t h , c h o c s , c p h c b ia a n d
lj((| laS e — th e se w e r e th e m ile s to n e s in life .7 A n in fa n t w h o h a d d ie d h ad a
0 °C'S j u g p la c e d in its g r a v e , to m a k e u p fo r w h a t it h a d m is se d ; ih c
238 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M
sc e n e s p a in te d o n th e se v a s e s g iv e a liv e ly im p r e s s io n o f ih e c h ild r e n ’ s f ç A
w ith a ta b le o f o ffe rin g s, a ju g le t , a n d a ll k in d s o f p la y th in g s a n d a m u sem i
B u t ih is d a y o f h o m e ly m e r r im e n t is n o n e th e le ss a d a y o f d e file m e n t
hemera.n T h e d o o r s o f th e h o u se s a r e fr e sh ly p a in te d w ith p itch ,* g i
b u c k th o r n le a v e s a r e c h e w e d first th in g in th e m o r n in g to k e e p a w a y j
g h o s ts . A l l s a n c t u a r ie s a r e c lo s e d , r o p e d ofT, o n th is 1 2 th A n th e s te r io n : a a _
to th e g o d s is in te r r u p te d ; b u s in e s s d e a lin g s r e q u ir in g th e s w e a r in g o f
a r c fo rce d to h a ll a s w e ll. T h e c ity is p e o p le d in ste a d b y u n c a n n y g u e s t s , byl
n o t e v e n th e tr a d itio n o f a n t iq u it y c a n a g r e e o n w h o o r w h a t th e y a rc J
C a r i a n s o r K e r e s , fo r e ig n e r s o r d e s t r u c t iv e s p ir its , w h o a r e la t e r i n t c r p r a H
a ls o a s s o u ls o f th e d e a d . T h e tw o a c c o u n t s c o n v e r g e , h o w e v e r , w h e n ihF
C a r i a n s a p p e a r in th e a c t io lo g ic a l le g e n d a s fo rm e r in h a b ita n ts o f A ttio ^ É
O r i g i n a l i n h a b it a n t s ' a n d 'a n c e s t r a l s p ir it s ’ a r c in te r c h a n g e a b le te rm s
th o se r e t u r n in g s p ir it s w h o a r e in v ite d to a m e a l on a c e r ta in d a y ; in U ga*{f
rephaim a r r iv e a s g u e s ts , s o m e tim e s a s g ia n t s o f a n c ie n t tim e s, so m e tim e s a*
s p ir its o f th e d e a d .10 T h e re a lity is o n e o f m a sk e d m u m m e r s ; D io n y s o s ih»
w in e g o d is a ls o th e m a s k g o d . M a s k e d m u m m e r y m u s i h a v e b ee n p a r t 0Γthr
A n t h e s t e r ia fe s t iv a l, b u t in p o p u la r fo rm s w h ic h w e re n o t o ffic ia lly o r g a iu
iz e d , w ith th e re s u lt lh a t a p a r t fro m a fe w h in t s on v a s e p a in tin g s w c a r e told
n o th in g a b o u t it; n e v e r th e le s s , w c d o h e a r o f p ro c e s s io n s on c a r t s w ith wild)
in s u lts b e in g s h o u t e d fro m th e w a g o n s ."
In th is a tm o s p h e r e e v e n th e d r in k in g c o n te st h a s a n u n s e t tlin g a sp e c t*
E a c h p e r so n r e c e iv e s th e s a m e m e a s u r e o f w in e , th en a t a tru m p e t signal |
g iv e n a t th e c o m m a n d o f th e ‘ k in g ’ , e v e r y o n e s ta rts to d r in k a t th e s a m e time.
E a c h p e r so n h a s h is o w n t a b ic a n d n o w o rd m a y b e u tte re d . T h e g r c a f t H
m e a s u r e o f c o m t n u n a lity is lin k e d to th e g r e a te s t p o s s ib le is o la tio n of the
p a r t ic ip a n t s . T h e a c t io lo g ic a l m y th te lls h ow ih e m a tr ic id e O r e s te s wa*
e n t e r t a in e d in th is w a y in A th e n s , s o th a t th e h o u se a n d ta b le fe llo w
e x t e n d e d lo h im w a s s im u lta n e o u s ly re tra c te d b y a b a n o n c o m m u n ic a t i
w h e th e r th r o u g h e a t in g o r d r in k in g o r s p e e c h .1' S u c h is th e a tm o s p h e r e oflfij
r itu a l: th e p a r t ic ip a n t s d r in k a t ih e C h o c s lik e p e r so n s d e file d b y m urdtffl
th a t is w h y th e y a r e e x c lu d e d fro m th e s a n c t u a r ie s .
B lo o d y m y th s w h ic h c lu s t e r a b o u t th e firs t d r in k in g o f ih c w in e a r e noi
w a n t in g . T h e v e r s io n w h ic h fo u n d its w a y in to lite r a tu r e w a s th a t co n n ccw d
w ith th e A t t ic w in c - m a k in g v illa g e o f I k a r ia . D io n y s o s c a m e to th e h o u s e of
Ik a r io s a n d ta u g h t h im to c u lt iv a t e ih e v in e a n d m a k e w in e ; b u t when.
Ik a r io s p r e s e n t e d h is fir s t w in e to h is fe llo w v illa g e r s th e y t h o u g h t th e y ha<®
b e e n p o is o n e d a n d k ille d I k a r io s . T h e r e w a s a ls o a s to r y a b o u t w in e - b r in g * 1^!
fro m A e t o lia w h o w e re k ille d in A t h e n s .1' T h e a s s o c ia tio n o f red w in e vvith
b lo o d is w id e s p r e a d a n d v e r y a n c ie n t
T h e m o st o b v io u s m y th w o u ld b e th at D io n y s o s , th e g o d o f w in e ,
h im s e lf k ille d a n d d is m e m b e r e d to s e r v e a s w in e fo r s a c r a m e n t a l d r in k in g
L ate H e lle n is t ic a lle g o r is t s a r r th e fir s t to s a y th is o p e n l y ;’ 4 lo r ilu***1
D io n y s o s is a n a m e fo r w in e , a n d h is s u ffe r in g s d e s c r ib e ih c p r e p a r a tio n W
w in e . F o r th e e a r ly p e rio d u n d e r th e s w a y o f H o m e r , a g o d is b y d e f i n i P f l
A N T H E S T E R IA *39
■ * * al a n d c a n n o t b c k ille d . T h e a r c h a ic le g e n d s th e re fo re in tr o d u c e
¡mrt'1" ^ |ilto t[,c s to r ie s o f m u r d e r , o r a t m o st h e r o e s w h o a r e to ho a p p e a s e d .
Γ Sn ! secre t m y th s o f th e m y s t e r ie s th e s to r ie s to ld w e r e d o u b tle s s d if f e r e n t ;'5
1" 1 ^ 0 f ¡h e d is m e m b e r m e n t o f D io n y s o s m a y p e r h a p s b e a s o ld a s the
■)* ,'n ',[,.ri.i fe s t iv a l its e lf. O f c o u r s e , e v e n i f a w in e - g r o w e r ’ s s a c r a m e n t c o u ld
A n ' . coVCr c d . th is w o u ld n o t b e a n u lt im a t e s o u r c e fo r th e m y th , b u t in tu rn
*,f r a r s p o s u i ° n o f t h e r itu a l o f a n im a l s a c r ific e w ith its c o m b in a t io n o f b lo o d -
iu'ilt and c o m m u n a l m e a l.
C h a r a c t e r is tic o f th e h u n tin g a n d s a c r ific ia l r itu a l is th e s u b s e q u e n t
h erin g o f th e b o n e s. T h e C h o e s d a y e n d s in a n a n a lo g o u s w a y . It w a s
decreed th at
after th e d r in k in g w a s o v e r , th e iv y g a r la n d s w h ic h h a d b ee n
w o rn s h o u ld n o t b e la id in the s a n c t u a r ie s - s in c e th e y h a d b ee n
u n d e r th e s a m e r o o f a s O r e s t e s : in s t e a d , c a c ti p e rso n s h o u ld tw in e
h is g a r la n d a r o u n d h is C h o c s j u g a n d ta k e it to th e p r ie s t e s s in th e
san ctu a ry in th e m a r s h e s a n d th e n c a r r y o u t th e r e m a in in g
sa c r ific e s in th c s a n c t u a r y .'’’
ho w a s o b v io u s ly a ls o n a m e d a n d c e le b ra te d in h y m n s . T h e d e a th o f the
m aiden b rin g s to lig h t a d a r k e r a sp e c t o f th e s a c rc d m a r r ia g e ; fo r th e re w as
also a sto r y th at D io n y s o s h a d ta k e n E r ig o n c a s a w ife .'1' A t th e s a m e tim e,
ihe im a g e o f th e d e a d fa th e r c o n ju re s u p the a tm o s p h e re o f th c C h o e s d a y .
Bui a s thc c h ild r e n s w in g , th e m o v e m e n t o f life p r e v a ils , e m e rg in g fro m
defilem ent a n (j h o rro rs to fa c e th e fu tu re w h ic h th c s p r in g p ro m is e s .
T h e r h y th m o f th e th r e e -d a y fe s t iv a l is e a s y to d is c e r n ; a c e rta in s im ila r ity
with the s e q u e n c e o f G o o d F r id a y a n d E a s t e r c a n n o t be o v e rlo o k e d . T h e
m ythical e x p la n a tio n a d m itte d ly c o m p lic a te s th e p ic tu re b y s u p e r im p o s in g
quite h e te ro g e n e o u s ta le s: th e a r r iv a l o f D io n y s o s a n d th e d e a th o f I k a r io s
and E rig o n e , th e e n t e r t a in in g o f O re s te s , a n d th e H ood; th ese ta le s a g r e e
only in the d e e p s tr u c tu r e o f c a ta s tr o p h e , g u ilt, a n d a to n e m e n t. T h e w in e
g r o w e r s fe stiv a l, h eld a m id th c b lo s s o m s o f s p r in g w ith th c re fe re n c e b a c k lo
the g ra p e h a r v e s t, sets th e w h o le c ity in m o tio n ; s ta r tin g fro m th c fa m ily u n it,
the h ou se, th c fe s t iv a l e x te n d s to e m b r a c e the h ig h e r o r d e r s o f ‘ k in g ’ a n d
'queen* a n d th e lo w e r o r d e r s o f s m a ll c h ild re n , g ir ls , a n d s la v e s . N o r m a l lile
is su sp en d e d a m id d o o rs g le a m in g w ith p itc h , m a sk e d m u m m e rs , g h o s tly
spirits, w ild in s u lts , a n d g e n e r a l d r u n k e n n e s s ; th e g o d s o f th c c ity a r c
exclu d ed , o n ly D io n y s o s a n d H e rm e s a r c p re se n t. B u t p a r tic ip a t io n in thc
t«me o f lice n c e c r c a ic s c o m m u n ity a n d g iv e s th e c h ild re n in p a r t ic u la r a n ew
status; the A th e n ia n b e c o m e s c o n s c io u s o f h is A lh e n ia n -n e s s b y th e fa c t th at
he p a rtic ip a te s in th e A n t h e s t e r ia c e le b r a t io n s .30
T h e ro le o f ‘ k in g ’ a n d ‘ q u e e n r is d o u b tle s s v e r y a n c ie n t, eve n i f n o t d ir e c tly
footed in th e M y c e n a e a n k in g s h ip ; in th e L in e a r B te x ts basiUim is n ot in fact
c kin g b u t a m a s te r o f a g u ild , e s p e c ia lly th c h e a d o f th c s m it h s .1' S o too th c
•^n th esteria fe s t iv a l h a s n o th in g to d o w ith th e A c r o p o lis , n o th in g to d o w ith
^ c h th e u s ; it is m o re lik e ly th a t it a lw a y s b e lo n g e d to th c p e a s a n t s a n d
_ ftsm en . T h e w in e g o d is in s e p a r a b le fro m th c fe s t iv a l, a n d h is n am e
tonysos is n o w re c o rd e d a t a n e a r ly d a t e .3ï It is te m p tin g to c o n n c c t th e
airi? s in th c te m p le on K e o s 33 w ith th e A n th e s te r ia ; h ere in th e tw e lfth
cen tury a la r g e te r r a c o tta h e a d w a s s e t u p a s a c u lt im a g e a n d m u st h a v e
a 'c r y s im ila r im p re s s io n to th c m a s k set u p in th c g ro tto . K v r n e a r lie r
re the a s t o n is h in g te r r a c o tta s ta tu e s o f d a n c in g w o m e n : v e n e r a b le w o m e n
242 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E I S M
w h o d a n c c a r o u n d D io n y s o s a s e a r ly a s th e fifte e n th c e n tu r y ? T h i s r r t u j
r e m a in c o n je c tu r e .
V
Γ
2 .5 Thesmophoria
T h e T h e s m o p h o r ia ' a r e th e m o st w id e s p r e a d G r e e k fe s t iv a l a n d th e p r in c im a
fo r m o f th e D e m c t c r c u lt . T o h o n o u r th e g o d d e s s o f a g r ic u lt u r e , th e w o t n e n jj
th e c o m m u n it y c e le b r a t e a m o n g th e m s e lv e s . T h e d is t in c t iv e fe a t u re is the n'
s a c r ific e : p ig b o n e s , v o t iv e p ig s , a n d t e r r a c o tta s , w h ic h s h o w a v o t a r y o r ¡ M
g o d d e s s h e r s e l f h o ld in g th e p ig le t in h e r a r m s , a r e th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s ig n j Λ
D e m e te r s a n c t u a r ie s e v e r y w h e r e / T h e T h c s r n o p h o r ia s a n c t u a r ie s fre q u e n tly
lie o u t s id e th e c it y a n d o c c a s io n a lly o n th e s lo p e o f th e A c r o p o lis ;11 in A th en ,
th e T h e s m o p h o r io n is c lo s e to th e P n y x , th e p la c c o f th e p e o p le 's a ssem b ly·'
F o r th e w o m e n , th e T h e s m o p h o r ia r e p re s e n t th e o n e o p p o r tu n ity to lta v t
fa m ily a n d h o m e , n ot o n ly a ll d a y , b u t a ll n ig h t ; th e y a s s e m b le in tht
s a n c t u a r y , r ig o r o u s ly e x c lu d in g a ll m e n . M a k e s h ift s h e lt e r s , skenai, a rc
u p ; th e w o m e n fo rm th e ir o w n o r g a n iz a t io n , in A th e n s u n d e r th e lcadènd
o f tw o A rchousai.b C h ild r e n - o th e r th a n in fa n ts - s t a y a w a y , a s d o virgii
th e s t a t u s o f helairai a n d s la v e w o m e n is u n c le a r .7 E v e r y o n e k n o w s everyone
e ls e , a n d k n o w s w h o s h o u ld b e th e re a n d w h o s h o u ld n o t. E v e r y h u sb a n d ««
o b lig e d to s e n d h is w ife to th e g o d d e s s e s a n d to m ee t th e c o s ts ."
I h e a b s e n c e o f m e n g iv e s a s e c r e tiv e a n d u n c a n n y q u a lit y to th e fe stiv a l u|
w o m e n . N o t w ith o u t re a s o n m y s t e r ie s a r e s p o k e n o f.’ T h e r e w e r e initiation
r ite s , teletai', in M y k o n o s th e w o m e n c itiz e n s h a v e a c c e s s to D e m e te r without
fu r t h e r a d o , b u t s t r a n g e r s a r c a d m itte d o n ly a fte r a n in it ia t io n .’ " T h e r e wrrc
D e m c t c r te m p le s w ith s t a t u e s w h ic h m e n w e re n e v e r a llo w e d to s e c . " When
A r is t o p h a n e s p r e s e n ts h is c o m e d y Tht Women a l Ihe F e stiva l o f Ihe ThcsmophtriM
h e is u n a b le to g iv e m a n y p a r t ic u la r s a b o u t th e fe s t iv a l.
In A th e n s , a s iri S p a r t a a n d A b d e r a , th e fe s t iv a l s p a n s th re e d a y s fro m ll'r
m i l to th e 1 3 t h P y a n o p s io n ; tw o fu r t h e r w o m e n ’ s fe s t iv a ls a r e a llo c a te d Ä
th e d a y s b e fo r e , th e T h e s m o p h o r ia o f H a lim u s o n th e 10 t h a n d th e S t c n ia o 'V
th e g t h .1' In S y r a c u s e th e fe s t iv a l la s ts ten d a y s . 11 In A th e n s th e firs t d a y el
th e fe s t iv a l is k n o w n a s (h e w a y u p , ánodos, o b v io u s ly b e c a u s e th is is w h e n tlit
w o m e n m a k e th e ir w a y in a p ro c e s s io n u p to th e T h e s m o p h o r io n o n the hill
o f th e P n y x ; th e r e a r e a ll k in d s o f th in g s to b e c a r r ie d a lo n g , c u lt im p le m e n t i
fo o d a n d e q u ip m e n t fo r the s ta y , a n d a ls o , o f c o u r s e , th e p ig le t s fo f ÿ Ç
s a c r ific e . T h e s a c r ific e th e n p r e s u m a b ly ta k e s p la c e in th e e v e n in g o r H*
n ig h t:
T h e pigleL s a r c th ro w n in to th e c h a s m s o f D c m e tc r a n d o f K o r e . j
T h e d e c a y e d r e m a in s o f th e th in g s th ro w n in , w o m e n k n o w n a s |
th e B a ile r s fe tc h u p ; th e y h a v e m a in t a in e d a s ta te o f p u r it y fo r I
th r e e d a y s a n d th e y d e sc e n d th u s in to th e fo r b id d e n ro o m s, b r in g
u p th e r e m a in s a n d p la c e th em o n th e a lt a r s . It is b e lie v e d th a t |
w h o e v e r ta k e s o f th is a n d s c a t t e r s it w ith se e d o n th e g ro u n d w ill
______ T H E S M O P H O R IA 243
t) 2* ï
h a v e a g o o d h a r v e s t . It is s a id th a t th e re a r c s n a k e s d o w n b e lo w
¡n th e c h a s m th a t e a t m o st o f w h a t is th r o w n d o w n ; fo r th is r e a s o n
n o ise is m a d e w h e n th e w o m e n b a il u p a n d th en a g a in w h e n
th ose fo r m s a r e la id d o w n , so th a t th e s n a k e s w ill g o a w a y . . .
U n s p e a k a b le s a c r e d th in g s a r c m a d e o f d o u g h a n d c a r r ie d u p ,
m o d e ls o f s n a k e s a n d m a le m e m b r a ; th e y a ls o ta k e p in e b r a n c h e s .
T h i s is th ro w n in to th e s o - c a lle d 'M e g a r a ', a n d so a rc th e
p ig le ts, a s w c h a v e a lr e a d y s a id
$ 0 fa r o u r m a in w it n e s s ;'4 o th e r w is e o n ly b r ie f a llu s io n s a r c m a d e to
M ega™ D e m e te r , to th e m tgarizein o f th e w o m e n e q u iv a le n t to th e
(Titg e ü fh o riä z ti".'" M e g a r a o r m agara'b m u s t h a v e e x is te d in A th e n s , b u t n o
s rchacologi< »l tr a c c o f th e m h a s b e e n fo u n d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , in th e
jjeirictcr s a n c t u a r y a t C n id o s ,'· a s m a ll c ir c u la r c h a m b e r w a s fo u n d c o n t a in
in g p*8 b o n es a n d m a r b le v o t iv e p ig s ; in th e D e m e te r s a n c t u a r y a t P rie n e
ihcrc w as a r e c t a n g u la r p it'* w ith m a s o n r y w h ic h p r o je c te d a b o v e th e g r o u n d
like a flatte n e d g a b l e r o o f a n d w a s c o v e r e d o v e r w ith h e a v y b o a r d s . In a
separately w a lle d - o f f a r e a o f th e g r e a t D e m e te r s a n c t u a r y a t A g r ig e n t u m
there is a c ir c u la r w e ll-lik e a lt a r w ith a c e n tr a l a p e r t u r e a b o u t 1 .2 m e tr e s
deep lea d in g d o w n to a n a t u r a l cle ft in th e r o c k .’’ T h e c o n s tr u c tio n s w e r e
obviously not e v e r y w h e r e o f th e s a m e ty p e ; in d e e d , w h e n o u r m a in te x t
speaks o f th ro w in g a n d b a ilin g u p on th e o n e h a n d a n d d e sc e n d in g a n d la y in g
down on th e o th e r, th is s e e m s to p o in t to tw o d iffe r e n t p o s s ib ilitie s . C o m m o n
10 both is th e b a s ic a c tio n o f s in k in g s a c r ific e s in to th e d e p th s o f th e e a r th .
In G e la , S ir is . a n d L o k r o i, r e m a in s o f s a c r ific e s a n d s a c r ific ia l b a n q u e t s w e r e
found, w h ic h w e r e b u r ie d s e p a r a t e ly e a c h tim e .10
T h e w o m e n th u s e n te r in to c o n ta c t w ith th e s u b t e r r a n e a n , w ith d e a t h a n d
dccay, w h ile a t th e s a m e tim e p h a llo i, s n a k e s , a n d fir -c o n e s , s e x u a lit y a n d
fertility a r c p re se n t. T h e m y th e x p la in s th e p ig s a c r ific e b y th e r a p e o f K o r e ;
when D e in c te r ’ s d a u g h t e r s a n k in to th e e a r th , th e p ig s o f th e s w in e h e r d
E ubouleus w e r e s w a llo w e d u p a s w e ll.11 S o D e m e te r o n h e r s e a r c h fo r h e r
daughter in stitu te d th e T h e s m o p h o r ia ;” th e d e a t h m a r r ia g e is r e c a p it u la t e d
W the s a c rific e . D e m e te r , K o re, and Zeus E u b o u le u s arc w o r s h ip p e d
together in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e T h e s m o p h o r ia .'’
" h a t is la id d o w n m a y b c c a lle d Ihesnios in G r e e k ; th e se r e m a in s a r e
^ *fricd b y th e w o m e n fro m th e p its to th e a lt a r s , a s a r c th e n e w g ifts in r e tu r n
c P 'ts. O n th e C a le n d a r F r ie z e th e T h e s m o p h o r ia a r c r e p re s e n te d b y a
• t a u h * W^ ° C a rr' es a c ^oscc* b a s k e t o n h e r h e a d .'4 It is c le a r ly in th e s e te rm s
c " ‘iIn c o f th e fe s t iv a l is to b e u n d e r s t o o d , a n d in tu rn th e g o d d e s s e s
e lv e s, D e m e te r a lo n e o r to g e th e r w ith K o r e , a r e c a lle d Thesmophoros.
Sc^ lu V 5eco n d , m id d le d a y is c a lle d nestcia , fa s t in g . T h e w o m e n s t a y in
* b e d '°n S ° d d c s s ; w ith o u t ta b le s a n d c h a ir s , th e y m a k e th e m s e lv e s
a j,a u , υ η ,1 !10 g r o u n d fro m w ith ie s a n d o th e r p la n t s s u p p o s e d to h a v e a n
.. S lac e ffe c t.’ 6 T h e m o o d is g lo o m y ,” c o r r e s p o n d in g to D e m e t e r 's
cr th e r a p e o f K o r e ; n o g a r la n d s a r e w o r n .'9 It is a ls o s a id th a t th ey
244 POLIS AND POLYTHEISM V 2
‘ im ita te th c a n c ic n t w a y o f life ,t79 the p rim itiv e s la t e p r io r to th c d is c o v e r y .« !
c iv iliz a tio n . T h e fa stin g fin a lly co m e s to a n en d w ith s a c rific e s a n d a g re * 1
m e a l b a n q u e t o n th e th ird d a y 30- o r d u r in g th e p re c e d in g n ig h t. In A then* 1
K alligen eia, th c g o d d e s s o f th e b e a u tifu l b irth , is in v o k e d on th is d a y ;31 lik e ?
b o y - n u r s in g g o d d e s s , K o u r o t r o p h o s ,** s h e see m s to e x is t o n ly in ritu a l and Μ
not e q u a te d w ith o n e o f th c m y th ic a l, O ly m p ia n d e iiie s .
T h e r e a re tw o fu rth e r a sp e c ts to th e fe stiv a l o f w o m e n , a lth o u g h ex a cilv
w h e r e th e y fit in is n ot e n t ir e ly c le a r. T h e s e a r e o b sc e n ity a n d b lo o d . T k 9
w o m e n in d u lg e in in d e c e n i s p e e c h , a i s c h r o l o g i a th e y m a y sp lit in to g r q | J 9
a n d a b u se o n e a n o th e r, b u t th ere m u st a ls o h a v e b een o c c a s io n s on which
m en a n d w o m e n d e rid e d o n e a n o th e r. 'I hc iambos a s a m o c k in g p o em h as jt*
o rig in h ere;*4 B a u b o . w h o m a k es th e g o d d e s s la u g h b y e x p o s in g h c rs^ jM
b e lo n g s to th e T h c s m o p h o r ia .14 A c c o r d in g to a late so u rc e , th e womr.ij |
w o r sh ip a m o d el o f th e fe m a le p u d e n d a .3<> In S ic ily , ca k e s in th is sh a p e are
b a k e d a n d o b v io u s ly e a te n a t tim e s q u ite u n c o n n e cte d w ith th e fe stiv a l ritual
a s w e ll.57 T h e d o u g h p h a llo i at thc p ig le t s a c r ific e fo rm a fittin g co m p le m e n t^ !
N e v e r th e le s s , in a p p a r e n t c o n tra d ic tio n to all th is, s e x u a l a b s tin e n c e ft
d e m a n d e d eve n b e fo re the fe stiv a l a n d is th en re in fo rc e d b y th c special
co m p o s itio n o f t h e b e d d in g on th e g r o u n d .18 D e m e te r a n d h er d a u g h t e r art·
cal led s a c rc d -p u re , /¡ague Ihea. in an e m p h a tic w a y ;39 D e m e te r's priestesses must
b e u n m a r r ie d .40 A n d y e t the a b s tin e n c e in tu rn is a n a n tith e tic preparatirtn
w h ic h see k s fu lfilm en t in p ro c re a tio n a n d b irth , ju s t a s th e fa stin g seeks
fu lfilm e n t in thc s a c r ific ia l b a n q u e t. T h e o b sc e n itie s a rc fittin g fo r thc
ir r ita te d s ta te o f fa stin g : th c rea l s e p a r a tio n fro m m en is co m p e n sa te d |h
fa n ta s y , v e r b a llv a n d in im a g e s , un til ih e fe stiv a l fin a lly en d s in the sign of
K a llig e n e ia .
In fa n ta sy a ls o , th e h o stility to thc m en is g r u e so m e ly e x a g g e ra te d . In
C y r e n e it is sa id th a t s la u g h te r e r s (sphakfriai), th eir fa ce s s m e a re d w ith blood
a n d s w o r d s in h a n d , c a s tra tc d th c m a n w h o c a m e to s p y on th em a t the
fe s t iv a l, w h o w a s n o n e o ih e r th a n K in g B a t io s h im s e lf.’ ' A risto m c n e * o f
M e s s e n ia , w h e n h e c a m e too c lo se to w o m en c e le b r a t in g th e T h c sm o p h o r i 4d
w a s o v e r p o w e re d w ith s a c rific in g k n iv e s, ro a s tin g -s p its . a n d to rc h e s and
then ta k e n c a p t iv e .4* I h e s p y in A r is t o p h a n e s ’ c o m e d y fa re s litlle b e lte itl
H e r o d o t u s 4' a s s e r ts th at th e T h e s m o p h o r ia w e re b ro u g h t to G re e c e from
E g v p l b y th e D a n a id s , th o se n o to rio u s m c n -m u rd e rc rs w h o n e v e rth e le ss uls«>
d is c o v e r e d th c s p r in g s o f A r g o s . In re a lity the w o m e n a t th c T h e s m o p h Ö fl·
ca t p o m e g r a n a te p ip s w h o se d e e p red ju ic e is a lw a y s a ss o c ia te d w ith bloodj-ll
a p ip fa lls on th c g ro u n d it b elo n g s to th e d e a d .*4 T h u s the w o m en ·***
o c c u p ie d w ith b loo d a n d d e a th ; D e m e te r, too, is a ss o c ia te d not o n ly wilW
p a s s iv e g r ie f, but w ith a c tiv e ra g e w h ic h d e m a n d s s a c rific e s.
I hc m a n ip u la tio n o f th c d e c o m p o se d re m a in s o f p ig le ts to a c h ie v e a
h a r v e s t is th e c le a re st e x a m p le in G r e e k re lig io n o f a g r a r ia n m a g ic . Ή ί
r e m a in s a r e . in D e u b n e r 's w o rd s, 'b e a r e r s o f fe rtility . . s u ck c d fu ll w ill*
fo rce s o f th c e a rth . . e m p lo y e d a s fe rtility m a g ic fo r th e n ew s o w i n g / ^
U n q u e s tio n a b ly th ere is v e ry a n c ie n t tra d itio n h ere ; fin d in g s fro m th e
_ ^ ^ T H E S M O P H O R IA 245
A g e a lr e a d y p o in t to a c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n co rn a n d p ig .4* It is a ls o
■ Jv ? a b le -th a t th e c e le b r a tio n s a r c b a r e ly refle cted in m y th o lo g y , a n d th at
n a m e s like K a llig e n e ia a p p e a r in p la c e o f th e in d iv id u a l H o m e ric
T h e A ttic m o n th P y a n o p s io n is th e m o m h o f so w in g . N e v e rth e le s s , as
r h e b e s o r D e lo s ,47 th e fe s tiv a l m a y be p lac ed tw o m o n th s e a r lie r : the
i0 ction w ith s e e d -tim e c a n n o t be th e d e c isiv e fa c to r. E q u a lly u n su c c c ss-
* rc thc a tte m p ts to d e r iv e ih e p e c u lia r r e la tio n s h ip o f th e w o m en to
eter fro m an a lle g e d fo rm o f e a r ly a g ric u ltu re .* 8 T h e fe stiv a l o f the
*fh C 5ro °p h °r ‘ a h a s a g r a r ia n lu n c iio n s , b u t it ca n n o t be e x p la in e d in a ll its
peculiarities in te rm s o f th ese.
e n tirely d iffe re n t a p p r o a c h to th e p ro b le m w a s a tte m p te d b y K a r l
K e r^ n yi4* w h e n he c o m p a re d th e se clu sio n o f th e w o m en in a n u n e asy
atm osph ere o f b lo o d a n d s e x u a lit y w ith the ta b o o s on m e n s tru a tin g w o m en
in m any p r im itiv e c u ltu re s. N a t u r a lly , th is s tr ik in g co n n e c tio n d o cs not
im ply the b io lo g ic a l m ira c le o f a c o lle c tiv e m e n s tru a tio n in som e p r im itiv e
iige; hut p e rh a p s e x p e rie n c e s a n d b e h a v io u r co n n e c te d w ith m e n s tru a tio n
could h av e p ro v id e d th e m o d el fo r the ritu a l s tr u c tu r e o f a n a n n u a l fe stiv a l in
w hich w o m en a s s u r e th e m s e lv e s o f th eir o w n p e c u lia r n a tu re , d e n ie d to m en .
A l the co re o f th e fe stiv a l th e re r e m a in s th e d is so lu tio n o f th e fa m ily , the
separation o f th e se x e s , a n d the c o n s titu tio n o f a s o c ie ty o f w o m e n ; o n ce
in the y e a r a t le a st, th e w o m e n d e m o n s tra te th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e , th eir
respo n sib ility a n d im p o r ta n c e fo r th e fe rtility o f th e c o m m u n ity a n d the
land. It is p re c is e ly b y the m o st n a t u r a l a n d se lf-e v id e n t th in g s b e in g p lac ed
in qu estion ih a t c o n tin u ity is a ss u re d . In th is re sp e c t, th e T h e s m o p h o r ia ,
with their s e rio u s , g lo o m y , a n d p u re c h a r a c t e r , s ta n d in a c e r ta in p o la rity
to the A d o n is fe s t iv a l50 a t w h ic h the w o m e n b re a k o u t o f th eir clo se ly
circum scrib ed e x is te n c e in a d iffe re n t w a y , in a m o od o f s e d u c tio n and
passion, s w e e tn e ss a n d w ild la m e n ta tio n . T h e O r ie n ta liz in g p r iv a te cu lt
offers m uch m o r e sc o p e fo r in d iv id u a l e x p r e s s io n , w h ile th e p o lis fe stiv a l
em phasizes m o r e th e c r e a t io n o f s o lid a rity in th e r o le o f th e w o m a n .
In som e p la c e s a t le a st, a s o c ie ty o f m en c o rre sp o n d s to the s o c ic ty o f
Women. In P a ro s the K a b a r n o i, w h o m eet for s a c r ific ia l b a n q u e ts, se rv e
Dem eter T h c s m o p h o r o s .5' P o ly g n o to s ’ p a in tin g in ih e S t o a P o ik ile in
A thens^ sh o w ed T c l lis a n d K le o b o ia - a b ro th e r w ith the w o rd in itia tio n in
15 ° a m e , a lo n g s id e th e m a id e n - b r in g in g the h o ly th in g s o f th e D c m e tc r
Cu,t from P a ro s to T h a s o s . T h e D e m c tc r s a n c t u a r y in C o r in th c o n ta in s a
whole serie s o f ro o m s fo r c u ltic b a n q u e ts, a n d v o tiv e te rr a c o tta s fo u n d th ere
QW a y o u th h o ld in g a v o tiv e g ift in h is h a n d .5’ T h e so c ie tie s o f m en
b o u n d in g th e A s ia M in o r M e te r m a y a ls o be re c a lle d ; it is p o s sib le that
is o rien ted to w a rd s m en a n d cu lts o rie n te d to w a rd s w o m en h ave
0v£rlaP ped ; b u t th e y o b v io u s ly co m p le m e n t o n e a n o th e r v e r y w ell.
De ° r s e p a ra tio n w h ic h is p re sid e d o v e r b y th e m o u rn in g , ra g in g
c ,er is not a n en d in itself, but a tim e o f p a s s a g e . T h e d a rk p its w h ic h
fui C ° P cnc(^ a r c clo se d a g a in , th e b e a u tifu l b irth p o in ts w ith h op e to th e
rc; the p ro s p e c t o f a g o o d h a rv e st is p a rt o f the e x p e c ta tio n w h ic h a rise s
24 6 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M
fro m th e fe stiv a l. T h e G r e e k s fin a lly in te rp re te d D e m e te r thesmophoros afi j ®
b r in g e r o f o rd e r , th e o r d e r o f m a r r ia g e , c iv iliz a t io n , a n d o f lile it s e lf,* arM|
th is th ey w e re not e n tir e ly m is ta k e n .
3 S O C IA L F U N C T IO N S O F C U L T
3 .2 T ht Oath
W h en th c M o lo s s ia n s m a k e a n o a t h , th ey b rin g fo rw a r d a n o x
a n d a d r in k in g v e s s e l filled w ith w in e ; th c o x th e y th en cu t u p in to
t i n y p iè c e s a n d p r a y th a t th e tr a n s g r e s s o r s m a v b e c u t u p in th is
P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M ~
w a y ; th e y p o u r th e w in e fro m th e d r in k in g v e s s e l a n d p ra y i h j
th e b lo o d o f th e tr a n s g r e s s o r s m a y b c p o u re d o u t in th is w a y .'«
V 9 · * . . . C h io s T e o s , P h o k a ia . K l a / o m e n a i , R h o d e s . C n id o s .
U a lik a r n a s s o s a n d M y l il c n c . It is to th e se th a t th e p re c in c t
b e l o n g . a n d ,h c V a p p o in t (he s u p e r in t e n d e n t s o l th e tra d in g
s t a t io n ·"
_ n iz a tio n o f t h e e u li a n d o f t h e tra d e is o n e a n d th c s a m e . F o r e ig n e r s
f h co rg p ro c e e d n o d ilfe r e n tly : in P ira e u s . P h o e n ic ia n s set u p a s a n c t u a r y
in Ë ^ r t c - A p h r o d i t c , a n d E g y p t ia n s o n e o f I s i s . 1' T h e s a n c t u a r y g u a r a n t e e s
ol nfnCC; ¡i is u s e d ’ lo r c o n fir m in g c o n tra c ts l>v o a th . N o t w ith o u t ir o n y ,
sh o w s h o w P r o ta g o r a s , w h o d o u b t s th c e x is te n c e o f t h e g o d s , c a n n o t d o
pla“ , s te m p les: h e m a k e s th e so p h is t a s s e rt . W h e n s o m e o n e h a s fin ish e d
g JJrL in str u c tio n , i f lie a g r e e s , h e p a y s m e w h a t I a sk a n d th e m a tte r is
'*"· i f n o t. h e h a s to go to a te m p le a n d s w e a r on o a th h o w m u c h m y
v lt r u c lio n s e e m s w o rth to h im , a n d h e d e p o s its th at s u m .’ 1-'
E n tirely a r c h a ic h e re is th e fa ct th a t th e o a th s ig n ifie s a n a c t ol s e ll-
. " „ „ n a t i o n : th e d e b t o r d e te rm in e s u n d e r o a th th e a m o u n t o f th e s u m lo
h r e p a id . In th e s ta tu te s o f th e L a b y a d a i ol D e lp h i it is la id d o w n th at
•hoevèr d is p u te s a p e n a lly o r d e r s h a ll s w e a r th e c u s t o m a r y o a th a n d be
life 1,1 F.vcn in a c r im in a l c a s e a d e fe n d a n t c o u ld en d th e p ro c e e d in g s b y a n
o alli o f p u r ific a tio n . T h e E r in y e s u se th is to r e p r o a c h O re s te s : b u t a n o a th
In· w ould n o t la k e o n h im s e lf, h e c o u ld n ot g iv e i t . '” I f O r e s te s c o u ld s w e a r .
•I did not kill m y m o th e r ’ , h e w o u ld g o free. P la to , h o w e v e r , a s s e r t s th a t su c h
things w o u ld h a v e b ee n p o s sib le o n ly in th e tim e o f R h a d a m a n t h y s .” T h e
elab oratio n o f the o a t h o f p u r ific a tio n in to a fo rm a l o r d e a l 1" c a n b e d is c e r n e d
only in e m b r y o in G r c c c c .
In n o rm al ju d i c ia l p ro c e e d in g s it is o a th a g a in s t o a t h : ih e pl.aim ill s w e a r s
his in d ictm en t, ih e d e fe n d a n t a ss e rts h is in n o c e n c e w ith a c o u n te r-o a th ; th c
sworn ju d g e s h a v e to d e c id e b e tw e e n th is d iv e rg e n t s w e a r in g (dioma.ua) . 17
T h e ritu a l b e fo re th e c o u rt o f th e A r e o p a g u s is p a r t ic u la r ly c e r e m o n io u s :
after p riests h a v e s la u g h te r e d a b o a r, a r a m . a n d a b u ll, th e p la in t iff m u st
tread on the 's e v e r e d p a r t s ’ a n d re c ite Ilie o a t h in w h ic h h e c a lls d o w n ^ t ter
d estruction ' o n h is h o u se h o ld a n d o n his lin e il lie fa ils to s p e a k ih e tru tli-
T h c m a n w h o is a c q u itte d , th e o n e w h o w in s th e c a s e , is re q u ir e d o n ce a g a in
lo d e m o n stra te h is j u s t v ic t o r y b e fo re th e e y e s ot th e g o d s w ith a s a c r ific e ,
a 'cu ttin g o f t h e p ie c e s '.'"
E v e ry d e c la r a tio n m a y b e tru e o r fa ls e ; th e o a t h is a lw a y s a c c o m p a n ie d by
the p o s sib ility o f p e r ju r y . T h e fa c t th a t in G r e e k ih e w o r d s ig n ify in g a n o a th
by it. tpi-orkos lo o k on th e m e a n in g ol p e r ju r y 4'1 c a s ts a h a rs h lig h t o n th e
m isuse o f o a t h s e v e n in e a r lie s t tim e s. T o d e c e iv e w ith o a t h s is n ot o n ly th c
a rl o f an A u t o ly k o s , ‘ w h o w a s fa m e d a m o n g m en th ro u g h th ie v e ry a n d o a th -
a Sod g a v e it to h im ,’ 1 ' b u t is g e n e r a l p r a c tic e in th e m a rk e t p l a c e ."
A d m itted ly , th e fin e r a r t lies in a v o id in g d ir e c t p e r ju r y b u t n e v e rth e le s s
d e ceiv in g o n e 's p a r t n e r b y m e a n s o f a m b ig u o u s a n d m is le a d in g fo r m u la
tions: the m o d el is a lr e a d y p r o v id e d b y H e r a tn th c Ilia d ·." b u t in m a tte r s o f
Vc ev e n Z e u s is r e a d y lo s w e a r fa ls e ly w ith o u t h e s it a t io n ."
-2*± POLIS A N D PO LY TH EISM V ™
3·'<
O n b a la n c e , h o w e v e r, th e p r o p e r u se o f o a th s m u st h a v e o u tw e ig h e d \\
m is u se ; o th e rw is e n o c o n tra c t o f s a le , n o a llia n c e , a n d n o w a r- tim e cot\ & J P
lio n co u ld e v e r h a v e h ad a n y fo rce . T o m a k e h u m a n b e h a v io u r p r e d i c ó
a n d not g o v e r n e d b y c a p r ic e , the o ath w a s so m e tim e s an a lm o st d e s p e ^ j a
m e a s u r e , b u t o n e w h ic h w a s c e rta in ly q u ite ir r e p la c e a b le . T h e u s a b ility ¿ a
g o d s a n d s a n c t u a r ie s , in s h o rt re lig io n , w a s h ere th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e < W j l
o rg a n iz a tio n o f sta te , la w , a n d c o m m e rc ia l life. A n d y et ih e o a th is not trulv
m o ra l fo rce . T h e r e a re c r im in a l o a th s , th e c o n s p irin g s o f ev il m en , a n d ι here
is the s u r r e p titio u s , m e a n in g le ss , o r im m o ra l o a th . In E u r ip id e s 45 H ip p y | y J j
c rie s o u t. ‘T h e to n g u e h a s s w o r n , the sp irit k n o w s n o th in g o f th e o a t h / m l
s till he h o ld s to th at o a th w h ic h co sts h im h is life. B lin d , u n b e n d in g ,
e le m e n ta l, th e o a th , to g e th er w ith re lig io n , g r e w fro m th e d e p i h s i J n
p r e h is to r y . A ‘ so n o f S t r ife ’ a n d a ‘g re a t b a n e for m e n / 16 it is n eve rth eless a
fo u n d a tio n on w h ic h o n e b u ild s.
so th a t a s s e m b lie s o f th e in d iv id u a l g ro u p s m a y ta k e p la c e at
s p e c ific a p p o in te d tim e s a n d p r o v id e a fa v o u r a b le o p p o rtu n ity fo r
d e a lin g w ith p r a c tic a l a ffa ir s , a n d so th at th e p e o p le m a y m eet in
fr ie n d sh ip at s a c rific e s a n d b ec o m e fa m ilia r a n d a c q u a in te d w ith
o n e a n o th e r; fo r th ere is no g r e a te r b o o n fo r a city th a n fo r people,
to b e a c q u a in te d o n e w ith a n o th e r. F o r w h e r e th c w a y s o f ea ch
a r e not in th c ligh t b u l in th c d a rk , a m a n w ill fin d n e ith e r th e
h o n o u r h e d e se rv e s n o r ih e o ffic es, n o r. w h e n a p p r o p ria t e , the
fillin g p u n is h m e n t.1
p a r o n is a n d g r a n d - p a r e n ts b u l a ls o b y s ta tin g ‘ w h e re th e y h a v e tlic ir 7 3
Herkews a n d ih eir A p o llo Pairóos a n d th eir fa m ily g r a v e s ' . T h e s e p la ç a i
cu lt a r e not tr a n s fe r a b le a n d th u s in d is s o lu b ly b in d th e m a n to h is 11
P a r a lle l to o r r iv a llin g th ese fa m ily s tru c tu re s a re cu lt a s s o c ia tio n s ol ni *J
k in d s, a tte ste d m a in ly th ro u g h in sc rip tio n s , w h ic h b e c o m e m o re nuinn jB
in th e H e lle n is tic A g e . O n e fo u r ih -c e n tu r y d o c u m e n t p re se n ts regu la tio n « r *
th c Satam inioi in A t t ic a .* 1 W h e th e r or not th ese a re fa m ilie s w h o h ad f o r r n e S ^ I
liv e d in S a la m is is not q u ite c le a r, n o w at a n y ra te th e S a la n iin ia n s a re s e t iiS S M
p a r tly in S u n iu m , p a r tly in th c S e v e n P h y la i. They h a v e in c o m m o n t h v r S ·
a n d d u t y to p e rfo rm c e r ta in c u lts, th e fin a n c in g o f w h ic h is re g u la te d in ifo
s u r v iv in g in s c rip tio n . T h ro u g h o u t th e y e a r they h a v e to o r g a n iz e at fa'qg
e ig h t fe s tiv a ls : in p a r t ic u la r th e y a r e r e s p o n sib le for th c p rie sth o o d an d fcuji
o f A th e n a S k ir a s at P h a le r o n ; a t th e Oschnphoria fe stiv a l th e b re a d d o n a te d by
ih e city to A th e n a S k ir a s is d is trib u te d a m o n g th e Salam inioi.
T h e c ity in tu rn is a s a c r ific ia l c o m m u n ity . T h e city is w a tc h e d o v e r by ¡1«
p r o te c tin g d e itie s w h o g u a r a n t e e its d u ra tio n anti th u s th e co n tin u a tio n o f
th e ir o w n h o n o u rs : c ilv a n d g o d s a r e m u t u a lly d e p e n d e n t on ea ch o th er *1
T h e la rg e st in sc r ip tio n w h ic h w a s p u b lic a lly d is p la y e d in A th e n s , in «hr
K i n g 's S t o a in th e m a rk e t p la c e , w a s th e s a c r ific ia l c a le n d a r . F e s tiv a ls fram r
th e en d a n d the b e g in n in g o f the y e a r / 1 w ith ih e M y s te r ie s in a u tu m n , and
th e G r e a l D io n v s ia in s p r in g b e in g the· o th e r m a jo r e v e n is in the co u rse of ihr
y e a r . In b e tw e e n th ere is a p le th o ra o f fu r t h e r fe stiv itie s. In d e e d , it w as ttairi
th a t in A ih e n s th e re w a s o n ly o n e day left in ih e y e a r w ith o u t a fe stiv a l, anil
ι hat the fe stiv a ls w e re c a re d for w ith e v e n g r e a te r p re c is io n th a n th e m ilitary
c a m p a ig n s .'4 B u t fo r S p a r t a ih e K an ieia w e re h a r d ly less im p o rta n t.^ 'W lic r i
G r e e k s fro m d iffe re n t c itie s m et, e a c h g ro u p re ta in e d th e ir co n scio u sn e ss of
s e p a r a t e id e n tity th ro u g h th e ir o w n s p e c ia l fe s t iv a ls . A m id the ιο,οοα
m e r c e n a r ie s o f G y r u s , X e n ia s thc A r c a d ia n c e le b r a te d h is LykaUr. ilie
A m y k la ia n s left the S p a r t a n a rm y in o r d e r to c e le b r a t e th e ir Hv<ikinlhia\ and
a n A th e n ia n w o u ld c e le b r a t e h is A nlhtsleria e v e n in E g y p t / '
T h e in c r e a s in g p o w e r o f th e p o lis is e x p re s s e d in th e fact th at it b eg an (·*
la v c la im to a m o n o p o ly o f c u lts. P la to w a s not th e o n ly o n e w h o w ish ed V»
p r o h ib it a ll p r iv a t e c u lts in th e s ta te ;v; th ere w a s a p ro h ib itio n against·
in tr o d u c in g n ew g o d s to A th e n s a t an e a r lie r d a t e .'* D u e resp e ct w'otild be
p a id to fa m ily tr a d itio n , b u t it c o u ld b e la id d o w n , fo r e x a m p le , th a t a l ihe
fe stiv a l o f î i go d n o fa m ily , n o p r iv a t e in d iv id u a l sh o u ld m a k e s a c r ific e p n o r
lo th e c it y .* '
L a r g e r fe d e ra l ion s o f in d iv id u a l c itie s a s w ell as trib a l o rg a n iz a tio n s a r r
a ls o c e n tre d o n s p e c ific s a n c t u a r ie s w ith th eir a p p r o p r ia t e a n n u a l f e s t i v a l # ·
T h o se d w e llin g ro u n d a b o u t a m a jo r s a n c t u a r y d e v e lo p m u tu a l rela tio n s
in stitu t io n s th at a r e m o re o r less p o w e rfu l a n d b in d in g , in an a m p h ic t v o n y ï ^ ·
T hus th e A e t o lia n s m eet a t A p o llo in T h e r m o s ,1' th e A c h a e a n s a t
H a m a r io s n e a r A e g io n ,4* thc tw e lv e I o n ia n c itie s o f A s ia M in o r at Poseidon J
in M y k a le M a n d the se v e n D o ria n c itie s a i A p o llo in C n id u s .14 T h e B o e o t i a ^ J
c e le b r a te d th e Pum bowtia a t A th e n a I to n ia o f K o r o n c i a ,4* b u t th e BoeüN i^M B
SOLIDARITY IN THE PLAYING AND INTERPLAY OF ROLES 257
V 3 w a s o r g a n iz e d in c o n n e c tio n w ith a n o ld a m p h ic ty o n y a ro u n d th e
s a n c t u a r y o f O n c h e s to s .*6 E a r l y in th e first m ille n n iu m an
K § T c t V o n y e x iste d ro u n d a b o u t th e P o se id o n s a n c t u a r y o f K a la u r e i a in th e
. n G u lf, to w h ic h , a m o n g o th e r c itie s , E p id a u r u s , A e g in a , a n d A th e n s
37 ¡'o r th e I o n ia n s o f th e C y c l a d ic I s la n d s , D e lo s , th e m o st
t* 7 -ficant p la c e , le a st s u ite d to h a b ita tio n , b e c a m e th e ir al) th e m o re
^ r c d ce n tre : th e re , a s th e H o m e r ic Hymn to A pollo re la te s, th e ‘ ro b e d r a g g in g
w o u ld g a th e r . ^ L a t e r , w h e n th e Io n ia n s fo rm e d th e a n t i-P e r s ia n
\ i nee u n d e r A th e n ia n le a d e r s h ip , th e D e lia n s a n c t u a r y r e m a in e d th e p la c c
f c o n f e r e n c e s a n d th e tr e a s u r y , u n til th e A th e n ia n s u su rp e d fu ll p o w e r a n d
ol
' n lr a ted a ll c o n tro l in A th e n s . B y a n a tu ra l s e q u e n c e , th e c o n fe d e ra te s
th e re a fte r s u m m o n e d to p a r tic ip a t e in th e A tt ic fe s tiv a ls : e a c h c ity h ad
nd a c o w a n d a c o m p le te set o f a r m o u r for th e Panathenaia, a n d a p h a llo s
for the D ionysia ,19 A s th e c ity b e fo re it, so n ow the e m p ir e p re se n ts it s e lf in
ih c festal p r o c e s s io n . In th e fo u rth c e n tu r y , w h e n th e c itie s o f s o u th I ta ly ,
K r o t o n , S y b a r is , a n d K a u lo n ia , w e re re c o n c ile d th ro u g h A c h a e a n m e d ia
tion, they e s ta b lish e d ‘ first o f a ll a c o m m o n s a n c t u a r y o f Z e u s H o m a rio s a n d
a p la c e to h old g a th e r in g s a n d c o n s u lta tio n s .'4“
T h e m o st im p o rta n t o r g a n iz a tio n 0Γ th is kin d w a s th e P y la e a n A m p h ic
tyony.*' It b a d b ee n fo rm e d a ro u n d th e D e m e te r s a n c t u a r y a t T h e rm o p y la e ,
b u t after g a in in g c o n tro l o f th e D e lp h ic O r a c le th ro u g h th e first S a c r e d W a r
about 59 0 bc , it m et in D e lp h i. I ts p e rm a n e n c e a n d in flu e n c e w e r e se c u re d
precisely b e c a u se it re fr a in e d fro m d ire c t p o litic a l in te rv e n tio n o u tsid e
Delphi ; its m e m b e rs c o u ld e v e n w a g e w a r w ith o n e a n o th e r. N e v e rth e le s s it
was laid d o w n th at 110 A m p h ic tv o n ic c ity s h o u ld h a v e its w a te r s u p p ly cu t o f f
or b c d e stro y e d in w a r 4' - a t le a st a n in c ip ie n t a tte m p t to h u m a n iz e w a r . F o r
Philip o f M a c e d o n ia th e a m p h ic ty o n y w a s a s p rin g b o a rd fo r s e ttin g foot in
central G r e e c e . O n c e he h a d v a n q u is h e d A th e n s a n d T h e b e s a n d c o u ld
enforce a fe d e ra tio n o f G r e e k s ta te s , its c e n tre b e c a m e O ly m p ia , first in ra n k
ol all G re e k s a n c t u a r ie s . T o ta k e p a rt in the s a c r ific e a n d th e agon o f O ly m p ia
had long m ea n t to b e re c o g n iz e d a s G r e e k ; P h ilip a n d A le x a n d e r n o w h a d th e
rotunda b u ilt in O ly m p ia w h e re th e m e m b e rs o f the M a c e d o n ia n ro y a l
fem ily w ere set u p a s d iv in e im a g e s .43 O n c e a g a in g ro u p m e m b e r s h ip a n d
dom ination a r e d o c u m e n te d in the s a n c t u a r y .
lh a t relig io n is a m e a n s to m a in t a in a u th o rity a n d d o m in a tio n w a s s ta le d
by an cien t a u th o r s fro m th e fifth c c n tu ry o n w a r d s a s a s e lf-e v id e n t s ta te o f
*dfairs.M T h e p o s itio n o f r u le r a lw a y s e n ta ils p rie s tly fu n c tio n s; s ta tu s is
ram atized a n d th u s c o n firm e d b y ritu a l. T h e e s ta b lish e d a n d sa n c tifie d
P ro g ram m e o f a c tio n s g iv e s a fe elin g o f s e c u r ity to e v e ry o n e , r u le rs a n d ru led
* _ k v e r y p a te r fa m ilia s h a s th e c e r ta in ty o f h is p o sitio n w h ile p o u rin g o ut
c lib atio n a t th e h e a rth . In S p a r t a th e k in g s a r e in c h a r g e o f a ll im p o rta n t
crifices. W h e n th e y lea d th e a rm y to w a r ih e y sta rt w ith a s a c r ific e to Z e u s
4 Î * le a d e r ; a t th e b o rd e r o f th e c o u n t r y , th e y s a c r ific e to Z e u s a n d lo
fr c n a · a s th ey m a rc h o n , a fire -b e a r e r w a lk s in fron t o f th em c a r r y in g fire
^ lhe d o m e s tic a lt a r , a n d a tra in o f s a c r ific ia l a n im a ls fo llo w s . E v e r v d a v
258 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M V g _
b e fo re d a w n t lir k in g w ill s a c rific o , a n d w h e n (h e s a c r e d is d o n e , (h e a j j
a s s e m b le s to r e ç o iv e th e o r d e r s o f (he d a y . 4* In A (h e n s th c fu n c tio n s a re
d iv e r s ifie d : th e k in g o r m a s te r o f (he g u ild p e r fo rm s ‘ a s it w e re , a ll j k j ■
tr a d itio n a l s a c r ific e s ' w h ile thc m o re n e w ly o rg a n iz e d a n d m o re la v ' i l
fe s t iv a ls , (he Panathenaia a n d D ionysia, p e r ta in to th e a r c h o n , th c p re sid o !?
p la c e d a b o v e ih c k in g :4** th e A c r o p o lis c u lt s re m a in in th e h a n d s o f
Eleoboutadai fa m ily , w h ic h tra eo s it s e lf b a c k to the b ro th e r o f th c a b o r i g i n a l
k in g E r e c h t h e u s .47 T y r a n i s in (u rn s tr o v e fo r c u lt ic c o n fir m a tio n o f
d o m in io n . T h e S ic ilia n ru le rs G e lo n a n d H ie ro n c la im e d th a t a p rie sth o o d 2 1
th e c h th o n ic g o d s w a s h e r e d ita r y in th e ir fa m ily .4® T h u s H ie ro n s e t up gd
te m p le to D c m c te r a n d P e rs e p h o n e in S y r a c u s e to c e le b r a le th e v ic io r y 3 l
H im e r a in 4 80 bc . fo r ‘ he te n d s w ith c a r e D e m e te r w ith h e r p u r p le feet and
th e fe stiv a l o f h e r d a u g h t e r , P e rs e p h o n e c a r rie d b y w h ite h o r s e s .’ 4y A t (lu
s a m e lim e h e r e o r g a n iz e d th e b u ild in g o f t h e te m p le fo r A t h e n a , g o d d e ss o f
th e c ity , w h ic h is p r e s e r v e d in (h e c a th e d r a l o f S y r a c u s e . A n d a fte r h is victory
a t S a la m is T h e m is t o c le s set u p a s a n c t u a r y to A r t e m is A r is t o b o u le , goddess
o f th e b e st c o u n s e l, n e x t to his h o u se , a n d h e p la c c d t h e r e h is o w n im age
as a v o tiv e g ift .40
A n d y e t it w o u ld be o n e -s id e d to r e g a r d ritu a l o n ly fro m th e p o in t o f view
o f p o w e r a n d ils d e m o n s tra tio n a n d m a n ip u la tio n . T h c ro les ofTered b y n iu a l
a r e m a n ifo ld a n d c o m p le x a n d not s tr ic t ly d ire c te d to w a rd s a n id en tifiab le
g o a l. T h r o u g h (h em , s o c ie ty is a r tic u la te d , a s is th e O ly m p ic fa m ily o f the
g o d s, in th e first p la c e , in to m a le a n d fe m a le , y o u n g a n d o ld . T h u s am on g
th e c h o r u s e s th ere a r c . a s a r u le , th c b o y s , th e g ir ls , a n d th e m e n ; and
a s s o c ia tio n s o f v e n e r a b le w o m e n a ls o h a v e 3 p la c e . A t th e n o rm a l sacrifice^—j
v ir g in s c a r r y ih e b a s k e t a n d th e w a t e r ju g , b o y s a n d y o u th s d r iv e ih c an im als
a lo n g fo r s a c r ific e a n d d o th e r o a s tin g o f th e m e a t, a d is tin g u is h e d e ld e r m an
b e g in s a n d p o u rs th e lib a tio n , a n d th e w o m e n m a rk th e h igh |K>int o f tine
c e r e m o n y w ith th e ir s h r ie k in g ololyge. In the c e n tra l p a r t o f t h e P arth en on
F rie z e (h e b e a r d e d E r c c h ih c u s p rie st h a n d s o v e r th e peplos 10 a b o y w h ile the
p r ie s te s s o f A th e n a tu rn s to tw o g ir ls c a rry in g s to o ls : the o ld e r g en eratio n
g iv e s in s tr u c tio n s , th e y o u n g e r g e n e r a tio n c o m p lie s w ith s e r v ic e . N ev e rth e
le s s, th e ir ro le to o o ile r s o p p o n u n it ie s fo r d is (in c tio n a n d p r id e . H a rm o d io î
b e c a m e a ty r a n n ic id e b e c a u s e his siste r h ad b ee n re fu se d (h e ro le o f b asket-
b e a r c r a t the Panathenaia fe s t iv a l.v The s p le n d o u r o f a fe stiv a l d e r iv e s nut
o n ly fro m the d ig n ity o f (h e o ld , b u t e v e n m o re fro m (h e c h a r m of ih r
c h ild r e n a n d v irg in s a n d (h e r a d ia n t s tre n g th o f ih c epheboi. A n d in d isso lu b ly
b o u n d (o (he w h o le is th e s o n g s h a p e d e v e r a n e w b y th e p o e is , w h o m a k e th<*-
m y th s sh in e in a fre sh lig h i a n d (h us m a in t a in th e co d e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g
e n s h r in e d in m y th o lo g y a s a liv in g la n g u a g e .
T h e ro le s o f t h e s e x e s a r c d iffe re n tia te d . W o m e n a r c e x c lu d e d fro m certain*
c u lt s , b u t in re tu rn th e y h a v e th e ir o w n fe s t iv a ls to w h ic h m en h a v e *»°
a c c c s s , su c h a s Sk ira , Thesmophoria, A d onia .‘j i M e n re g a rd th ese n ot w ith o u t (
s u s p ic io n , b u t c a n n o t im p e d e th e s a c r e d . B y w a y o f c o n tr a s t th ere is the
e x c h a n g e o f s e x u a l ro le s in m u m m e r y a n d fe s tiv a ls o f lic e n c e , a n d a lso
ÿ j S O U D A R T T Y IN T H E P L A Y I N G A N D I N T E R P L A Y OF R O L E S 259
rc lio n vvïth in a r r ia g e , w h ic h u p s e ts th c fa m ilia r s t a t u s : c lo th e s a n d
É °. |cs a rc ta k e n o v e r fro m th e o p p o s ite s e x , a n d w e fin d y o u th s in g i r l s ’
ι thing a n d g ir ls w ith b e a r d s , p h a llo i, a n d s a t y r c o s t u m e s .'1 T h r o u g h s u c h
tc sq uc n e g a tio n , a p e rso n is led to a c c e p t h is o r h e r ro le.
^ S i m i l a 1- a m b ig u it y is fo u n d in r e la tio n to s la v e s . O c c a s io n a lly th e y a r e
Ju d e d fro m c u lt s , b u t a t th e Chots th e y a r c e x p r e s s ly in v ite d to j o i n the
ca l a n d a t th c K ronia th e y b c c o m c th e s u p e r io r s ; o n C r e t e th e y m a y e v e n
hiD th eir m a s t e r s .” O n o th e r o c c a s io n s th e y a r e m a lic io u s ly a s s ig n e d a
o a liv e ro le a n d m a d e to s u ffe r re a l m a lt r e a t m e n t .” H o w e v e r th a t m a y b e,
th e fa ei th a t r itu a l o fte n r e q u ir e s fre e m e n to d o m e n ia l s e r v ic e - s w e e p in g thc
te m p i'· c le a n in g th e im a g e , w a s h in g the ro b e s , s la u g h t e r in g a n d r o a s tin g 1*’ -
-o in ts b a c k to a tim e in w h ic h c o m m e r c ia liz e d s la v e r y a s y e t p la y e d n o ro le,
■fhat s la v e s a r e p e o p le too w a s n o t fo rg o tte n in re lig io n . A te m p le o r a lt a r
o ffe re d a s y lu m to a s la v e j u s t a s to a fre e m a n , a n d b lo o d g u ilt w a s b loo d
guilt, re g a r d le s s o f th e s ta tu s o f th c v ic t im . S la v e s h a v e th e s a m e g o d s a s th e ir
m asters;57 i f fo re ig n e rs , th e y m a y k e e p to th e ir n a t iv e c u sto m .
Im m o rta l, e v e r la s t in g g o d s g u a r a n t e e c o n tin u ity ; r itu a l m e a n s d e te r m in a
tion. E v e n th c fe s t iv a ls o f d is s o lu tio n a n d u p h e a v a l le a d to th c c o n fir m a tio n
o f the e x is tin g o r d e r. I m p o r ta n t a n tith e s e s w h ic h rcH ect th e h is to r y o f
m ankind a r e a c tc d o u t — h u n tin g a n d p a s t o r a l life v e r s u s c it y life, m o u n ta in
and s w a m p o r m a r s h la n d v e r s u s fe rtile p la in s , u n g ro u n d c o rn v e r s u s b ro th
and b re a d - a n d th e re b y th c e v e r y d a y o r d e r o f a u th o r ity a n d la b o u r p r o v e s
the o n ly o n e th a t is p e r m a n e n t ly p o s sib le . A n d y e t th e w ish fu l v is io n o f a
golden a g e is c o n ju r e d u p , a lt e r n a t iv e s w ith th e ir risk s a n d p o s s ib ilitie s a r e
kept a liv e , so th a t th e o n e -d im e n s io n a l a n d to tal a d a p t a t io n o f m a n to h is
role is p r e v e n te d . S t o r ie s o f c o n s p ir a c y a n d r e v o lu tio n a r e r e a d ily a s s o c ia te d
with fe stiv a ls.
Yet ev e n w ith in th e e x is tin g o r d e r, ritu a l o ffe rs th e in d iv id u a l c e r ta in
o p p o rtu n ities fo r e x p r e s s in g h is p e r s o n a lit y . T w o e x a m p le s m a y illu s t r a t e
this. X e n o p h o n , fro m h is s h a r e o f the b o o ty w o n b y m e r c e n a r y s e r v ic e , sets
up a s a n c t u a r y o f A r te m is o n th e p re m ise s g r a n t e d to h im b y S p a r t a at
Skillous. T h is e n t a ils , a s h is d e s c r ip tio n v iv id ly p o r t r a y s , a n a n n u a l fe s tiv a l
® t w hich th e w h o le n e ig h b o u rh o o d m e e ts w ith th e g o d d e s s , a n d w ith
X e n o p h o n . T h e y g a t h e r fo r h u n tin g , e a tin g , a n d d r in k in g ; th e g o d d e s s
bestow s a ll th is w ith o u t e c lip s in g X e n o p h o n ’ s ro le a s h o s t; th e p r ie s t ly o ffic e
w hich fa lls to h im g iv e s d ig n ifie d fo r m to th c p r o c e e d in g s a n d d is tin g u is h e s
Iticm fro m th c o s t e n ta tio n o f a nouveau nche.'^ In M e n a n d e r ’ s D v s k o l o s thc
toother o f th e y o u n g lo v e r is a ric h la d y fro m A th e n s w h o . a s w c le a rn , ro a m s
ro u g h o u t A tt ic a m a k in g s a c r ific e s n e a r ly e v e r y d a y . T h is tim e , s h e s a y s .
an lhc g o at g o d h a s a p p e a r e d to h e r in a d r e a m , a n d th e re fo re a s a c r ific e is
_Ue »n the g ro tto o f P a n n e a r P h y lc , o u ts id e th e s e ttle m e n t, a n d a t th e s a m e
™ tlc ihis w ill b e a c o u n t r y o u t in g w ith a p ic n ic . T h u s s h e is a b le to b r e a k o ut
•lie co n fin e m e n t o f th e w o m a n ’ s q u a r t e r s a n d s h o w h e r re v e re n c e e v e n to
g o at g o d , a t th e e x p e n s e o f h e r h u s b a n d . R e p r e s s e d d e s ir e s b e c o m e
■Ufest in th e fo rm o f p io u s d u t y . P o ly th e is m w ith its r ic h s e n se o f r e a lity
¿6 o P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M y
3 .4 I m l ia lion
3 .5 Crisis Management
A d v e r s it y te a c h e s p r a y e r . C e r e m o n ie s w h ic h n o r m a lly s e e m m o re horiti»
th a n e n jo y a b le m a y b e c o m e a m o ra l s u p p o rt in s itu a tio n s o f c r is is. p e rtiA n fll
th e o n ly d e fe n c e a g a in s t d e s p a ir . I f h u m a n c a p a c it y fo r e n d u r a n c e **oc*
fa r b e y o n d a n y t h in g c o m p a r a b le in a n im a ls , it is re lig io n th at p lay s 1 ®
c o n s id e r a b le ro le in su c h a c h ie v e m e n ts . 1 11 th e se c a s e s , o f c o u rse , trite
r e lig io n , s u p e r s tit io n , a n d m a g ic a re in d is tin g u is h a b ly in te rtw in e d : it is the
g o a l th a t m a tte r s , s a lv a t io n a n d m a n ife s t h e lp , not ih e m e a n s. T h e r e is no
re a s o n to po sit a s p e c ia l m a g ic m e n ta lity fo r p r im itiv e m a n ; even J \ t
s o - c a lle d p r im itiv e s sh o w a d e q u a t e te c h n ic a l in te llig e n c e in the sp h e re ol
p r a c t ic a l, fo r e s e e a b le e v e n ts /' B u t g re a t s u c c e s s a s w e ll a s c a ia s t n jjg
e v id e n tly d e p e n d s o n p o w e rs b e y o n d th e h u m a n : ‘ g o o d fo rtu n e is a m atter ol
th c g o d s ,’ lycha iheon. a s P in d a r put i t . ’
A ll th e g r e a t c ris e s th at le a v e m en h e lp le s s e v e n w h en u n ited m a y I d
in te r p r e te d a s c a u s e d b y th e w ra th o f ih e S t r o n g e r O n e s , g o d s a n d hcrocSl
b a d h a r v e s t s a n d in fe rtility o f th e soil, d is e a s e s o f m en a n d c a ttle , b arre n n ess, t j
of w o m e n a n d a b n o r m a l o ffs p rin g , c iv il w a r s a n d d e fea t b y a fo reig n arm y* t
C o n v e r s e ly , i f th ese p o w e rs a r c a p p e a s e d , a ll k in d s ol b le s sin g s m u s i return*
ric h h a r v e s t s , h e a lt h y c h ild re n , a n d c iv ic o r d e r . I h e tra d itio n a l m ea n s to
s e c u r e th e o n e a n d to p re v e n t th e o th e r a rc s a c rific e a n d p ra y e r, e s p e c ia lly " ·
th e fo rm o f v o w s . O n e w ill try to e n g a g e th e a p p r o p r ia t e g o d lo r help -j
D e m c tc r fo r th e fru its o f the fie ld . A p o llo a g a in s t p e sts a n d illn e ss , a n d Zdi>
w h o jo in s to g e th e r 4 a g a in s t civ ic d is c o rd . E x is t in g c u lts c a n b e in te n sifie d un
th ese o c c a s io n s , n ew c u lt s c a n be in s ta lle d , a n d d e ta ils o f th c ritu a l eat' I *
re d ir e c te d to w a r d s a n e w a n d s p e c ific en d . M a g ic a l m a n ip u la tio n s in (heflW
s e n s e a r e r e la t iv e ly ra r e in G r e e k ritu a l. It is th e rh y th m o f th e s a c r ific e frofl¡¡
the e n c o u n te r w ith d e a th to th e a ffir m a tio n o f life, a n d the te n sio n of
v o w s tre tc h e d b e tw e e n re n u n c ia tio n a n d fu lfilm e n t' w h ic h s tre n g th e n s
s u s t a in s fa ith a n d h e lp s m en 10 e n d u re a d v e r s itie s in p u b lic so lidart*y·
w h e th e r a g r ic u ltu r e o r a s e a v o y a g e , w a r o r illn e ss be c o n c e rn e d . R i*usil
c r e a t e s s itu a tio n s o f a n x ie ty in o r d e r to o v e rc o m e th em , a n d th u s p r Q ö T
a m o d e l fo r o v e r c o m in g a n x ie ty a s s u c h ; th e ritu a l is r e p e a te d a g a in
a g a in in th c s a m e w a y . a n d th u s g iv e s ih e s u b je c t iv e c e r ta in ty th at e v e n tfl
- CRISIS MANAGEMENT 26*
V 3*5
ta ry c r is is e v e r y th in g w ill ta k e its p ro p e r c o u rse . H c n c c *hc w h o se
Ñ10 ;c « tru ck b y ih e b lo w s o f m is fo rtu n e , m u st re v e re th e s o d s a n d so take
|W,1SC * *
a g r ic u ltu r a l y e a r o f th c G r e e k s is a c c o m p a n ie d th ro u g h o u t b y
ficial fe s t iv a ls . O n c e a g a in it is fro m A tt ic a th at m o st d e ta ils a rc k n o w n
5- o f a ll th ere is a p r e -p lo u g h in g fe s t iv a l. Proerosia, 7 w h ic h is a n n o u n c e d at
l î f 8 sis o n 5 1 *1 ol P v a n o p s io n b y th e h ie ro p h a n t a n d th e h e r a ld . T h c
• b)i ra ise u p the o x e n fo r th e g r e a t sacrifice :*1 th e w o m e n a s s e m b le in
tv ru s. T h e r e is a s p e c ia l k in d o f p r e -p lo u g h in g b a r le y ,“ p e r h a p s a p a rt ol
he seed c o rn , b u t w e d o not k n o w w h a t it w a s u sed fo r. T h e r e is a ls o a first,
m b o lic. s a c r e d p lo u g h in g .'" S h o r tly a fte r w a r d s th e w o m e n c e le b r a t e th c
Tktstflophoria fe stiv a l a t w h ic h th o se d e c a y e d r e m a in s th at a r e to b e m ix e d
with the seed c o m a r e fe tc h e d u p . " A t th e s o w in g it s e lf o n e s h o u ld , a s H e s io d
ad v ise s, p r a y to th c c h th o n ic Z e u s a n d to th e p u r e D e m e te r, but a t the s a m e
lim e a s la v e s h o u ld c o v e r th e se e d c o rn w ith h is m a tto c k so th a t th c b ir d s d o
not eat i t . " H e s io d ’s fu r t h e r p re sc rip tio n ‘ to s o w , to p lo u g h a n d to r e a p
naked’ m a y h a v e s o m e s a c r a l s ig n ific a n c e , b u t th is is n ot e x p l a in e d .'1 In the
w inter, w h en a g r ic u lt u r a l w o rk is a t a s ta n d s till th e th r e s h in g flo o r fe stiv a l.
Halon is h e ld .'4 P e o p le s a c rific e , fe a s t, a n d m a k e sp o rt o u td o o rs o n the
thresh ing flo o rs b e tw e e n th c fie ld s . A p re g n a n t c o w is s a c rific e d to th e e a rth
in the fie ld s :’ 1' th e g r o w in g see d a n d e m b ry o n ic life a r e see n to b e re la te d ,
and a c c o rd in g to th c p a r a d o x ic a l lo g ic o f s a c rific e o n e h a s to kill th e o n e in
order to p ro m o te th e o th e r. T h e r e is a ls o a p ro c e ss io n w ith a b u ll s a c r ific e for
P o seid o n .'6 T h e n th c w o m e n m eet in E le u s is fo r a se c re t a n d p r o b a b ly
n octurnal fe s t iv a l: th e y b r in g a lo n g im ita tio n p h a llo i and engage in
u n ab ashed, in d ec en t c o n v e r s a tio n s , w h ile th e ta b le s a re laid w ith a ll k in d s o f
Tood, e sp e c ia lly c a k e s in th e s h a p e o f g e n it a ls ; p o m e g r a n a t e s a n d a p p le s ,
liens, eg g s, a n d c e rta in fish a r c p ro h ib ite d , h o w e v e r. '7 T h i s fe stiv a l s e e m s to
stand in p o la r o p p o s itio n to o th e r c u lts o f the p u re g o d d e s s e s D e m e te r a n d
P ersep h o n e.|Hj u s t a s it fo rm s a c o n tr a s t to th e q u ie t o f th e w in te r m o n th s.
Vvith its e x u b e ra n t v it a lit y . L a t e r , in th e s p r in g , th e g ro w th o f th c c o rn is
acco m p an ied b y fe s tiv a ls o f s p r o u tin g , C hloaia. ,g s h o o tin g o f th e s ta lk s ,
Kalam aia ,J0 a n d b lo s s o m in g . A ntheia.* A t th e K alam ain the w o m e n a g a in m eet
am ong th e m s e lv e s. T h e a v c r t c r o f th re a te n in g d a n g e r s is A p o llo ; e ls e w h e re
he h as to k e ep a w a y m ice , a s Smintheus, J* lo c u sts, a s P a m o p i o s a n d c o rn ru s t,
as E ry s ih m ,*4 In I o n ia a n d A th e n s h e is h o n o u re d b y th c p r e -h a r v e s t fe stiv a l
° f 7'hurgflia. a t w h ic h the first c o rn is c a r rie d in p ro c e ssio n a s a b o ile d d is h o r
as a form o f b r e a d , c a lle d thargelus*'' T h c u n c a n n y pharmakos ritu a l c o n n e c te d
With this fe s t iv a l, h o w e v e r , p o in ts b e y o n d th e a g r a r ia n s p h e re . T he h a r v e st
^ t iv a l p ro p e r, lh a ly s ia * w h ic h ca n n o t be fix e d in th e c a le n d a r , is a p r iv a te
jjje b r a t io n at w h ic h , a m id m uch e a tin g and d r in k in g , D e m e te r and
!° n y s o s a r c d u ly re m e m b e re d in p r a y e r a n d v o w s.
G e n u in e m a g ic a l p r a c tic e s o c c u r in c o n n e c tio n w ith ra in a n d w in d , th o u g h
crc to° the n o r m a l fo rm s o f s a c r ific e a n d p r a y e r a re p ro m in e n t. P ro c e ssio n s
*66 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M
A s h u m a n c o m m u n ic a t io n is p r e d o m in a n tly m e d ia te d th ro u g h la n g u a g e . It
co u ld be a r g u e d th a t an a n a ly s is o f G r e e k re lig io u s la n g u a g e 1 o u g h t to comç
a t th e v e r y b e g in n in g o f a n a c c o u n t o f G r e e k re lig io n , a s its v e r y foun d ation
The m o d e s o f e x p r e s s io n in la n g u a g e a re a ll the m o re im p o r ta n t sin c e i l * 5
la n g u a g e le a rn e d fro m c h ild h o o d th at p r e fo rm s a n d le a v e s its s ta m p u p o n all
h u m a n e x p e r ie n c e ; th is w a s n o less tru e o f th e re lig io u s e x p e rie n c e o f i M I
G r e e k s th e m s e lv e s . In th e p e c u lia r fo rm s o f s p e a k in g a b o u t r e lig io n , in the
s e m a s io lo g ic a l s tr u c tu r e o f the re le v a n t v o c a b u la r y , th ere a r e q u ite specific
id io m s th at d e fy tr a n s la tio n . L in g u is t ic u n d e r s t a n d in g , h ow ever,
s u p p o s e s le a r n in g th e g iv e n la n g u a g e a s s u c h . T h is c a n n o t b c re q u ire d in
b o o k . It th e re fo re se e m e d a d v is a b le to a llo w s o m e n o te s o n G r e e k w o rd usag<*
to fo llo w th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e d e s c r ib a b le , th e e x t e r n a l m o d es o f b e h a v io ^ ^ H
a n d th e s o c ia l fu n c tio n s o f G r e e k r e lig io s it y , so th a t p o in ts o f refere n c e
e s ta b lis h e d in a d v a n c e . *
SA C R E D á6c|
4· 1 'S a c r e d '
. stu d y o f re lig io n th e c o n c e p t o f th e s a c re d h a s p r o v e d to b e o f c e n tr a l
Ifl ia n c c. It is c ir c u m s c r ib e d b y th e e x p e rie n c e s o f t h e mysterium Iremendum,
i*11*!*3 allcJ augustum / B u t th e d illic u ltic s o f tra n s la tio n a p p e a r a lr e a d y
faCt ^ ,a l G r e e k h a s l ^ re e o r fo u r w o r d s fo r s a c r e d , hieros, hosios
,Π J hdgi°s^ ta£ Tl0i' w h ic h , m o re o v e r, tw o . hieros a n d hosios, c a n s ta n d in
sitio n , a s i f hosios m e a n t s a c r e d a n d not s a c re d a t th e s a m e tim e.
°^ F b r th e G r e e k s hieros1 w a s w ith o u t doubt th e d e c is iv e co n ce p t for
jv flia r c a t in g th e s p h e r e o f ih e r e lig io u s fro m M y c e n a e a n tim e s. In fa c t th is
jtl d o e s h a v e a d e lim it in g , d e fin in g fu n c tio n , b u t it is th e re b y a lm o s t
l u s i v H y a p r e d ic a te o f th in g s: th e s a c r e d a s su c h is th e s a c r ific e , e s p e c ia lly
« ^ s a c r ific ia l a n im a l, a n d th e s a n c t u a r y w ith te m p le a n d a lt a r . S a c r e d , to o ,
(he v o tiv e g ifts in th e s a n c t u a r y ; th e m o n e y th a t is d o n a te d to th e g o d ; the
land w h ich c a n n o t be c u lt iv a t e d ; fu r th e r, e v e r y th in g w h ic h h a s t o d o w ith th e
san ctu ary, fro m th e s a c r e d w a y to E le u s is to th c s a c r e d w a r fo r D e lp h i.
.Sacred too is th c g a r la n d a i th e fe s t iv a l, th e lo ck o f h a ir w h ic h o n e p ro p o s e s
in d e d íca te to th e g o d ;4 s a c re d is the d a y on w h ic h th e g o d s a r e p re se n t, but
also thc s p e c ia l d is e a s e in w h ic h a g o d m a n ife s ts h im s e lf. A m a n is hieros i f he
is d e d ica ted to. th e g o d in a s p e c ia l w a y - a s a s e e r, a s a mystes in a m y sten ,'
cult, as the o lfic ia l o f a s a n c t u a r y , o r e v e n a s a te m p le s la v e ,’
Hierus w o u ld a c c o r d in g ly h a v e to b e d e fin e d a s th a t w h ic h b e lo n g s to a g o d
or s a n c tu a ry in a n ir r e v o c a b le w a y . T h e o p p o s ite is bebelos, p r o fa n e . M a n
co n secrates s o m e th in g , s o m e p o s se ss io n , in th a t he ta k e s it a w a y fro m h is
own d is p o sa l a n d s u r r e n d e r s it to th e g o d . Y e t e p ic la n g u a g e a n d h e n c e the
whole o f G r e e k p o e tr y g o e s fa r b e y o n d th is ; s a c r e d , hieros. m a y b e p re d ic a te d
o f a eitv lik e T r o y , n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a lik e th e d a y . th e m o u n ta in s , th e
fivers, th c c o r n , a n d th e th re s h in g ilo o rs - th e y a r e D e m e te r ’s d o m a in ;
a p rin ce is d e s c rib e d a s s a c r e d p o w e r. T h is u s a g e c a n b e u n d e rsto o d as
d erivin g fro m a b a s ic m e a n in g s u c h a s s u p e r io r , d is tin g u is h e d , not c o e r c ib le ;
the e ty m o lo g ic a l m e a n in g o f th e w o rd is p r o b a b ly stron g.'* h is te m p tin g lo
hring in th e c o n c e p t o f ta b o o in its g e n e r a lly a c c c p te d m e a n in g . Y e t w h e r e a s
one ca n s p e a k o f a ta b o o o f a b h o r r e n c e , th is c o m p o n e n t is m is sin g fro m th e
word hieros: s o m e r e la tio n to g o d s is a n ir r e d u c ib le fa c to r in th e G r e e k w o r d .
H en ce the hieron. th e h o ly p la c e , b e a rs p r in c ip a lly n e g a tiv e c h a r a c t e r is tic s .
I ' is s u r r o u n d e d b y p r o h ib it io n s ;7 u n c o n tro lle d d e a lin g s , u n re s t r a in e d use
are e x c lu d e d . A s a n c t u a r y o r a t le a st s o m e p a r t o f i t is o fte n not to b c e n te r e d .
TsJHon, abaton. T h e s a c r c d s p e e c h , hieros logos, is not to b e s p o k e n , arrhelon, lo
te r m a l p e o p le . N o s p e c ia l fe e lin g is im p lie d o r lo b e e v o k e d , n e ith e r mysterium
**mendum n o r fascinans. It w o u ld a ls o be to ta lly im p o s s ib le to c a ll a g o d
tn sclr hieros - fo r th is J e w s a n d C h r is t ia n s h a d to h a v e re c o u r s e to th e w o rd
&0S. Hieros is a s it w e r e th e s h a d o w c a s t b y d iv in it y .
M k/oj* is to b e u n d e rs to o d fro m its c o n tra s t to hieros. I f th c m o n e y w h ic h
‘° n g s to th e g o d s is hieros, th en a ll th e rest is hosion 9 - o n e m a y d is p o s e o f i t .
/ · * V ψ
j^ o r c co m m o n a n a y c i p a r t i c u l a r l y e iu s iv c is m e w o rn nagnos, s a c r c a -p u r c .
T his *s a p p lie d to th in g s a n d p e rso n s, to g o d s a n d m en , in re la tio n to cu lt a n d
^ n c t u a r v but a ls o in d e p e n d e n tly th e re o f.11 H agnon a r e rite s a n d fe stiv a ls,
temple, terruños a n d s a c r e d g ro v e , but a ls o fire, lig h t, a n d e s p e c ia lly thc
o jyio latc sta te re q u ire d w h e n d e a lin g w ith th e g o d s, th e a b s e n c e o f s e x u a lit y ,
blood· a n d d e a th : th is is c a lle d h a g n e i a T he o p p o site is miaros, d e file d ,
abo m in ab le, th a t w h ic h is re p u d ia te d w ith d is ta s te a n d h a te . Y e t b etw een
the ex tre m es th ere is a w id e s p a c c w h ic h is left u n m a rk e d . H agna thymala
arc b loodless sa c rific e s,*6 y e t s a n g u in a r y s a c rific e is a ls o s a c re d . A m o n g the
gods, Z e u s a n d A p o llo a rc c a llc d Hagnos *1 a n d , w ith p a r tic u la r e m p h a sis ,
A rte m is,18 but th e hagnai theai a s s u c h a r e D e m e te r a n d P e rs e p h o n e ;^ this
almost see m s to be a c o n ju ra tio n e contrario,5® fo r h o w e v e r m u c h D e m e te r,
fasting a n d a lo o f in h er m o u rn in g , is a m o d el o f c u ltic hagneia, th e tw o
goddesses, in m y th a n d ritu a l, a rc b ro u g h t in to co n ta c t w ith s e x u a lit y a n d
death m ore th a n a n y o th e r d e ity . B u t th is is p re c is e ly ih e e sse n c e o f hagnotes:
it co n stitu tes a s it w e re a p ro te c tiv e c lo a k w h ic h n o in d ig n ity c a n p e n e tra te .
tilttos d ra w s b o u n d a rie s : hagnos cre a te s a field o f fo rce s th at d e m a n d s
reverence a n d d is ta n c e . H e n c e ii is in the s ta te o f hagnotes th at m a n can
fearlessly tra n sc e n d th e lim its o f the hieron.
4 .2 Theos
4 .5 Eusebeia
^ .¡o n w h ic h g u a r a n t e e s fu r t h e r v ir t u e s .41' V e t in th c la t e r la n g u a g e
,|U¡> rd h a s fa lle n in to d is u s e , w h ile the· w o rd n e w ly fo rm e d fro m th e s a m e
pU* ^ j^ id a irrw n fe a r in g d a im o n s . is u sed a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly in a p e jo r a t iv e
n lc a n s u p e r s tit io n , th at w h ic h s e e m s r id ic u lo u s .47 H a v e th e G r e e k s
t f 1*5* UCft th e e x p e r ie n c e o f th e c r e e p s ”?48 T o d e s ig n a te th c a w e th a t s p r e a d s
. c g0 j s ih e ro o t seb- a p p e a r s ; e t y m o lo g ic a l Iy it to o p o in ts b a c k to
^ ° ΠΙ a n d H ig h i,4îi y e t in G r e e k , r e v e r e n c e a n d a d m ir a t io n c o m e to th e fo re:
í í f f ^ h o l d s m e a s I b e h o ld ’ ;*® a m o d e r a te m ystm um tremendum is tr a n s fe r r e d
Sebesthai is clo s e to aideisthai a n d a lm o s t c o in c id e s w ith hazesthai.
a n d e v e r y t h in g th a t b e lo n g s to th e m , fe s t iv a ls , te m p le s , s a c r ific e s , a r c
r e v e r e d , g r a n d , a n d a u g u s t , a n d s o to o a r e c lo th e s , m a n n e r o f s p e e c h ,
1 A b e h a v io u r a t th e fe s t iv a ls o f th e g o d s . Sem nai w ith o u t fu r t h e r q u a lific a -
l n js ih e n a m e g iv e n to th e g o d d e s s e s o f th e A r e o p a g u s w h o m A e s c h y lu s
identifies w ith E r in y e s a n d E u m c n id e s .5' In a d e m o c r a t ic s o c ie t y , th o u g h ,
incn w h o b e h a v e a s semnni ris k b e in g c o n s id e r e d p o m p o u s a n d rid ic u lo u s .
Y e t the a ct o f sebesthai it s e lf d o e s n o t c o n s titu te m e rito rio u s p ie ty , it o n ly
becom es su c h w h e n it is s u b je c t e d to th e c r it e r io n o f th c g o o d ; th is is
fu-sebeia/’* T h e s o le c rit e rio n a v a ila b le is th e c u s t o m o f th e a n c e s to r s a n d o f
th e c itv , nomus: Ί ο c h a n g e n o th in g o f w h a t o u r fo r e fa th e rs h a v e left b eh in d *,
this is eusebeia.'*' W h a t e x is ts is themis: w h a t is ou themis is fo r b id d e n .* T h i s is
what d is tin g u is h e s eusebeia fro m deisidaim onia. E v e n r e lig io u s c o n d u c t s h o u ld
not be e x c e s s iv e . Eusebeia g o e s to g e th e r c lo s e ly w ith eulabeia, c a u t i o n . T o o
little a n d too m u c h w ill c a u s e e q u a l o ffe n c e . O n e s h o u ld n ot b e m e d d le s o m e
or in q u isitiv e , polypragm onein, in r e lig io n ,56 a n d o n e s h o u ld re fra in fro m
cu riosity: ‘ B e s ile n t, h o ld b a c k y o u r m in d , a n d d o n o t a s k ' is th e f a t h e r ’s
order w hen a m ir a c le s e e m s to b c o c c u r r in g .17 T h c r e a lly g o o d s p e e c h ,
ruphemia, is to h o ld o n e 's to n g u e in fa c c o f th e s a c r c d .r,MEusebeia is r e s tr a in t,
hut not in d iffe re n c e . It e x t e n d s e q u a lly t o w a r d s o n e ’ s o w n p a r e n ts . O u ts id e
thc A ttic d ia le c t th e re is s till a n o t h e r s p é c ia l w o r d fo r th c c u lt o f th e g o d s.
Ihreskeia; it c a n n o t b e illu m in a te d fro m e t y m o lo g y .v* A m o re g e n e r a l w o rd is
therapeia. In e p ic theraps. therapon is th c h e n c h m a n , a s P a t r o c lu s is in re la tio n
to A ch ille s. T h is im p lie s a r e la tio n o f r e c ip r o c it y a n d m u tu a l in te re st in s p ite
o f an u n m is ta k a b le d iffe r e n c e in r a n k . Therapeuein m e a n s lo ta k e c a r e o f in
relation to p a r e n ts , c h ild r e n , d o m e s tic a n im a ls , o r p la n t s , to th e s ic k , to
public fa v o u r , a n d m o st e m in e n tly in r e la tio n to th e g o d s . P a r a lle l is
tyuneleial*' c a r e , in c o n tr a s t to am eleta, n e g lig e n c e . S e r v ic e in th e s ta tu s o f
servant, latreia, in r e la tio n to a g o d is o r ig in a lly co n fin e d lo e x c e p t io n a l c a s e s
such a s th e p r o p h e t e s s o r ih e te m p le e m p lo y e e / ” C o r r e s p o n d in g ly a g o d is
carcely e v e r c a lle d m a s t e r , despotes. N a t u r a ll y g o d s h a v e c la im s to h o n o u r s ;
h o n o u rs o f th e g o d s ’ is a te rm m o st fre q u e n tly e m p lo y e d ; h o n o u rs
M aterialize in th c g ifts o f h o n o u r , gera, w h ic h b r in g b a c k to th c c e n tr e th c
^ c r ific ia l o ffe rin g s . T h i s d o e s not p r e s u p p o s e h u m ilit y . H u m b le , tapemos,
a p p ea rs in a r e lig io u s c o n te x t o n ly in th e la t e w o rk s o f P lato.*” R a t h e r , m a n
^ Ic m p t s to fin d th e g o o d p le a s u r e o f th e g o d s , aresasthai ** to m a k e th em
Cr»ul, hilaskesthai, fo r th e a n g e r o f th e g o d s is d a n g e r o u s , a n d th e b e st th in g
274 P O L IS A N D P O L Y T H E IS M V —
is to h a v e th em b e s to w fa v o u r w ith a s m ile , in a n a c t o f charis** j u s t a s υ n
D* λ
g re e ts th e g o d s lik e a frie n d w ith chaire, b e jo y f u l. O n ly o n e s id e o f
re p r o d u c e d in the tr a n s la tio n g r a c e .
\ [ eusebeia is e x p re ss e d in c u ll, th e p ro b le m a r is e s th a t th e rich a n d powcrTi»
o n ce m o re h a v e a c h a n c e to o u td o th e p o o r. A g a in s t th is it w a s e m p h a s i z e
le a s t s in c e H csio d th a t fo r th e g o d s it is n ot th e a b s o lu te v a lu e o f th e gift
m a tte r s , b u t th a t e a c h m a n s h o u ld m a k e s a c r ific e a c c o r d in g to h is rn ca n ró *
F r o m m o st p r o b a b ly th e s ix th c c n tu r y o n , th e q u e s tio n a b o u t th e ‘ m o st pioiu
m a n ' w a s a n s w e r e d b y a n a n e c d o te in th e S e v e n W is e M e n s ty le : th e god q<m
D e lp h i, a sk e d w h o w a s m o st p io u s , d id n o i n a m e th e rich m a n w h o broughj
h is h e c a to m b s , b u t a s im p le p e a s a n t w h o u sed to th ro w a h a n d fu l o f barley
c o rn s in to th e fla m e s on h is h e a r th .66 T h u s a g a in eu-sebeia a v o id s
e x t r a v a g a n t a n d e x c e s siv e .
R e g u la r it y o f cu sto m b rin g s fa m ilia r ity . A G r e e k c a n a d d r e s s a g o d as foy
d e a r g o d . philos. ‘ D e a re s t A p o llo ’ c rie s th e m a ste r o f th e h o u se in excitem ent
w h ile lo o k in g at th e s ta tu e w h ic h s ta n d s in fro n t o f his h o u se d o o r .67 When
H ip p o n a x c a lls on h is ‘ d e a r H e r m e s ’ w h ile h e is o b v io u s ly a b o u t to commit
s o m e th eft, th is fa m ilia r ity s e e m s s o m e w h a t s u s p e c t ;68 a n d ‘ d e a r Z e u s ’ may
s o u n d e v e n m o re ir o n ic a l.69 F o r E u r ip id e s ’ H ip p o ly to s , A r te m is is ‘dear
m is tr e s s ’ , in d ee d ‘ d e a re st A r t e m is ’ ; 7" a n d v e t sh e a b a n d o n s h im . ‘ It w o u ld bc
a b s u r d i f s o m e o n e w e re to s a y th a t he lo v e s Z e u s ,’ is th e b lu n t ju d g e m e n t of
th e A r is t o te lia n E thics? ' T h e p o ets e v e r s in c e H o m e r p r o u d ly s a y th a t a god
lo v e s a s p e c ia l c ity o r an in d iv id u a l m a n .7·' B u t to b e m a n - lo v in g in general
w o u ld b c b e n e a th th e d ig n ity o f Z e u s ; th is q u a lific a tio n is left fo r Prom eth eu s
o r H e r m e s , a t b e s t.73 T h e s a m e g o d w h o a t tim e s lo v e s c a n a ls o c o n c e iv e hatfijg
a n d w o rk d e s t r u c t io n .?4 T h e b o n d b etw e e n a m a n a n d a go d n e v e r becom cs
s o c lo se th a t it c o u ld b e e x p re ss e d b y a p o s se ss iv e p ro n o u n : G r e e k s d o not
p r a y 'm y g o d !’ , a s H ittite s o r H e b r e w s d o . I he d e s p a ir in g q u e s tio n : ‘ M y god,
m y g o d , w h y h a st th ou fo rs a k e n m e .’ is c o u n te re d b y th e d e fia n t assertion 1·
‘ F a t h e r Z e u s , n o go d is m o re d e s t r u c t iv e th a n y o u .175 It is left fo r m en to
e n d u r e a s lo n g a s th e y a r e a b le .76
In a n y c a s e , o u tw a rd eusebeia g u id e d b y nomos is c iv ic d u t y ; asebeia brings
th e w r a t h o f th e g o d s on th e w h o le c o m m u n ity a n d is h e n ce a p u b lic crim e.
A d m it t e d ly , b e tw e e n eusebeia a n d asebeia th e re is a w id e in te rm e d ia te dom aitL
T o r e p r o a c h th e g o d s is c e r ta in ly n ot a p io u s a c tio n , a n d y e t th e m ost fam ous,
H o m e r ic h e ro e s d o so . T h e rea l d a n g e r b e g in s w h e n m a n trie s t o plac£
h im s e lf a b o v e th e g o d s , ev e n th o u g h o n ly in w o r d s .77 It is left to the go d s to
p a s s ju d g e m e n t on la x ity in th e fu lfilm e n t o f c u ltic d u tie s ; c le a r, a c t i o n a b l e
asebeia is fo u n d w h e re th ere is a c tiv e v io la tio n o f cu lt o r s a n c t u a r y , p rie sts or
c o n s e c r a te d p e r s o n s , h e n c e in c a s e s o f te m p le r o b b e r y , b r e a k in g o f o a th s, LlT
in fr in g e m e n t o f a s y lu m o r o f th e t r u « o f g o d .7* T h e n c a ta s tr o p h e m a y strike
fro m th e g o d s , a s e d ify in g le g e n d s lo ve to te ll: th e w h o le c ity o f H e lik e sank
in to th e s e a a s th e resu lt o f su c h an o ffe n c e .7" H e n c c th e c o m m u n ity m ust
d r iv e a w a y th e agos in tim e.*0
A s p e c ia l wro rd fo r o ffe n c e a g a in s t th e g o d s , alilainesthai. w ith th e adjcct»',c
JES, ^ E U S E B IA 275
/•/n«. d is a p p e a r s a ' le r H o m e r . in ih c fifth c e n tu r y th e w o rd athtus is co in e d
* si j n o r d e r to e x p r e s s m o r e c le a r ly th a n c o u ld b e d o n e b y asebes th e to tal
k o f r e la tio n s w ith th e R ods. W h e n P r o ta g o r a s c a lle d in to q u e s tio n th e v e r y
stel'ce S ° d s o n p rin c ip le s o f e p is te m o lo g y , th e o re tic a l a th e is m a r o s e
a n ew a n d m o st d a n g e r o u s fo rm o f asebeia.6' I n re a c tio n , thenus nom iiein
e m p h a siz e d a s a c iv ic d u t y , b u t the fo r m u la re ta in e d a c h a r a c t e r is tic
^ b i g u i t y : d id it m e a n to b e lie v e in g o d s o r to u p h o ld c u sto m w ith re g a r d 10
j s A ' In r e fu tin g th e a c c u s a tio n a g a in s t S o c r a te s w h ic h u sed th is fo r m u la
plato takes a c c o u n t o n ly o f th e firs t se n se , X e n o p h o n m a in ly o f th e s e c o n d ,64
gnd the la tte r p r o b a b ly c o rr e s p o n d e d m o re to th e a v e r a g e y a r d s tic k . A cre ed
or co n fessio n o f fa ith is a s fo re ig n to G r e e k s a s th e S p a n is h in q u isitio n .
From o u r C h r is t ia n s ta n d p o in t w e a re in c lin e d to d is m is s a p ie ty w ith o u t
faith , lo ve, a n d h o p e a s e x t rin s ic a n d s u p e r fic ia l, n o t a tta in in g th e e s s e n c e o f
religion Y e t it w o u ld b c m is ta k e n to re tu rn a v e r d ic t o f n o t g e n u in e ju s t
because G r e e k re lig io n is tu rn e d to th e o u t w a r d re a litie s. It is n ot fo u n d e d
on the w o rd b u t o n r itu a l tra d itio n , w h ic h o ffe rs th e p o s s ib ility o f full
personal e n g a g e m e n t a n d c o n s titu te s a v it a lly s e rio u s fa c to r in life, h o w e v e r
re stra in e d th e lin g u is t ic e x p re s s io n re m a in s . It is P la to w h o b rin g s a b o u t a
revolution in re lig io u s la n g u a g e a n d in p ie ty a t o n e a n d th e s a m e tim e .
T h e rea fte r w c fin d fa ith s u p p o r te d b y p h ilo s o p h y , lo v e t r a n s c e n d in g th e
w orld, a n d h o p e fo r a n a fte r life ; th e re is h u m ilit y , s e r v ic e o f th e g o d s , a n d a t
the sam e tim e th e g o a l o f a s s im ila tio n to g o d .“s In th e o ld e r w o r ld o f th e
polis h u m an s o lid a r it y w a s m o re im p o r ta n t th a n th e e x a lt a t io n s o f fa ith .
R eligion w a s not see n in th e s y m b o ls o f th e p a th a n d th e g a te , b u t in th o se o f
u n ch an gin g o r d e r ,86 w h ic h m eant a d is c e r n in g in te g ra tio n in to an
a p p o rtio n ed , lim ite d w o rld .
M y ste rie s and A sceticism
I MYSTERY SANCTUARIES
i l (General Considerations
»
G E N E R A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S 177
" he c a se o f th e K a b c ir o i a n d th c g o d s o f S a m o t h r a c e , th c se c re t o f the
eric s is r e n d e r e d m o re e n ig m a tic b y th e a d d itio n o f a n o n -G r e e k , p rc -
? Jb cle m e n t w h ic h is a ls o h in te d a t in th e K a u k o n tr a d itio n o f A n d a n ia .'
J* u li 0 f th e K a b e i r o i 3 is a tte ste d m a in ly o n L e m n o s a n d a t T h e b e s . T h e
- h ab ita n ts o f L e m n o s w e re c a lle d Tyrsenoi b y th e G r e e k s a n d th u s id e n tifie d
ft)i the E tr u s c a n s , o r a lt e r n a t iv e ly w ith th e P e la s g ia n s ; not u n til th c s ix th
ecntury d id th e y s u c c u m b to A th e n ia n c o n q u e s t .1 In th e s a n c t u a r y on
tc m n o s, id e n tifie d w ith c e r ta in ty by d e d ic a tio n s to K a b iro i, th e c u lt s e e m s to
Imvc m a in ta in e d u n b r o k e n c o n tin u ity e v e n th r o u g h th e c o n q u e s t .4 L e m n o s is
ihc cen tre o f th e H e p h a is t o s c u lt ;r’ th e p r in c ip a l c it y w a s c a lle d H e p h a is t ia .
G e n e alo g ica l m y th m a k e s th e K a b e ir o i s o n s o r g r a n d s o n s o f H e p h a is t o s .”
A esch ylu s, in a p la y e n title d K abeiroi. s ta g e d th em a s a c h o r u s re c e iv in g the
A rgo n auts o n L em n o s: th e y in tro d u c e th e m s e lv e s as p r o d ig io u s w in e
drin kers.7 W in e v e s s e ls a r e th e o n ly c h a r a c t e r is t ic g r o u p o f fin d s fro m
the K a b c ir o i s a n c t u a r y o n L e m n o s . H e p h a is t o s a n d D io n y s o s a r e c lo s e ly
associated in G r e e k m y th , e s p e c ia lly th ro u g h th e b u r le s q u e o f H e p h a is t o s ’
return to O ly m p u s led b y th e w in e g o d .0 G u il d s o f c r a fts m e n , e s p e c ia lly
smith g u ild s w ith th e ir s p e c ia l c e le b r a t io n s , m a y b c see n in th e b a c k g ro u n d .
It is said th at th e T y r r h e n i a n s b r in g first fru it o ffe rin g s to Z e u s , A p o llo , a n d
thc K a b e ir o i:9 th is s e e m s to a d d th e f a t h e r - s o n c o o r d in a te to th e s c c r c t
»rjcicty a n d th u s fits in to th e in itia tio n th e m e . O n e L c m n ia n d e d ic a tio n to th e
god w ho ‘je s t s b y th e w a y ’ , p a rap a iz on li, p o in ts to a b u r le s q u e e le m e n t in th e
L cm n ian c u lt ."
M u ch r ic h e r a n d c o n fu s in g ly v a r ie d a r e th<· fin d s in th e K a b e ir io n a t
T hebes. T h e y c o m m e n c e in th e s ix t h century- a n d c o n tin u e d o w n in to th c
im p erial A g e . " A c c o r d in g to P a u s a n ia s , it w a s D e m e te r K a b c i r a ia w h o
instituted in itia tio n s th e re fo r P ro m e th e u s , o n e o f th e K a b e ir o i. a n d h is so n
A itn a io s.'· T h is p o in ts to g u ild s o f s m ith s a n a lo g o u s to th o se o f th e L e m n ia n
,cp h aisto s. 1'h e v o tiv e d e d ic a tio n s fro m th c s a n c t u a r y a r e to a K abiros in th c
r e g u la r w h o is r e p re s e n te d in th e im a g e o f a b e a r d e d D io n y s o s r e c lin in g to
rm k, and to h is b o y . P a ir ,1 ' to th is b o y a ll k in d s o f p la y t h in g s a r e d e d ic a te d ,
^ p e c ia lly s p in n in g to p s. T h i s p o in ts to th e tr a n s it io n fro m th e s ta tu s o f a
a to th at o f a n a d u lt , to p u b e r ty in itia tio n s . A fr e q u e n t ty p e o f v o tiv e
JSU ttnc s h o w s a b o y w ith a p o in te d c a p , th e pilos o f th e D is k o u ro i w h ic h a ls o
n8 u ish es th e s a c r e d o n e s in A n d a n i a . '4 B u ll s a c r ific e a n d th e d r in k in g o f
1 m ust h a v e b ee n th e m a in e v e n ts in th c c é lé b r a t io n s . S m a ll b ro n z e b u lls
nrt ik (.
there SL n u m e r o u s a m o |i£ l h c v o tiv e g ifts . A t th e c e n tre ol th e s a n c t u a r y
E L j ls a la r g e a lt a r a r o u n d w h ic h a th e a tre w a s b u ilt in a la t e r p e rio d ,
C y η υ * fo r lit e r a r y d r a m a but fo r s h o w in g th e s a c r e d , a s a hierophantes
2Ô2 M Y ST E R IE S A N D ASCETICISM V j
d o c s . B e h in d th c a lt a r th e re is a r e c t a n g u la r b u ild in g th at is q u ite
a n o r m a l G r e e k te m p le . T h e o ld e s t in s t a lla t io n s in th c s a n c t u a r y
ro tu n d a s w ith h e a r th s , o b v io u s ly for s a c r c d m e a ls in a tig h tly c lo s e d rj
W in e d r in k in g is in d ic a te d by ih c c h a r a c t e r is t ic K a b c i r o i b o w ls ,
p r o v id e d w ith a d e d ic a tio n , w h ic h w e r e a lw a y s fo u n d th o r o u g h ly fr **
m c n t c d : th ey w e r e u se d o n ly o n c e a n d b ro k e n in t e n t io n a lly .'5 S o m e trri9 l
in v it e c o m p a r is o n w ith th e A tt ic A n t h e s t e r ia f e s t iv a l.16
T h c p a in te d v a s e s fro m th e s a n c t u a r y w h ic h m o stly d a t e fro m the scco j
h a l f o f th e fifth c e n tu r y s h o w a n u n m is ta k a b le s ty le o f g r o te s q u e c a r ic a tiA a fl
th e re a r e m y th ic a l a s w ell a s e v e r y d a y sc e n e s. P y g m y o r n e g ro id
abound, w ith d is to rte d fa c e s , fat b e llie s , and d a n g lin g g e n it a ls ;
A n th e s te r ia v a s e s e x h ib it s im ila r c h a r a c t e r is tic s . It s e e m s th a t o n e phasçM -
th e m y s t e r y c e le b r a t io n w a s e x p e r ie n c e d in s ta r k c o n tr a s t to n o rm a l cuatQm
a n d s o c ia l p r e te n s io n s , a s a d e sc e n t in to th e p r im itiv e , c o m p a r a b le p e rh a p i
to th e aischrologia o f D c m e te r fe s t iv a ls , o r th e a b u s e fro m th e w a g o n s at t|ie
A n t h c s i e r i a .'7 O n e K a b e ir io n v a s e s h o w s K a b i r o s w ith h is b o y a n d in front
o f th e m , a s a s m a ll g r o te s q u e fig u re , Pratolaos, th e first m a n , w ith a couple
M itos a n d K ra te ia . p r e s u m a b ly h is p a r e n ts , on th e o ilie r sid e . H err an
o th e r w is e u n k n o w n a n t h r o p o g o n ic m y th is a llu d e d t o ,'8 j u s t a s o n L cm n o i
K abciros is m e n tio n e d a s th c firs t m a n .'9
A n th r o p o g o n v a n d in itia tio n c o n c u r in th c s e n se o f a n e w b e g in n in g . Ncxl
to n o th in g is k n o w n o f th e r itu a ls th e m s e lv e s . T h e r e w e r e K abinnrchoi a j f
le a d in g p r ie sts a n d paragogeix, in tr o d u c e r s , a s m y s t a g o g u e s ;10 a b ath w a s pari
o f ih e in it ia t io n ;2' th e in itia te w e a r s tw ig s a n d fille ts ; h e is a llo w e d to enter
th e g r o v e o f D c m e te r K a b c ira ia .* * 1 T h e r e is n o m e n tio n o f e x p e c t a tio n s for nn
a fte r life . T h c n a m e K abciroi h a s b ee n a s s o c ia te d w ith S e m itic — the Grnit
G o d s - a n d w ith H itt ite , a n d th u s e lu d e s a n y c le a r d e r iv a tio n .* 3
T h e in h a b it a n t s o f S a m o t h r a c e ^ w e re c a lle d P c la s g ia n s a m o n g die Grecki;
th e y are a ls o a s s o c ia te d w ith th e T r o ja n s , w h ic h is p e r h a p s ju s t to
c h a r a c t e r iz e th e m a s n o n -G r e e k s , a n t i- G r e e k s . A n o n -G r e e k la n g u a g e w as
e m p lo y e d in th c cu lt in to H e lle n is tic tim e s .ϊΓ> V e t th e b u ild in g p ro g ra m m e pf
ih e m y s t e r y s a n c t u a r y , w h ic h b e g in s in th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y , is due lo tltf
G r e e k in h a b it a n t s . In c o n tr a s t to th c K abciroi s a n c t u a r ie s , th a t o f S a m o t h f a i r
a t t a in e d m u c h m o re th a n lo c a l im p o r ta n c e . B y th c fifth c e n tu r y th e m y s te n ü
w e r e k n o w n in A th e n s ; H e ro d o t u s h ad h im s e lf b ee n in itia te d .* 6 P o ets and
h is to r ia n s in c o r p o r a te d S a m o t h r a c ia n tr a d itio n s in to th e ir g e n e a lo g ie s . T W Œ
s a n c t u a r y a t t a in e d its g r e a te s t s p le n d o u r in th e a g e o f P h ilip o f M acedón
a n d r e t a in e d it th ro u g h th c H e lle n is tic A g e . T h e N ik e o f S a m o th r a c e j*®*
d e d ic a te d in th c s e c o n d c c n ttiry B C .n T h c g o d s o f S a m o t h r a c e becaUt*
p o p u la r th r o u g h o u t th e M e d it e r r a n e a n ; th c c u ll c o n tin u e d d o w n to the ΙιΠ1Γ
o f C o n s t a n t in e .
E x c a v a t i o n s h a v e p r o v id e d a p ic tu r e o f th c s a n c t u a r y a n d its e v o lu t io n - j
a lt h o u g h s o m e d e ta ils r e m a in c o n tr o v e r s ia l. T h e r e is c v id e n c c fo r relig*0“ .
a c t iv it y s in c e th e s e v e n t h c e n tu r y , b u t m o n u m e n ta l b u ild in g o n ly s ta rts *
th e fo u r th . T h e r e a r e tw o m a in r e c t a n g u la r b u ild in g s o f u n u s u a l
R.
r . . ,
y ] I -j
_ h v lí
j#®*
,
T H E K A BE IR O I A N D SA M O T H R A C E
s |y in te n d e d lo r la r g r g r o u p s o f p e o p le , o n e c o n v e n t io n a lly c a llc d thc
n (he o th e r c a llc d s im p ly Hieran in a n in s c rip tio n . T h e Annktoron
283
i .4 Eleusis
in the m u rk y d a r k .’ 14 P in d a r s a y s B le ss e d is h e w h o h as seen th is a n d th us
goes b en eath thc e a r th ; he kn o w s th e en d o f life, h e k n o w s the b e g in n in g
¿ v e n by Z e u s ,’ v^ a n d S o p h o c le s : ‘T h r ic e b le sse d a r e th ose m o rta ls w h o h ave
seen these rites a n d th u s e n te r in to H a d e s : fo r th em a lo n e th ere Ls life, for the
others all is m isc ry .*v> In th e p ro se o f Iso c r a te s , this b eco m es th e s ta te m e n t
thal the mystai h a v e m o re p le a s in g h o p es fo r th e en d o f life a n d fo r all
e t e r n it y .'7 S im p ly b u t e m p h a tic a lly th e s a m e m e s s a g e is re p e a te d on the
funeral in sc rip tio n o f a h ie ro p h a n t o f t h e Im p e ria l A g e : he h ad sh o w n to the
mystai ‘ that d e a th is not an e v il b u t s o m e th in g g o o d .’ 1*
T h e fo rm u la th ric e b lesse d m u st h a v e b een p a rt o f th e E lc u s in ia n lit u r g y .'9
W hence it co u ld d r a w its fo rce o f c o n v ic tio n re m a in s a m y ste ry to us. I f th ere
was a d o ctrin e o r m y th o f E le u s is on w h ic h th is faith w a s e x p lic it ly b ase d it
has been lost. T h e im a g e s o f a b le sse d a fte rw o rld th a t a p p e a r in lite ra tu re ,
thc sym p o siu m o f th e hosioi a n d a g e n tle su n sh in in g in the u n d e rw o rld , a re
not s p e c ific a lly E lc u s in ia n ,4“ b u t e la b o r a tio n s in n a r ra tiv e a n d p o etry o f q u ite
different levels a n d w ith o u t a n y o ffic ial a u th o rity . A lo n g s id e ih e re w a s the
tradition, w h ic h A th e n ia n s a ss id u o u s ly s p r e a d , th at D cm e te r h a d g iv e n c o m
to m an k in d a n d th u s fo u n d e d c iv iliz a tio n a t E le u s is .4' The p ic tu re s o f
T rip to lem o s s e ttin g out in h is w in g ed c h a rio t to b esto w D c m c tc r’ s g ift on the
entire w o rld b e g in in th e m id d le o f t h e s ix th c e n tu ry . ** T h e A th e n ia n s w ere
bold en o u gh to d e m a n d o ffic ia lly th at first fru ii o ffe rin g s fro m th e w h o le
World be sen t to E le u s is .45 T h u s th c im p o rta n c e o f E le u s is see m s to be
transposed to th is w o rld , b u t it is not e x h a u ste d in it. T h e r e a re c o n je c tu re s
aboui s h o c k in g ev e n ts b eh in d th c se c re t, n o ta b ly o rg ie s a n d d ru g s . Y e t
precisely ih e a n a lo g y o f th e In d o - lr a n ia n d r u g ritu a l, the S o m a / H a o m a
festival sh o w s th a t a ritu a l ca n p e rsist w h e n th e o rig in a l d ru g h a s lo n g b een
°rgo tten a n d re p la c e d b y h a rm le s s s u b s ta n c e s .44 P e rh a p s th e n ig h t o f the
Jty stc ric s w a s not so v e ry d iffe re n t fro m a n O rth o d o x E a s te r fe stiv a l o r a
cstcrn C h r is t m a s . It is r e m a rk a b le th at th e c o n c e p t o f im m o rta lity is n ev e r
rtlcntioned in co n n cc tio n w ith E le u s is. D e a th re m a in s a re a lity , eve n i f it is
j\ot an a b s o lu te en d , b u t a t th e sa m e tim e a n ew b e g in n in g . T h e r e is a n o th e r
o f life, a n d th is, a t a ll e v e n ts , is g o o d . A tte n tio n h as b een d r a w n to the
2 QO M Y S T E R IE S A N D A S C E T IC IS M \f t I
s a y in g fro m S t. J o h n ’ s G o s p e l th at a g r a in o f w h e a t m u s t d ie i f i t is i0 u j f
fo rth f r u i t . " F o r fro m th e d e a d c o m c s n o u r is h m e n t a n d g ro w th a n d S e e d '^
T h e e a r o f c o rn cu t a n d s h o w n b y th e h ie r o p h a n t c a n b e u n d e rsto o d i „ L
w a y . E u r ip id e s h a s o n e c h a r a c t e r in h is p la y H ypsipyle c o m m e n t on t h e d
o f a ch ild in th e se w o r d s : O n e b u rie s c h ild r e n , o n e g a in s n e w ch ild re n
d ie s o n e s e lf; a n d th is m e n ta k e h e a v ily , c a r r y in g e a rth to e a rth B t i t 'u a
n e c e s s a r y to h a r v e s t life lik e a fr u it - b e a r in g e a r o f co rn , a n d th a t th c o n c l
th e o th e r n o t.’ 4: T h is m a y be s e e n a s a d e e p e r leve l o f w o r ld ly p ie ty th an ( U
a tta in e d by v o w s a n d s a c r ific e in n o r m a l, s e lf-in te r e s te d eusebeia.
2 .t Bacchic Mysteries
T h e cu lt o f D io n y s o s is v e r y a n c ic n t in G r e e c e ,' a n d y e t it is see n to be in »,
p r o c e ss o f c o n tin u a l c h a n g e , it is n o c o in c id e n c e th a t o u t b u r s t a n d rcvo lutla W
b e lo n g to th e v e ry e s s e n c e o f th is g o d . R e v o lu t io n a r y in n o v a tio n s can !»
d is c e r n e d fro m th e m id d le o f th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y . A r c h ilo c h u s , w h o buastj.
h o w h e c a n s trik e u p th c dithyrambos fo r L o r d D io n y s o s , is m a d e in leg e n d tl,r
fo u n d e r o l D io n y s ia e p h a llic p r o c e s s io n s / A b o u t b o o , b u r le s q u e s c e n e s set in
a n a tm o s p h e r e o f D io n y s ia n r e v e lr y s p r e a d like w ild fir e in C o r in th ia n vast
p a in tin g . F a t D a n c e r s , w h o s e m u m m e r y s u g g e s ts a g r o t e s q u e n a k e d n e s s , are
s h o w n d a n c in g , d r in k i n g w in e , a n d p la y in g a ll s o r ts o f tr ic k s .5 A c c o r d in g Iq
tr a d itio n it w a s A r io n w h o at j u s t th is tim e in v e n te d th c dithvrambotf'm
C o r in t h .’ W e k n o w th a t in C o r in th th e fa m ily c la n o f th e B a c c h ia d a i, who
tra c e d th e ir a n c e s tr y b a c k to D io n y s o s h im s e lf,5 w a s o v e r t h r o w n in th e sami*
p e r io d b y th e ty r a n t K y p s e lo s w h o w a s s u c c e e d e d b y h is so n P e ria n d ro » j|
A c c o r d in g ly , a n ew a n d p o p u la r fo rm fitted to th e m ilie u o f c r a l i s m a f c jj
s e e m s to h a v e ta k e n th c p la c e o f th e o ld , g e n iilic ia l D io n y s o s c u ll. A lm osl
s im u lt a n e o u s ly th e ty r a n t C lc is th e n e s o f S ik v o n d e v e lo p e d th e cu lt of
D io n y s o s a t th c e x p e n s e o f a tr a d itio n a l c u lt o f A d r a s t o s ." T he A thenian
in n o v a tio n s in th c a g e o f th e ty ra n ts fo llo w e d s h o rtly a fte r w a r d s - th e Great
D io n y s ia w ith th e dithyrambos, th e tragodoi o f T h e s p is a n d th e satyroi-ul
P r a t in a s ol P h le iu s, th a t is, tr a g e d y a n d the s a t y r p l a y .' A r o u n d ^ 3 0 /2 0 tlir
ic o n o g r a p h y ol th e D io n y s ia e thiasos w ith s a t y r s a n d m a e n a d s a c h ie v e d it1·
fix e d , c a n o n ic a l fo rm ,8 w h ile d it h y r a m b a n d tr a g e d y b e c a m e p a r t o f b i d
lite r a tu r e . B e h in d th e s e in n o v a tio n s th e re is c le a r ly a n im p u ls e d i r e c t ® · ,
a g a in s t th e n o b ilit y , w h ic h c o m e s fro m th e lo w e r c la s s e s o f c ra fts m e n ^
p e a s a n t s fro m w h o m th e t y r a n ts d r e w th e ir s u p p o r t.
S o c ie tie s o f r a v in g w o m e n , m a e n a d s , a n d thyiades, a r e n o d o u b t a ls o vMT
a n c ie n t, e v e n i f d ire c t e v id e n c e is a v a ila b le o n ly fro m la t e r p e rio d s .9 The]
b r e a k o u t o f th e co n fin e s o f th e ir w o m e n ’ s q u a r t e r s a n d m a k e th e ir w a y to
m o u n ta in . C h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly th e s o c ia l ro le s a r e fix e d , a s is th c c a le n d a r : U f l
w o m e n o f a g iv e n c it y r a v e a t a g iv e n tim e , a t th e a n n u a l fe s tiv a l o f A g rio tM ° c
L e n a ia .'° w h ic h o fte n g iv e s its n a m e lo th e m o n th - th ere is a ls o a m o rtj
BACCHIC MYSTERIES 291
V1 m e c a l e n d a r s " - o r e ls e ih c y r a v e c v c r v s c c o n d v e a r a l th e tr ic tc r ic
lb ? '0' j T r u e c c s t a s y , th o u g h , r e m a in s in c a lc u la b le : ‘ ih c narthex b e a r e r s a r c
1 * !,Vva ih e bakchoi a r c fe w .’ "
so s ¡s th e g o d o f th e e x c e p t io n a l. As the in d iv id u a l g a in s in
J L i 10 n d e n c e , th e D io n y s o s c u lt b e c o m e s a v e h ic le fo r th e s e p a r a t io n o f
g r o u p s fro m th e p o lis. A lo n g s id e p u b lic D io n y s ia e fe s t iv a ls th ere
Priv!l' . p r iv a te D io n y s o s m y s t e r ie s '* T h e s e a r e e s o te ric , th e y ta k e p la c e a t
a c c e ss -s t} , ro u g h a n in d iv id u a l in itia tio n , telele. A s a s y m b o lic B e y o n d ,
n|8 _ j ancj m y s t e r io u s , th e B a c c h ic g ro tto o r c a v e a p p e a r s . T h e ro le o f th e
b eco m es less im p o rta n t: th e re a r e m a le a s w e ll a s fe m a le mystai. In
* **** t to ih e m y s te rie s o f D e m e te r a n d th e G r e a t G o d s , th e se m y s t e r ie s a r e
lo n ger b o u n d to a fix e d s a n c t u a r y w ith p rie s th o o d s lin k e d to re s id e n t
fem iiies; th ey m a k e th e ir a p p c a r a n c e w h e r e v e r a d h e r e n ts c a n b e fo u n d . T h is
resupposes a n e w s o c ia l p h e n o m e n o n o f w a n d e r in g p rie sts w h o la y c la im to
a trad ition o f orgia tra n sm itte d in p r iv a t e s u c c e s s io n .
T h e o ld est te s tim o n y to bakchoi a n d mystai is in H e r a c lit u s : H e r o d o t u s '
description o f th e fa te o f th e h e lle n iz e d S c y t h ia n K i n g S k y lc s r e fe rs to th e
m iddle o f the fifth c e n t u r y :'4 in th e G r e e k c ity o f O lb ia , S k y le s h a d h im s e lf
initiated (telein) 'to D io n y s o s B a k c h e io s ' a t h is o w n w is h , e v e n th o u g h a
divine sig n s h o u ld h a v e w a r n e d h im a g a in s t it ‘a s h e w a s o n th e p o in t o f
taking u p o n h im s e lf th e in itia tio n (telete)'. H e ‘ c o m p le te d th e in itia tio n a n d
proceeded to r a v e th ro u g h to w n w ith th e thiasos o f th e g o d . S c y t h ia n s
observed h im d o in g th is, a n d it c o s t h im h is th ro n e a n d h is life. H e r e B a c c h ic
initiations a r c n e ith e r a s p o n t a n e o u s o u t b u r s t n o r a p u b lic fe s t iv a l; a d m iss io n
rests on p e rso n a l a p p lic a tio n , th e re is a p r e p a r a t o r y p e r io d , a tra d itio n o f
Sacred rite s, a n d fin a lly th e in te g ra t io n in to th e g r o u p o f th e in itia te s. A m a n ,
a fo reign er n o le ss, is a d m itte d fo r in itia tio n .
H e ro d o tu s, w h o w ith th is s to r y d ir e c ts s o m e s c a r c c ly c o n c e a le d c ritic is m
against a cu lt h e k n o w s, e x p r e s s ly re fe rs to M ile t u s a s th e m o th e r c ity o f
O lbia. T h e s a m e c u lt o f D io n y s o s B a c c h e io s a p p e a r s in a th ir d -c e n tu r y
inscription fro m M i le t u s .'5 B o th m e n a n d w o m e n , w c le a r n , a r c in itia le d , b u t
the in itia tio n s s h o u ld b c u n d e r ta k e n s e p a r a t e ly fo r e a c h s e x b y p rie sts a n d
p n cstcsses r e s p e c tiv e ly . O m o p h a g y , th e e a t in g o f r a w flesh , w h ic h in m y th
appears a s th e g r u e s o m e h ig h p o in t o f D io n v s ia c fr e n z y , is m e n tio n e d .
O’ tibaiia, th e p ro c e ss io n to th e m o u n ta in , is a ls o a tte ste d in M ile t u s .11' T h e
M i s a sse rts its p r e c e d e n c e in th a t n o o n e is a llo w e d lo m a k e s a c r ific e b e fo re
w>e polis
E u rip id e s in h is Bacchae is d r a m a t iz in g th e o ld m y th w h ic h h a s a ll th e
Wumcn ol th e c ity s p o n t a n e o u s ly o v e rc o m e b y th e g o d . A n d y e t h e a ls o h a s
cl> g o in g to th e m o u n ta in , a n d th e le a d e r o f th e thiasos is a m a n - in r e a lity ,
*hc s p e c ta to r s k n o w , the g o d D io n y s o s in p e rso n . T h is m a n b o a s ts o f
v in g re c e iv e d th e orgia fro m th e g o d h im s e lf. H is d u t y is to s h o w th em a n d
_ P ass th em o n . T h i s p ro c c s s is s e c re t; n o th in g o f it m a y b e d iv u lg e d to
L , ne w h o d o e s n ot p re se n t h im s e lf to th e hakcheia. E v e n th e a d v a n t a g e to
S a in e d , w h ic h a ttr a c t s th e in itia te s , r e m a in s s e c r e t .'7 T h e c e le b r a t io n s a re
29» M Y S T E R IE S A N D A SC E T IC ISM V | 5
n o c tu r n a l. H e re , th e re fo re , th e m y th ic a l u p ris in g o f the w o m en o v e rla p s w,*|k.T
th e p r a c tic e o f se c re t c e le b ra tio n s in d iffe ren t to s e x a n d restin g on perso n é!
in itia tio n . T o th ese B a c c h ic m y ste rie s b elo n g s a b le s sin g r iv a llin g E l e u r i n l
lO b lesse d he w h o k n o w s th e in itia tio n s o f th c g o d s .” 8
F o r P la to , fin a lly . D io n y so s is m a ste r o f the te lcstic m a d n e ss w h ic h is
be d is tin g u is h e d from p ro p h e tic , m u s ic a l, a n d e r o tic -p h ilo s o p h ic a l m ad n esr
T h e g o d a c ts th ro u g h p u rific a tio n s (katharmoi) a n d in itia tio n s {tc le u ftj*
b r in g in g rele ase fro m illn e ss a n d g rie v o u s a fflic tio n ’ w h ic h m a n ifest thcrjfc
s e lv e s in a fa m ily on a c c o u n t o f a n a n c ie n t w ra th . O n e m u st s u rre n d e r ig | k .
m a d n e s s arid a llo w o n e s e lf to be seiz ed b y th e go d in o r d e r to b eco m e Ire*
a n d w e ll, not o n ly for the p re se n t b u t lo r a ll the fu t u re .1“
D io n y s ia e in itia tio n is fu lfilled in r a v in g , baccheia. I he in itia te is turned
in to a bacchos. T h is s ta te o f fre n z y is b le s se d n e s s, c o m p e llin g lv ex p re ssed fa
th e e n tr a n c e so n g o f E u r ip id e s ’ Bacchae·. e a rth is tra n sfo rm e d in to a paradise
w ith m ilk , w in e, a n d h o n e y s p rin g in g fro m th e g ro u n d : m a e n a d s ofTer their
b r e a s ts to a fa w n . V et at th e v e ry ce n tre o f th is p a r a d is e th ere is m urderous
s a v a g e r y w h e n th e fre n z ie d o n es b ec o m e irre s is tib le h u n te rs o f a n im a l and
m a n s tr iv in g to w a rd s th e c lim a x o f d is m e m b e rm e n t, th c d e lig h t o f eating,
ra w fle s h ’ . 30 A n a ta v is tic s p rin g o f v ita l e n e rg y b rea k s th ro u g h th e cru st of
re fin e d u rb a n c u ltu re . M a n , h u m b le d a n d in tim id a te d b y n o rm a l everyd ay
life, ca n free h im s e lf in th e o rg ie s from a ll th at is o p p re ss iv e a n d d e v e lo p lús
tru e s e l f / 1 R a v in g b e c o m e s d iv in e re v e la tio n , a ce n tre o f m e a n in g in the
m id s t o f a w o rld th at is in c r e a s in g ly p ro fa n e a n d ra tio n a l.
T r u e e c s ta s y h as its o w n la w s a n d so u rce s, even i f d a n c e a n d rh yth m ic
m u s ic c a n p ro m o te it to a s p e c ia l d e g re e ; th is is e v id e n t in th c p la y uf
E u r ip id e s . N e v e rth e le s s , th ere a re tw o v e ry sp e c ific s tim u la n ts th at belon g 10
D io n y so s , w h ic h c a n n o t h a v e b een m issin g ev e n in th e se c re t céléb ratio n s?
a lc o h o l a n d s e x u a l e x c ite m e n t, the d r in k in g o f w in e a n d p h a llo s sym b olism .
T w o co m p le x e s fro m the H e lle n istic a g e re v e a l d e ta ils a b o u t th e liirthcr
d e v e lo p m e n t o f B a c c h ic m y ste rie s: the in fa m o u s Bacchanalia th a l were
su p p re ss e d in Ita ly b y R o m e in 18 6 b c w ith e x tre m e b r u t a lity ,” and thc
m a g n ific e n t fre sc o e s oí the Villa dei M isten in P o m p eii th a l d a te fro m the tin»«5
o f C a e s a r .n W h e re a s in re g a r d to the Bacchanalia it is a sse rte d thal UM?
in itia tio n co n siste d inter alia in su ffe rin g a h o m o se x u a l a c t, in th e frcsco cs #
la r g e , erect p h a llo s in a w in n o w in g b ask e t is d e p icte d n ex t to thc
a w o m a n is p re se n t to u n ve il it; b lo w s w ith a rod a re to b e su ffe red too. T «c
fo rm s o f B a c c h ic in itia tio n p ro b a b ly v a rie d a g re a t d e al fro m g ro u p to groupe
a n d fro m p e rio d to p e rio d , w ith the ex ten t o f th ese v a r ia tio n s stretch in g*
fro m o u td o o r p ic n ic s to a n e x is te n tia l tu rn in g -p o in t in life, from sub lim *
s y m b o lism to d o w n rig h t o rg ie s. It is p o ssib le th at o ld fo rm s o f puberf)
in itia tio n w e re still p re se rv e d in s e x u a l in itia tio n : not v ir g in s , but 0 » ^
w o m en c o u ld b e b a c c h a i a n d m a rrie d co u p le s co u ld be in itia te d t o g e t h e r - !
U s u a lly the p u re r fo rm s o f relig io n h a v e b ette r c h a n c e s o f lo n g e v ity tW JH
o rg ie s in th e m o d ern sen se.
K j. 2 2 B A C C H IC H OPES FOR A N A F T E R L I F E 293
vi
lib e r a t io n fro m fo rm e r d is tre s s a n d fro m the p re ss u re s o f e v e r y d a y life, a n
I
•ounter w ith th c d iv in e th ro u g h a n e x p e rie n c e o f th e fo rce a n d m e a n in g ol
c»'
ir a re p re se n t in D io n v sia c in itia tio n . B u t h o p es for th e fu tu re , for d e a th
liftj ¡h e a fte rlife w e r e no le ss a p art o f th e se c r e t a d v a n t a g e p ro m ise d to th ose
.ill
* ho kncvv· ^ *s s h o w n a b o v e a ll b y the g o ld le a f fro m H ip p o n io n w h ich
* , e 10 light o n ly in 19 6 9 .
th e re s p r in g m e n , re b e ls a g a in s t th e g o d s w h o n e v e rth e le s s p a r ii c i p a ic f j e
d iv in e . F r o m th e r e m a in s th a t w e re re s c u e d a n d c o lle c te d , D io n y so s f '
a g a i n . -
T h i s m y th b e c a m c a th e m e in th e p o e try o f C a llim a c h u s a n d E u p h o j ^ l
h e re D io n y s u s b e a r s th e e p ith e t Z a g r e u s .'0 N o in d is p u t a b le e v id e n c e I d U
b a c k in to th e p rc - H e lle n is t ic e p o c h , y e t th e re a r e n u m e ro u s
in d ic a tio n s th a t th e m y th w a s w ell k n o w n .'7 X e n o c r a t e s . P l a t o s di s c io n ·
r e fe rre d to D io n y s o s a n d th e T ita n s to e x p la in a fa m o u s p a s s a g e in p [ g £ ^ H
Phaedo.'* P la to h im s e lf h a s th o se a b o u t O r p h e u s te a c h th a t the so ijH S
b a n is h e d in to th e b o d y in p u n is h m e n t fo r c e rta in c r im e s not to b c turned
a n d h e a llu d e s to th e ‘ a n c ie n t T i t a n ic n a t u r e ’ o f m a n w h ic h c a n s i i d d n i n f l
r e a p p e a r .'0 T h a t H e r o d o tu s m e n tio n s the s u ffe rin g s o f O s ir is b u t a s s id u o u R Í^ I
ke e p s s ile n t a b o u t th e m , a lth o u g h in E g y p t it s e lf th e re w a s no secrc t aliom
th e d e ta ils o f th is m y th , is to b e e x p la in e d b y th e a s s u m p t io n that ifo,
c o r r e s p o n d in g m y th οΓ th e d is m e m b e rm e n t o f D io n y s o s w a s a n u n s p ra k a b lfc s
d o c t r in e o f th e m y ste rie s. H e ro d o tu s a ls o a llu d e s to a n e x p la n a tio n
D io n y s ia e p h a llic p ro c e ss io n s w h ic h is in fa ct p r o v id e d by ih c O sirii
d is m e m b e r m e n t m y t h / ' P in d a r, fin a lly , s p e a k s o f P e rs e p h o n e ai γ . μ ting,
‘ r e q u it a l fo r a n c ie n t g r i e f fro m th e d e a d b efo re s h e a llo w s th em to rise to
h ig h e r e x is t e n c e ;7' th is g r ie f o f the g o d d e s s fo r w h ic h m en b e a r th e gtiilt can
o n ly be th e d e a t h o f h e r c h ild D io n y so s . T h e D e rv e n i P a p y r u s sto p s s h o r tiift*
th e b irth o f c h th o n ic D io n y s o s - it s e e m s to en d w ith th e m o th er incest
Z e u s - b u t th e s y s te m o f d iv in e m o n a rc h ie s tre a te d in this te x t, sta rtin g liront
O u r a n o s a s th e first k in g , clo s e ly a g r e e s w ith th e o n e set fo rth in th e basic
te stim o n y fo r O r p h ic a n t h r o p o g o n y ." ’ O n e sh o u ld th e re fo re c o n c e d e that flu·
m y th o f th e d is m e m b e r m e n t o f D io n y so s is r e la tiv e ly o ld a n d w ell known
a m o n g th e G r e e k s but w a s c o n s c io u s ly k e p t se c r e t a s a d o c t r in e o f m y stcrlcfa fl
I h e o b lig a tio n to s e c re c y w ill h a v e b een m a d e m o re c o m p e llin g becau$<rn)
th e u n e a s in e s s o f s p e a k in g ι n th e lig h t o f d a y a b o u t th e d e a th o f a g o d . H u s ft
in s h a r p c o n tra s t to th e o ffic ia l, H o m e r ic c o n c e p tio n o f the im m o r ta l g O f®
Γο w h a t e x te n t th is m y th a n d in d ee d the v e r y cu lt o f c h th o n ic D io n y so s »ml
th e b eliefs in b le s se d n e s s a n d p u n is h m e n ts in th e n e th e r w o rld a r e d e p e n c J t w l
o n th e E g y p tia n O s ir is c u lt fro m th e s ta rt r e m a in s a t lea st a q u e stio n ll»Al
m u st b e s e r io u s ly a s k e d .'1 O n c e a g a in th is is n ot to s a y th a t a ll form * 0'
B a c c h ic m y s te rie s a re b u ilt o n th is fo u n d a tio n . W h e n th e d e a d m a n in
g o ld le a v e s in tro d u c e s h im s e lf a s th e so n o f e a r th a n d s ta r r y h e a v e n V 1' 1*
m y th o f th e T i t a n s is not n e c e s s a r ily im p lied ;*’4 th e p e n a n c e fo r u n ju st deed*
{»η the T h u r io i le a v e s m ig h t b e b e tte r g ro u p e d to g e th e r w ith P in d a r frJU
P la t o .'·
lit th a t late H e lle n is tic c o m p ila tio n o f Orphica k n o w n a s th e R hapso™
a n t h r o p o g o n y w a s c o n n e c te d w ith m e t e m p s y c h o s is . ,r> T h i s is a s p c c u la f l H
d o c t r in e m o r e c h a r a c t e r is t ic ol I n d ia , w h ic h r e m a in e d a kin d o f fo reign
in th e fr a m e w o r k o f G r e e k religion .'*7 It a p p e a r s in th e fifth c c n tu ry in va ryil$>
fo rm s in th e w o r k s o f P in d a r , E m p e d o c le s , a n d H e r o d o t u s a n d l a t c f ^ M
P la to ’ s m y th s . M o s t im p r e s s iv e is th e o ld e s t te x t, P in d a r 's s e c o n d O lyi
■ Γ β ^ O R PH EU S AND PYTH A G O RA S 299
^ * .'ite n l ° r T h e r o n o í A k r a g a s in 4 7 6 ; th e re a r c a ls o u n d a ic d fra g m e n ts
'*iv/0 fu n e r a l d ir g e s , threnoi.1* A c c o r d in g to P in d a r th e re a r e th re e p a th s in
fro111 w o r ld , th re e p o s s ib ilitie s . W h o e v e r h a s led a p io u s a n d j u s t life fin d s
lhe ° . c x is tc n c e in th e u n d e r w o r ld , fre e fro m a ll c a r e s in a p la c e w h e r e th e
» 'c>, s ),jnin g a t n ig h t; b u t e v ild o e r s s u ffe r te rr ib le th in g s. T h e so u l th e re a fte r
*,!n lS to th e u p p e r w o r ld w h e re its fa te is d e te r m in e d b y its p r e v io u s d e e d s ;
fcturns s(an cjs t |jC tcsI th re e tim e s e n te r s th c I s la n d o f th c B le ss e d fo re v e r.
i " 10 c o m p a r e w ith th is th c fa c t th a t in tw o o f th c T h u r io i g o ld le a v e s
" e d i a 'c a p o th e o s is is p r o m is e d , w h e r e a s tw o o th e r s m o r e m o d e s tly
e sco rt to th c 's e a t s o f th e p u r e ’ ; a s in P in d a r it is P e r s e p h o n e w h o
kes the d e c is io n ." 1 In th e r e m a in in g g o ld - le a f te x ts m e t e m p s y c h o s is is not
' cssarily p r e s u p p o s e d , b u t not e x c lu d e d e i t h e r . H e r o d o t u s re fe rs to a
o f f s c ie n tific c o n c e p tio n o f tr a n s m ig r a tio n : th c s o u l m u st w a n d e r th ro u g h
„very d o m a in o f th e c o s m o s, b e in g d r a w n in w ith th e b re a th o f a n e w ly b o rn
Jiving c r e a t u r e .3' A c c o r d in g to E m p e d o c le s th e w a n d e r in g th ro u g h a ll o f th c
elem ents is a to n e m e n t f o r a b lo o d g u ilt in c u r r e d in th e d iv in e w o r ld ; th e g o a l
ik return to th e g o d s , a p o t h e o s is .” M a n y , a s P la to a s s e rts , h e a r in m y s t e rie s ,
¡flflai, a n d b e lie v e th a t th e re is not o n ly p u n is h m e n t in th e a fte rlife , b u t a ls o
that w hen th e s in n e r r e tu rn s a g a in to th is w o rld th e fo rm o f d e a th he then
meets w ith is e x a c t r e t rib u tio n fo r e a r lie r g u ilt. A r is t o tle q u o te s a v e r s e
attesting to th is ju s t ic e o f R h a d a m a n t h y s .”
A risto tle a ls o w rite s th a t it w a s s ta te d ‘ in the s o - c a lle d O r p h ic p o e m s ' th at
thc sou l, b e in g b o rn e b y th c w in d s fro m o u t o f th c u n iv e r s e , en te rs a liv in g
creature w ith its first b re a th ; b u t h e a ls o k n e w P y th a g o r e a n m y th s a c c o rd in g
to w hich 'a n y so u l c a n e n te r a n y b o d y .’ 1* A n d in a s a t ir ic a l p o em ,
X e n o p h a n e s, o u r e a r lie s t w itn e ss fo r P y t h a g o r a s , a s c r ib e s 10 h im th e b e lie f
that a h u m a n s o u l, in d e e d th e s o u l o f a frie n d , c o u ld b c p r e s e n t in a w h ip p e d
dog.55
W iih P y th a g o r a s w e art* fin a lly c o n fro n te d w ith a h is to r ic a l p e r s o n a lit y .
It >s not to b c d o u b te d th a t th is m a n , b o rn o n S a m o s , w a s a c tiv e in th e
Second h a lf o f th e s ix th c e n tu ry in s o u th e r n I t a lv , a b o v e a ll in C r o t o n a n d
M etap o n tu m ; his fo llo w e rs , Pylhagoreioi, g a in e d s o m e p ro m in e n c e w e ll in to
•he fourth c e n tu r y , e s p e c ia lly in T a r e n t u m .th F r o m a la t e r p e r s p e c t iv e
P yth ago ras b e c a m e th c fo u n d e r o f m a th e m a t ic s a n d m a th e m a t ic a l s c ie n c e .
ne p r e -P la to n ic te stim o n ie s p o in t r a th e r to a s tr a n g e m ix tu r e o f n u m b e r
jy m b o lism . a r ith m e tic , d o c t rin e s o f im m o r ta lit y a n d th e a fte rlife , a n d ru le s
r a n a sc e tic life. L e g e n d s w h ic h a r c o ld a n d c h a r a c t e r is tic in tro d u c e
M én a ge ra s a s th e h ie ro p h a n t o f a n E a s te r n s ty le M e t e r cu lt w h o p ro v e s his
^ trine o f im m o r ta lit y b y a d e sc e n t in to th e u n d e r w o r ld . T h a t a n I o n ia n o f
I ®, x ,h c e n tu r y s h o u ld a s s im ila t e e le m e n ts o f B a b y lo n ia n m a th e m a t ic s ,
Possibl* rC^ * o n ' anc^ c v c n I n d ia n m e te m p s y c h o s is d o c t rin e is in tr in s ic a lly
Th
c ‘A p p a ren tly r iv a l tra d itio n s o f th e O r p h ic a n d P y th a g o r e a n d o c tr in e s
t w v C? m,p T h o sis a r e seen to c o in c id e , w h e n P y th a g o r e a n s fro m s o u th e rn
d e lu d in g P y th a g o r a s h im s e lf, a re m e n tio n e d a lo n g w ith O n o m a c r itu s
a s th e tru e a u th o rs o f O r p h ic p o e m s .'7 A d m itt e d ly , th is is o v e r la p p in g r a 9
" lit ,'
th a n id e n tific a tio n . B a c c h ic . O r p h ic , a n d P y th a g o r e a n a r e c irc lc s each J.
w h ic h h as its o w n c c n trc , a n d w h ile th ese c irc le s h a v e a re a s th a t co in \ Μ «ilΙ
ea ch p re se rv e s its o w n s p e c ia l sp h e re . T h e n o m e n c la tu re is b a se d on difl'c
p rin c ip le s: m y ste ry ritu a l, lite ra tu re m a rk e d b y th e n a m e o f a n a u th o r a ¡ 7 9
h is to r ic a lly fix e d g ro u p w ith th e ir m a ste r ; D io n y so s is a g o d , O r p h g J ^ H
m y th ic a l sin g e r a n d p ro p h e t, a n d P y th a g o r a s a S a m ia n o f th e s ix th c e n t j ^ l
W ith in th e s p h e re oi Orphica, tw o sc h o o ls m a y p e r h a p s be d istin g u ish e d 9
A th c n ia n - E le u s in ia n sch o o l w h ic h c o n c e n tra te d o n the b e s to w a l Of Çu(|
a lle g e d ly to be fo u n d in th e D e m e te r m y th a n d th c E le u s in ia n m y sterie s a n H
an I ta lia n . P y th a g o r e a n sch o o l w h ic h took a m o re o rig in a l p ath
d o c tr in e o f th c tr a n sm ig ra tio n o f s o u ls . O r p h ic a n d B a c c h ic co in cid e in t|,r^
co n c e rn fo r b u ria l a n d th e a fte rlife a n d p r o b a b ly a ls o in th e s p e c ia l m y t i n ^
D io n y so s Z a g r c u s , w h ile O r p h ic a n d P y th a g o r e a n c o in c id e in the d o cirii)r.
o f m e te m p s y c h o s is a n d a sc e tic ism . H o w e v e r th at m a y b e, th e diifícu l(i¿ 2 H
o f p re c is e d e m a r c a tio n sh o u ld not lea d to a d e n ia l o f the phcnoniQjwH
th em selv e s.
W h at is m ost im p o rta n t is th c tra n sfo rm a tio n in th e co n ce p t o f the soul
psyche, w h ic h la k e s p la c e in th ese c ir c le s .1,1 T h e d o c trin e o f tran sm igration
p r e su p p o se s th a t in th e liv in g b ein g , m a n a s a n im a l, th ere is an individual,
c o n s ta n t so m e th in g , a n eg o th a t p re se rv e s its id e n tity b y fo rce o f its nwii
e s s e n c e , in d e p e n d e n t ol the b o d y w h ic h p a s s e s a w a y . T h u s a n ew general·
co n ce p t o f a liv in g b e in g is c re a te d , empsychon; a psyché is w ith in .' P his p s y r iu f k
o b v io u slv n ot th c p o w e rle s s , u n c o n s c io u s im a g e o f re c o lle ctio n in a çlooitjy)
H a d e s , a s in H o m e r ’ s Xckytu: it is not a tfcc te d b y d e a th : th c so u l is imtnorUiL
athanalos.v' T h a t th e ep ith e t w h ic h s in c e H o m e r h ad c h a ra c te r iz e d thc godsân
d is tin c tio n fro m m en n ow b e c o m e s th e e ss e n tia l m a rk o f the h u m a n p e r s o n u i
in d ee d a re v o lu tio n .
T h i s re v o lu tio n , h o w e v e r , w a s b ro u g h t a b o u t in s ta g e s w ith the resu lt that
th e b r e a k c o u ld e v e n b e o v e rlo o k e d . A t first this c o n s ta n t s o m e th in g is quill’
d is tin c t fro m m a n ’ s e m p ir ic a l w a k in g c o n s c io u s n e s s: P in d a r d e sc rib e s It
th e v e r y o p p o s ite o f th is, s le e p in g w h e n th e lim b s a re a c tiv e , b u t r e v e a lí u ¿ j¡jB
e s s e n c e in d r e a m s a n d fin a lly in d e a t h .4" E c s ta tic e x p e r ie n c e s o f a B a c clw ·
S h a m a m s t ic . o r Y o g a ty p e m a y s ta n d in th e b a c k g ro u n d . F u rth e rm o re , wM*
a p p e a r s in th c filth c e n tu ry is not a c o m p le te a n d c o n siste n t doctrine
m e te m p s y c h o s is , but rath er, e x p e rim e n ta l s p e c u la tio n s w ith c o n tr a d ic ld flB
p rin c ip le s o f ritu a l a n d m o ra lity , a n d a g r o p in g fo r n a tu ra l la w s : iln* soU
co n n s fro m th e g o d s a n d a fte r re p e a te d tria ls re tu rn s to th em , o r else it
fo re v e r in a c ir c le th ro u g h all s p h e re s o f th e co s m o s; sh e er c h a n c e d cc id cü flJH
th e r e in c a r n a tio n , or e lse a ju d g e m e n t o f th e d e a d : it is m o ra lly blarn clfS?!
c o n d u c t th at g u a r a n t e e s the b e tte r lot or e lse the b a re fa ct o f ritu a l
th a t fre es fro m g u i l t . " I h e id e a fin a lly th at th c so u l is so m e lig h t. heave*1# !
s u b s t a n c e a n d th a t m a n 's so u l w ill th e re fo re e v e n tu a lly a sc e n d to h e a v c n -JS
th e s ta g e fo r a m o m e n to u s s y n th e sis o f c o s m o lo g y a n d s a lv a tio n r c l i g j f f l ^ j
S in c c th e se c o n tr a d ic t o r y m o tils w e re a s s im ila te d a i a p r e - p h ilo S O p í^ H
BIO S 30 1
VI th e lev e l o f free mythoi a n d n ot a s d o g m a s , th e c o n tra d ic tio n s w ith the
|evr*; Λ 'i n a c í itio iis w e re 110 1 ( b u n d d is q u ie tin g . P in d a r is in a p o s ilio n to
id th c d o c trin e o f tra n s m ig r a tio n a c c o r d in g to th c p re d ile c tio n s o f h is
p a ir o n s w ith o u t in frin g in g u p o n th e tra d itio n a l, a r is t o c r a t ic s y s te m .
P la to h o ld s th a t m e te m p s y c h o s is m a y o ffe r an e x p la n a tio n fo r e x is tin g
Evt' " j f p rie sts w e r e to lo ok fo r e x p la n a tio n s a t all in ste a d o f p r a c tis in g w h a t
,:li l t s .1 e h e n s ib lc .4' H e th e re fo re in te n d s to c h a n g e a s little a s p o s sib le
15 t r a d it io n a l p o lis c u lts. T h a t
'lie th e d o c trin e o f m e te m p s y c h o s is , w h e th e r
10¡is q u a s i- s c ic n t if ic fo rm o r in its m o ra l v a r ia n t , n o tw ith s ta n d in g its role in
111 eu lts, s h o u ld m a k e ritu a l a n d th u s p o lis re lig io n s u p e rflu o u s , not
P la to w a s p r e p a re d to c o n c e d e . A n d v e t w ith th e id e a o f t h e im m o rta l
soÍtl the d is c o v e r y o f th e in d iv id u a l h ad re a c h e d a g o a l w h ic h is o n ly fu lfilled
h ilo so p h y. Ii w a s S o c r a tic c a r e for th c so u l a n d P la to n ic m e t a p h y s ic s th al
4vc i> *he c la s s ic a l fo rm th at w a s to p re d o m in a te fo r th o u s a n d s o f y e a rs.
BIOS
I T H E NEW f o u n d a t i o n : b e i n g a n d t h e d i v i n e
lu th e b a c k g r o u n d th e r e is th c s till g r o w in g in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e in d lV jjfl
in a c iv iliz a t io n m a rk e d b y e c o n o m ic g r o w th : G r e e k s h a v e c o n q u e re d ?
P
M e d it e r r a n e a n , n e w c o lo n ic s a r e s p r in g in g u p , tra d e a n d in d u s tr y a r e n (, . q
in c r e a s e , a n d G r e e k fo rm s a r e b e in g im ita te d e v e r y w h e r e . P o s s i b i l i t j * J ^ B
d e v e lo p m e n t a r e oflfercd to th e in d iv id u a l w h ic h a r e n o lo n g e r c o n fin » f l? 3 [
fa m ily , c it y , o r trib e . A n d y e t th c e x p a n s io n is a lr e a d y c o m in g u p a g a i n « 3 1
lim ita tio n s , e s p e c ia lly in its c o n fro n ta tio n w ith th e o ld h ig h c u ltu re s in i f *
E a s t , a n d w ith P h o e n ic ia n s a n d E t r u s c a n s in th e W e st. T h e b e g in n i n g J a
p h ilo s o p h y lie in I o n ia , in M ile t u s , a t a tim e w h e n h e g e m o n y is switchiriC
fro m L y d i a n s to P e r s ia n s : a c c o r d in g to tr a d itio n , th e b o o k o f A n a x im a n d r o *
a p p e a r e d o n e y e a r b e fo re th c c o n q u e s t o f S a r d e s b y C y r u s . 1
C o n t a c t s w ith fo r e ig n e r s a r e n e c e s s a r ily re d u c e d to w h a t is ta n g ib le . T h
c o m p lic a te d b a c k g r o u n d o f p e rs o n a l c u lt u r e , the m o st b e a u t ifu l a n d itioxr
s a c r e d t r a d itio n s , p o e t r y , a n d re lig io n m e a n n o th in g to s t r a n g e r s . B u t undçj*
s t a n d in g c a n e a s ily b e a c h ie v e d a b o u t p h e n o m e n a w h ic h a re in vo k ed a*
w itn e s s e s in o ld o a th fo r m u la e , n a m e ly , h e a v e n a n d e a r th , su n a n d sea.*
E v e n w ith th e d e e p e n in g o f r e la tio n s s u c h a n effect o f r e ific a tio n w ill rem ain
T h e r e lig io n a n d m y th s o f th c M e s o p o t a m ia n s a n d I r a n ia n s w e re m ore
b o u n d 10 th e c o s m o s th a n H o m e r ic a n t h r o p o m o r p h is m w o u ld a llo w ; b u t thr
G r e e k s in tu rn w e r e in c lin e d to se e th is r e la tio n a s s o m e th in g a b s o lu te : when
th e P e r s ia n r a is e s h is h a n d s to A h u r a M a z d a , th c G r e e k se e s th e h eavcn lv
g lo b e a n d c o n c lu d e s th a t th is is th e g o d w h o m th e P e r s ia n s w o rsh ip .'
H o m e r ic go cls a r e n o t d e m o n s t r a b le in th is w a y : th e p o e m s a r e c re a te d by
p o e ts, th e s ta tu e s a r e w r o u g h t b y a r tis ts . H o w c a n o n e s e r io u s ly s p e a k about
th em a s s im p ly b e in g th e c a s e ?
N a t u r a l l a n g u a g e is m e a n in g fu l in s o fa r a s it re fe r s to a n o b je c t ; th is object
is u n d e r s t o o d in its m o st g e n e r a l fo rm a s b e in g , w h ic h in G r e e k h a s a plural
fo rm : la onta. T h e first p ro s e te x ts w e re la w s a n d p r a c t ic a l in stru c tio n s ΪΠ
h a n d b o o k s ; p h ilo s o p h y a r is e s w ith th c a tte m p t to s p e a k in ih e s a m e wav
about e v e r y t h in g ’ . S u c h s ta te m e n ts h a v e to h o ld g o o d b e y o n d b a n a l i t i e s
T h u s th e fa v o u r ite o b je c t s o f e x p la n a t io n a r c th e th in g s in th e s k y .
th e th in g s u n d e r th c e a r th , a n d th e b e g in n in g , arche. fro m w h ic h ev cry in m n
b e c a m e w h a t it is. T h a t th e w o r ld is to b e u n d e rsto o d in te rm s o f a b eg in n in g s
th a t th e r e is a p r o c e s s o f b e c o m in g , fthysis, w h ic h c a n n o t b e in flu e n c e d H>
m a n . th a t th c e x is tin g w o r ld is u ltim a te ly o r d e r, kosmos, a r e a ll postulates
w h ic h a r e ta k e n fro m tr a d itio n w ith o u t q u e s tio n , b u t a r c m a d e e x p lic it by
n e w c o n c e p ts ; th e o r d e r o f th e w o rld w h ic h is d is tu r b e d so o fte n in r e a l i t y 13
r e s to r e d th r o u g h a c o m p r e h e n s iv e in te lle c tu a l p r o je c t. A ls o th e fo rm oflTlV^1,
o f ta le s a b o u t th e p a st is ta k e n w ith o u t q u e s tio n fro m tra d itio n in ord^rW H
d e s c r ib e th c g e n e s is o f th c w o rld .
T h e m e n w h o c a rn e fo r w a r d w ith s u c h b o o k s h ad a s v e t n o n a m e fo r liïçtn*
s e lv e s a n d th e ir u n d e r ta k in g ; a t b est th e y c o u ld d e s ig n a te th e m s e lv e s as
wp/ioi o r wp/ustai. T h e te rm p h ilo s o p h y in its tru e s e n se w a s o n ly co in ed wjû
P la to ." A s a n e x p e d ie n t ih e te rm P r e - S o c r a t ic s h a s w o n g e n e r a l a c c c p ta fl^ M
e v e n i f it is e s s e n tia lly n e g a tiv e . T h e first o f th e se P r e - S o c r a t ic s , appearin g"
] I T H E N E W F O U N D A T IO N : B E IN G A N D T H E D IV IN E 30 7
| f seco n d h a l f o f th e s ix t h c e n t u r y , a r c A n a x im a n d r o s a n d A n a x im e n e s o f
E f , |US a n d H e r a c lit u s o f E p h e s u s . Λ n e w d e v e lo p m e n t is m a r k e d b y
■ n scio n s p o le m ic s a n d th e re tu rn to p o e tic fo rm : P a r m e n id e s o f E le a
J uC<d s p e c u la t iv e o n to lo g y . I n s t r u g g lin g w ith its p ro b le m s d u r in g th e
urs<? l *ic c c n lu r y . A n a x a g o r a s , E m p e d o c le s , L c u k ip p o s a n d
n m o critu s d e v e lo p e d th e ir s y s te m s o f c o m p r e h e n s iv e r a tio n a l e x p la n a tio n
j n ¿ » i n re. A n e w le v e l o f re fle c tio n w a s re a c h e d b y S o c r a t e s , w h ic h led o n to
. c la ss ic w r ite r s o f p h ilo s o p h y , P la to a n d A r is t o tle .
] n th e b o o k o f A n a x im a n d r o s ' w e a lr e a d y fin d th e o u t lin e s o f th e w o rld
o d d w h ic h r e m a in e d d o m in a n t u n til th e C o p e r n ic a n r e v o lu tio n a n d w h ic h
¿ tem e d to s a t is fy re lig io n a n d s c ie n c e e q u a lly : m a n o n h is r e la tiv e ly s m a ll
fa rth is in th e c e n tr e o f th e u n iv e r s e , s u r r o u n d e d b y th e w id e n in g o r b its o f
ih r s ta rs, fin a lly e n c lo s e d in a h ig h e s t, d iv in e s p h e r e . T h e o d d itie s o f th is first
outline c a n n o t b e d is c u s s e d h e re . H o w e a rth a n d th e w h e e ls o f h e a v e n w e r e
fo r m e d , h o w s u n , m o o n , a n d s t a r s m o v e , a n d a ls o h o w th e p o rte n ts in th e
skv. su ch a s lig h t n in g a n d th u n d e r, c lo u d s a n d r a in , h ail a n d s n o w c o m e
ab o u t, is a ll e x p la in e d in a m a tte r-o f-fa c t w a y a s th e in te r a c tio n o f ta n g ib le
things: m o istu re d r ie s o u t. fire c a u s e s m e ltin g , m o v e d a ir tu r n s in to w in d ,
which fo rm s th e c lo u d s in to c lu s te r s a n d b re a k s th e m u p in lig h t n in g . T h e r e
is n o th in g left o f a Z e u s w h o r a in s , a c c o r d in g to th e w o r d s o f th e p o e ts a n d to
popular b e lie f, o r w h o h u r ls th e th u n d e r b o lt, n o r o f th e su n g o d w h o b y d a y
drives h is h o rs e s a n d c h a r io t a c r o s s th e sk y lo r e tu r n to h is m o th e r , w ile , a n d
ch ildren in th e e v e n in g .
A n d yet th e s e o nla, ‘ th in g s th a t a r e ’ , a r e not a u to n o m o u s . T h e b e g in n in g o f
everyth in g is th e in fin ite , apeiron, im m e a s u r a b le , u n d iv id e d , in e x h a u s t ib le ; it
en co m p asse s e v e r y t h in g , g u id e s e v e r y t h in g , a n d is im m o r ta l a n d n ot a g e in g ,
it is d iv in e .” T h u s th e H o m e r ic p r e d ic a te s o f th e g o d s a r c p r e s e r v e d a n d
tran sferred to a first a n d h ig h e st s u b je c t ; y e t in p la c e o f m y th ic a l d iv in e
p erso n alities th ere s t a n d s a n e u te r : th e d iv in e , iheion. I ts d iv in it y c o n s is t s , in
true G r e e k c o n c e p tio n , in its e t e r n it y a n d its p o w e r. W h a t g u id e s e v e r y th in g
*s in eiTeci o m n ip o te n t . H o w th is w o r k s in d e ta il w e a r e n o t to ld . Y e t th is
much is s ta te d : o u r w o rld in w h ic h fla m e a n d v a p o u r , m o ist a n d d r y , e a rth
and sea r e c ip r o c a lly try to o u s t a n d se t lim its to o n e a n o t h e r , is e m b r a c e d by
som eth in g h ig h e r ; th a t fro m w h ic h th in g s a r is e is th a t in to w h ic h d e s tr u c tio n
loo takes p la c e ‘ a c c o r d in g 10 n e c e s s it y ; fo r th e y p a y p e n a lty a n d r e t r ib u tio n
to o n e a n o th e r fo r th e in ju s tic e in a c c o r d a n c e w ith ih e a s s e s s m e n t o f tim e .,ci
T h is fa m o u s s e n te n c e p r e s e r v e s a t le a st in p a r t th e a u t h o r ’ s o w n w o r d s . A
j^odcl fo r th e a s s e s s m e n t o f tim e is g iv e n b y th e c o u rs e o f th e y e a r- d a y d o e s
•QjUstice to n ig h t in s u m m e r , n ig h t to d a y in w in te r , v e t th e o n e m u st m a k e
P^m lully e x a c t a m e n d s to th e o th e r for th e in frin g e m e n t. T h is is b o ld ly g e n e ra l-
all b ein g s ta n d s in th e tim e b etw een co m in g -to -b e a n d p a ss in g a w a y , b u i
c p a ss in g a w a y w h ic h n o th in g c a n e s c a p e is th e p e n a lty fo r e n c r o a c h m e n t s
*Ss°c ia t c d w ith e v e r y g r o w th . B e y o n d c o m in g -to -b e a n d p a s s in g a w a y th e re
lhe d iv in e , in fin ite ly s u p e r io r ; w ith r e g a r d to th is m a n c a n u n d e r s t a n d
a c c e p t a ll th a t is h a p p e n in g , in c lu d in g h is o w n d e s t r u c t io n , a s la w fu lly
3 o8 p h il o s o p h ic a l r e l ig io n
o r d a in e d . S u c h a n a lt it u d e is p ie ty o f a fo rm w h ic h is n o l to o fa r r c m &
fro m th c H o m e r ic im a g e o f th e g o d s, s o v e re ig n a n d a lo o f. T h e r e is n o p c ,'V*
to p e rso n re la tio n a n y m o r e ; h u t in its p la c e th is a ll- e m b r a c in g , n ever a o f l
b e g in n in g p r o m is e s a s e c u r ity fro m w h ic h n o th in g c a n fa ll a w a y . H on
gods aban d o n th e m o r ta ls : w h a t p a ss e s a w a y r e m a in s in c lu d e d in ¿
u n iv e r s e .
A n a x im e n e s '" p u rs u e d the p r in c ip le o f s p e a k in g a b o u t w h a t is i m m e d ü | ^ H
g iv e n w ith e v e n m o re c o n s is t e n c y . In p la c e o f the o th e r w o r ld ly i n f i n i t e s ®
p o s its a s a b e g in n in g th e a ir o r r a th e r v a p o u r , aer. F ro m th is th ere m
th ro u g h c o n d e n s a tio n a n d ra r é fa c t io n ‘ w h a t w a s , w h a t is a n d w h a t will
g o d s a n d the d iv in e o n e s ’ . " In th is he is o b v io u s ly s e e k in g fo r a <ornproiftjS B
w ith tr a d itio n a l fo rm s o f s p e a k in g : th ere m a y b c a p lu r a lit y o f gods and
d iv in e p h e n o m e n a , in c lu d in g p e r h a p s H e lio s , th e s u n : y e t w h a t h a s cp 3 |
to bc is in p r in c ip le d e stin e d to p a ss a w a y ; a b o v e e v e r y t h in g .stands the
im p e r io u s b e g in n in g ; w h a t is g e n e r a lly k n o w n is s u r p a s s e d b y w h a t th e wi»c
m a n re c o g n iz e s.
T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h a p o s itio n w e re s p e lle d o u t b y X e n o p h a n e « of
C o lo p h o n w h o a t th e s a m e tim e , p o p u la r iz e d a n d d is s e m in a te d h is th eses (u
a p o et a n d r h a p s o d e .1* T h i s m ea n t re c o u r s e to p o e tic fo rm o n ce a g a in , vet in
p o le m ic a l s ty le . ‘ O n e g o d is g r e a te s t a m o n g g o d s a n d m e n .’ W h a t so u n d s lû t
m o n o th e ism is n e v e rth e le s s d r a w in g o n e n t ir e ly c u s t o m a r y fo rm u la e : one n
th e g r e a te st a n d fo r th at v e n r e a s o n is not a lo n e .'1 I h e g o d is not sim ila r to
m o rta l m en in e ith e r s h a p e o r th o u g h t. H e is im m o v a b le , fo r ‘ it is not tilting1 »
fo r h im to g o now h ith e r, n o w th it h e r .1' T h u s , for th e first tim e , spcakiqg**
a b o u t th e d iv in e is d o m in a t e d b y p o s tu la te s o f w h a t is fittin g . W h a t rem ain*
to th e g o d is th in k in g , c o m p r e h e n d in g . T h e w ise m a n w h o d is d a in s a i h l c t c l ? !
is s till p r o je c tin g h im s e lf in to his im a g e o f g o d : A s w h o le h e s e e s , a s w hole he
c o m p r e h e n d s , a s w h o le h e h e a r s ; . . . fa r fro m toil he s h a k e s a ll th in g s with
th e th o u g h t o f h is m i n d . " H o m e r ’ s Z e u s w h o sh o o k O ly m p u s w ith a nod’M
h is h e a d is left fa r b e h in d . A ris t o tle a s s e r t s th a t X e n o p h a n e s h a d ‘ looked up
to th e sk y a n d th u s c a lle d th e o n e (th e u n iv e rse ) g o d ’ .1 B u t X e n o p h a n e s out)',
d r a w s to g e th e r w h a t A n a x im a n d r o s a n d A n a x im e n e s h ad ta u g h t. T h e Hivinr
b e g in in n in g w h ic h e m b r a c e s e v e r y th in g a n d g u id e s e v e r y th in g , fro m whieh
e v e i v th in g p r o c e e d s , in c lu d in g g o d s a n d th in g s d iv in e , is in fa ct th e O n e, Ute
g r e a te s t ol a ll. T h c o r ig in a l c o n trib u tio n lies in th e c o n c e p t o f if lin k iw
« o m p ir h c r i.sio n . Mous: th e q u e s tio n o f h o w th e d iv in e c a n g u id e e v e r y t h in g 13,
th e r e b y a n s w e r e d . A h u m a n n o -s o o n e r - th o u g h t -th a n -d o n e is in te n sifie d
«lie id e a o f d iv in e id e n tity o f th o u g h t a n d a c tio n . T h e c o n c e p t o í 111**1«
in tr o d u c e d in to th e o lo g y In X e n o p h a n e s h as r e m a in e d d o m in a n t t h e r e · · · ·
X e n o p h a n e s c o m b in e s th is th e o lo g y w ith fie rce p o le m ic s a g a in st
im m o r a lity «>1 th e g o d s o f H o m e r a n d H e s io d ,,B a n d w ith a p c n c l W j M
r e fu ta tio n o f a n t h r o p o m o r p h is m . I f they c o u ld p a in t, he s a y s , h o rses vVoUWJ
p a in t th e fo rm s o f th e g o d s lik e h o rs e s , a n d c a tt le lik e c a t t le ’ : fo r
E t h io p ia n s s a y th eir g o d s a r e sn u b -n o s e d a n d b la c k , th e T h r a c i a n s tha*
T H E N E W F O U N D A T IO N : B E IN G AN D T H E D IV IN E 30Ù
o r c c is c c o m p r e h e n s io n o f r e a lit y w o u ld n ot le a d a w a y fro m th c g o d s
n '° rc '^ .r , j , e p ic n t itu d c o f th c d iv in e in te llig ib le . 'E v e r y t h in g is fu ll o f g o d s ,'
les is a lr e a d y s a id to h a v e s t a t e d :» th e y a r e n o t e n c lo se d b y th e w a lls
** s a „ c tu a r y . O n ly a n t h r o p o m o r p h is m p r o v e d to b c a fe tte r w h ic h h a d to
°^ 3 [ a w a y . H o m e r ’ s g o d s w e r e e v e r la s tin g , g r e a t a n d b e a u t ifu l, th e y w e re
^ S t r o n g e r O n e s , th c b e g in n in g a n d c a u s e o f w h a t h a p p e n e d to h u m a n s .
th ere s ta n d s a s th c o r ig in o f a ll b e in g th c d iv in e , e t e r n a l, in e x h a u s tib le ,
^ " ' p o t e n t , a n d o m n is c ie n t. I n p la c c o f th e b e h o ld in g o f fe s t iv a ls o f th c g o d s
is th e b e h o ld in g o f th c w e ll o r d e r e d c o s m o s o f th in g s th a t a r e , s till
Hed b y s a m e w o r d , thioria. T h is in v o lv e s r e s tr a in t o f in d iv id u a l w ish e s ,
t w in g in te g r a t io n , re c o g n itio n e v e n o f d e s t r u c t io n . S o fa r th e re c o u ld
tu ally b c a c o n ,‘ n u ' , y tu stb ti*. A n d y e t th c r e c ip r o c it y o f chans w a s
plissing· W h o c o u ld s till s a y th a t th c d iv in e c a r e s fo r m a n , fo r th e in d iv id u a l
o n « ” H e re a w o u n d w a s o p e n e d in p r a c tic a l re lig io n w h ic h w o u ld n e v e r
ΠΊ3*'·
close a g a in .
2 THE c r is is : s o p h ist s a n d a t h e is t s
r d to h a v e b e e n t h e f i r s i t o f o r m u l a i c t h i s a n t i t h e s i s a b o u t 440 b c .: th e
lid th«· u n j u s t , t h e u g l y a n d t h e b e a u t i f u l a r e n o t d e f i n e d b y physis b u t b y
ju*ta ,) y a r b i t r a r i l y c h a n g i n g h u m a n c o n v e n t i o n . ' "
SSt it w a s on tr a d itio n , nomos, th at re lig io n p r im a r ily re ste d , a s th e G r e e k s
^ts fo u n d a tio n s w e r e seen to b e th re a te n e d , a t le a st in th e o ry , a s a
* * ; 0 f th e q u e s tio n in g i»f nomos. It w a s p o s s ib le , o f co u r se , to u n d e r ta k e a
*** j d e fen ce o f tra d itio n b y id e n tify in g o n e s e lf w h o le h e a rte d ly w ith nomos.
r*î , a lr e a d y p r o v id e d th e c a tc h w o r d w ith th e lin e th a t b e g a n o n e o f
• n o em s, ‘ N o m o s , k in g o f a ll. o f m o rta ls a n d im m o r ta ls .’ " th is is n o w
j rDrc-tcd a s , ‘ th ro u g h nomos w e b e lie v e in g o d s a n d liv e , in th at w e
distin guish w ro n g a n d r ig h t .,,J B u t th e g o d s a r e n o lo n g e r p a rt o f the
^ q u e s tio n e d n e c e s sity o f b e in g .
T h e m ost im p o rta n t th e o re tic a l s ta te m e n t c o m e s a g a in fro m P r o ta g o r a s .
Only the w e ig h ty first s e n te n c e o f h is b ook On Cods h a s s u r v iv e d : ‘ A b o u t the
gods I ca n n o t s a y e ith e r th a t th e y a r e o r th a t th e y a r e n ot, n o r h o w th e y a re
ijonsthuted in s h a p e ; fo r th e re is m u c h w h ic h p r e v e n ts k n o w le d g e , th e
unclarity o f th e s u b je c t a n d th e s h o rtn e ss o f h u m a n life .” 1 T h is m a y see m a
restrained fo r m u la tio n , b u t it h a d d e e p ly u n s e ttlin g ciTccts. It is s a id th at
P ro tagoras w a s p u t o n tria l a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , th a t h e e s c a p e d b y flig h t a n d in
50 doing w a s fitt in g ly d ro w n e d a t s e a , b u t th a t th e b o o k w a s p u b lic ly b u rn e d
in A th e n s .'4 C e r t a in ly suc h m e a s u re s w e re ta k e n , i f a t a ll, s e v e r a l d e c a d e s
after P r o ta g o ra s ’ first a p p e a r a n c e , a s in th e c a s e o f A n a x a g o r a s . W h a t
P ro tag oras h ad d o n e w a s to a p p ly th e E le a t ic d ic h o to m y of b e in g o r not-
bcing to th e o lo g y , a n d the a n s w e r w a s a n e ith e r-n o r: th e a c tu a lity o f g o d s is
not g iv e n , it is u n c le a r , a n d h e n c e c a n n o t b e th e o b je c t o f a n y k n o w le d g e . In
another, e p iste m o ló g ic a ! tr e a t is e P r o ta g o r a s h ad e s ta b lis h e d th e r e la tiv is m o f
truth on p r in c ip ie : w h a te v e r a p p e a r s to s o m e o n e to b e th e c a s e , is so , b u t
only for h im . T h e m e a s u r e o f a ll th in g s is m a n , fo r th in g s th a t a r e th a t th ey
a re, for th in g s th a t a r e not th a t th ey a re n o t.” 5 W h a t is g iv e n in th is w a y
cannot b c g o d . fo r g o d w o u ld h a v e to be th e s tr o n g e r o n e . the a b s o lu te . T h u s
the u n c la rity r e m a in s im p e n e tr a b le .
A sta te m e n t o f th is k in d , lik e X e n o p h a n e s ’ c ritic is m o f th e g o d s , h a s the
ch aracteristic th a t o n c e u tte re d it ca n n o t b e ta k e n b a c k a n d c a n n o t be
refuted. E v e n H e ro d o tu s e s s e n tia lly a g r e e s w ith P r o ta g o r a s : ‘ a ll m en k n o w
d u a l ly m u c h a b o u t th e g o d s ,’ ’ " th at is to s a y , a ll k n o w n o th in g fo r c e r ta in ,
and for this re a s o n H e r o d o tu s p re fe r s not to d is c u s s E g y p tia n theologia. H o w
•c gods a re c o n s titu te d in s h a p e h a s b een d e te rm in e d fo r th e G r e e k s b y
TOcr and H e s io d ;’ 7 b u t th is is a fa b r ic a tio n o f th e p o ets. F o r so m u c h is
ttain . th a t g o d s c a n n o t b e o f h u m a n s h a p e .
1 Vvas c le a r n e v e rth e le s s th a t th e old re fe re n c e to th e ‘ lies o f th e poets* w a s
p»fficient 10 s e ttle th e p r o b le m o f re lig io n . In th e p e rio d fro m a b o u t 4 3 0 to
*odikos, D e m o c ritu s a n d K r it ia s c a m e fo rw ard w ith m o re refined a n sw e rs
•p C clUcst'° n a s to h ow m en h ad a rriv e d at th e id e a th at th ere a re g o d s. I hc
is' ta^orcan th esis th a t th e g o d s a re u n c le ar, that th eir ex iste n ce is p ro b le m a tic,
^resuP po scd a s a m a tte r o f co u rse . P ro d ik o s. ta k in g la n g u a g e a s his sta rtin g -
'i 14 P H IL O S O P H IC A L R E L IG IO N y jjj
p o in t, s e e k s to c o m p re h e n d tilin g s on th c b a s is o f th e ir n a m e s; lo r liim j A
q u e s tio n ta k e s th c fo rm , h ow d id m en co m e to u se the n a m e s o f g o d s >1!> r a
s p e c u la t iv e a c c o u n t o f th e p r im itiv e s ta te o f m a n k in d a n d th e d c v d o p m H *
c u lt u r e h e g iv e s a d o u b le a n s w e r to ih e q u e s tio n ; ai first th e tilin g s , I. j
p e o p le c a lle d go d a n d w o r sh ip p e d a c c o rd in g ly w e r e th e th in g s th at (h ** 1
fo u n d 10 b c e x c e p t io n a lly u se fu l, su n a n d in o o n , s p r in g s a n d r iv e rs ; nn/ist
a s su c h w a s w o rs h ip p e d a s P o se id o n , tire a s H e p h a isto s . T h e n m en and
w o m e n w a n d e r in g a b o u t a n d te a c h in g , p ro to -s o p h is ts a s it w e re , broti | j
p r o g r e s s , in tr o d u c e d n ew c u lt iv a t e d p la n ts a n d w e re h e n ce fo rth rev e red a i ·
g o d s; D e m e te r b ro u g h t c o rn . D io n y s o s b ro u g h t w in e. M y t h s o f t h e a rriv a l n|
g o d s a r e r e d u c e d to a h isto ric a l c o r e ; c u lt b e c o m e s a m e m o ria l s erv ier
U s e fu ln e s s a n d p ro g re s s a r e th e c rit e ria . T h e o p p o s itio n to the esta b lish ed
r e lig io n is a c u te : th c a c c e p te d g o d s n e ith e r e x is t n o r a re th ey th e o b ject oí
k n o w le d g e .
D e m o c ritu s o f A b d c r a . w h o se a to m ic th e o ry w a s to b e so im p o rta n t Tor th e· I
d e v e lo p m e n t o f p h y s ic s , a ls o re la te s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f relig io n to a
s p e c u la t iv e h isto ry o f m a n k in d , b u l lie a llo w s fe elin g a n d in tu itio n to speak in
p la c e o f c o n s id e ra tio n s o f u se fu ln e ss. M e n s a w w h a t h a p p e n e d in the xkv
th u n d e r a n d lig h tn in g , e c lip se s o f t h e su n a n d m o o n , a n d th ey w e re terrified
a n d b e lie v e d h ig h e r p o w e rs w e re a t w o rk th ere ; b u t th ey a ls o s a w how the
r e g u la r s u c c e s sio n o f s e a so n s d e p e n d s on th e s k y , th ey re c o g n iz e d its law s
a n d re v e re d the p o w e r w h ic h h a d o rd a in e d th em . 'S o m e o f t h e m en w h o were
a b le to s a y s o m e th in g s tre tc h e d o u t th eir h a n d s th ith e r w h e r e w e G re e k s now
s p e a k o f " a i r " , a n d th u s th e y c a lle d th e w h o le “ Z e u s ” ; a n d th ey sa id : lie
k n o w s e v e r y th in g , h e g iv e s a n d ta k e s, h e is k in g o f e v e r y t h in g .” 0 T h u s leur
on th c o n e h a n d , a n d in sig h t in to o r d e r on the o th e r, le a d s s p o n ta n e o u sly to
th e g e s tu r e o f v e n e r a t io n , a n d th c m y th ic a l n a m e is q u ic k ly g iv e n . But
p h ilo s o p h y e x p la in s lig h t n in g a n d s o la r e c lip s e s in a q u ite d iffe re n t, n atural
w a y , a n d th c c o s m ic o r d e r is a c o n s tru c t o f tra n sito r y c h a n c e in th e th eory of
a to m is m . W h a t r e m a in s o f r e lig io n is its e m o tio n a l v a lu e a n d p e rh a p s a first
s ta g e o f tru e in sig h t; b u t in re a lity n e c e s sity h a s o r d a in e d in a d v a n c e w hill
w a s , w h a t is, a n d w h a t w ill be.
D e m o c r itu s a ls o h a s a th eo ry to e x p la in s u b je c t iv e re lig io u s expériences»
e s p e c ia lly d r e a m s a n d v is io n s in w h ic h ev e n g o d s a s th c p o ets d e s c rib e them
c a n a p p e a r : th ese a p p e a r a n c e s a r e not ju st n o th in g , n o r a re th e y h e ra ld s of
s o m e h ig h e r r e a lity ; th e y a r c eidola, p h a n to m s , c o n tin g e n t c o n fig u ra tio n s of
a to m s w h ic h h a v e s e p a r a t e d th e m s e lv e s fro m re a l fig u re s a n d p e r h a p s h a ',f
a ls o c h a n g e d th e ir s h a p e s . T h e y c a n te rrify a n d h a rm o r e ls e b e h elp fu l
o th e r th in g s w h ic h b e fa ll m e n .'1 Y e t th e y c o n ta in n o th in g w h ic h t r a n s c e n d *
th e lev e l o f n o rm a l r e a lity , o f n a t u r e in g e n e r a l; th e ir a p p e a r a n c e o f m ean in g ·
fu ln e s s is v a in .
M u c h m o re d a n g e r o u s is th c th e o ry w h ic h d e r iv e s re lig io n from * 1
c o n s c io u s a n d p u r p o s iv e lie. T h is w a s e x p o u n d e d in a d r a m a a ttrib u te d Ie
e ith e r E u r ip id e s o r K r i t i a s / 1 O n c e m o re th c o rig in o f c u ltu re fo rm s
fr a m e w o r k . In th c b e g in n in g th c life o f m a n w a s u n re g u la te d a n d bruti**1.
F J T H E C R IS IS : S O P H IS T S A N D A T H E IS T S 3 15
ψ n id i s e i u p la w s so th a t la w s h o u ld b c ty r a n t. Y e t s c c rc t e v il-d o e rs
E ; iiin cd u n p u n is h e d . T h e n a c le v e r m a n in v e n te d le a r o f th e g o d s : he
fCl11' ad cd m en th a t th e re w a s a dawion p u ffed u p w ith im p e r is h a b le life w h o
S 6** a n d s e e s w ith his m in d , a n d to w h o m n o th in g th a t a n y o n e s a y s , d o es,
ih in k s is u n k n o w n ; a s a d w e llin g p la c e he a llo tte d th ese g o d s th e s p h e re
,o r w h e n ce b o th te rr o r a n d g a in c o m e to m e n , th a t is, th c s k y .
^ °H c rc c a r ^ c r m o t*^s seem s k ilfu lly b ro u g h t to g e th e r a n d e la b o r a te d :
‘ die te rro r a n d g a in th a t c o m e fro m th e s k y . D e m o c ritu s a n d P ro d ik o s a r e
in »lied : th e w is e o r d e r o f tim e is a ls o m e n tio n e d . T h e g o d o f X e n o p h a n e s ,
*vbû ‘ h ea rs a n d s e c s w ith h is m in d ’ is ta k e n as a p a r a d ig m o f g o d a s su c h . B u t
. k ,l0 l s p o n ta n e o u s e x p e r ie n c e o r co g n itio n w h ic h le a d s to re lig io n , but
¿lever c a lc u la tio n o n the p a rt o f a la w -g iv c r . It is not s ta te d th a t h e a c ts from
selfish m o tiv e s o r in th c in te re st o f ih c ru lin g c la s s ; h e is s tr iv in g to e n fo rc e
respect fo r thc la w w ith o u t e x c e p t io n ; thc n e w d o c trin e ev e n d e lig h ts m en .
And yet it is a h e w h ic h v e ils th e tru th . A c c o r d in g ly , th c tru th w o u ld b e that
there a r c n o g o d s a n d th a t n o u n ju s t m a n h a s a n y t h in g to fe a r in so fa r a s he
can esca p e th e h u m a n g u a r d ia n s o f la w a n d o rd e r.
W ith P r o ta g o r a s , P ro d ik o s, a n d K r it ia s th e o re tic a l a th e is m a p p e a r s a t
least a s a p o s s ib ility , a n d e v e n i f it is not d ir e c tly e x p r e s s e d , n e ith e r c a n it be
overlooked o r e lim in a t e d .'3 T h e d is c o v e r y o f a th e is m ca n be seen to b c o n e o f
thc m ost im p o r ta n t ev e n ts in th e h isto ry o f re lig io n . B u t o f c o u rse o n e m u st
draw d istin ctio n s. T h a t th e e x is te n c e o f th c g o d s ca n b c d o u b te d is a lre a d y
implied in th e p io u s e x c la m a t io n in H o m e r ’s Odyssey', ‘ then y o u a r e still
existent, yo u g o d s on tall O ly m p u s , i f tru ly th e s u ito rs h a v e p a id fo r th e ir
unseem ly w a n t o n n c s s .'34 T h a t c e rta in p e o p le a c t a s i f th e g o d s w e re n o w h e re
is stated in the Persians o f A e s c h y lu s , p r o d u c e d in 4 7 2 .1,5 W h en T h u c y d id e s
writes th at at th e tim e o f th e p la g u e th e fe a r o f th e g o d s b ro k e d o w n b e c a u se
the pious a s w ell a s th e im p io u s w e r e see n to d ie , he is o n ly d e s c r ib in g w h a t
could a lw a y s h a p p e n in a c r i s i s / ' P la to is o f the o p in io n th at the m a jo rit y o f
men s u b sc rib e to p r a c tic a l a th e is m .’'7 B u t c o n s c io u s a ffro n t to re lig io n ,
derision o f the p io u s a n d th eir c u lt, o n ly fo u n d a th e o re tica l b a c k g ro u n d in
the a g e o f th c s o p h is ts .,B In th e tre a tise o f a d o c to r w h o see k s to e x p la in the
psychological d is tu r b a n c e s o f a d o le sc e n t g irls in a n a t u r a l w a y w'c re a d :
T h e n the w o m e n d e d ic a te to A r te m is e v e r y th in g c o n c e iv a b le , ev e n th e m ost
Costly g a r m e n ts , at th e in s tig a tio n o f ih c s e e rs: th u s th ey a re d e c e i v e d . I n
A risto p h an es a g a r la n d - m a k e r c o m p la in s th a t E u r ip id e s h a s p e rsu a d e d
JJ'eryo n c th at th e re a r e n o g o d s a n d so h a s ru in e d h e r b u s in e s s .’0 T h e poet
•nesia.s a n d h is c o m p a n io n s fo rm a c lu b o f kakodaimonislai w h ic h m e e ts on
Jjnlucky d a y s fo r a c o m m u n a l m c a P - y e t in th is w a y p ro v o c a tio n re m a in s
pendent u p o n e x is tin g c u sto m a n d a lm o s t tu rn s in to p r iv a t e m y ste rie s.
cr* in th e c a s e o f th e p r o fa n a tio n o f th e m y ste rie s in 4 1 5 , w h ic h d e stro y e d
c Career o f A lc ib ia d e s in A th e n s , it is u n c le a r w h e th e r th is w a s w a n to n
PjJ^ody o f ih c E lc u s in ia n rite s, a s m o d ern s c h o la r s m o stly a s s u m e , o r a g ro u p
c°n s p ir a t o r s s w e a r in g in v io la b le s o lid a r ity th ro u g h in itia tio n , a s c o n te m -
^ r ,es seem to h a v e s u s p e c t e d .p A t a n y ra te it is s ig n ific a n t to w h a t e x ten t
3 i6 P H IL O S O P H IC A L R E LIG IO N
p e r s o n a l w h im c o u ld n o w p la y a ro le e v e n in th e re a lm o f re lig io n . /\, 5
s a m e tim e , th e c o n te n d in g d o c t r in e s o f n a t u r a l p h ilo s o p h y m u s t, by ,L*lfK
v e r y v a r i e t y , h a v e h a d a p r e d o m in a n tly n e g a tiv e e ffe c t. In th e C/o J j ' r
A r is t o p h a n e s , p e rfo rm e d in 4 2 3 . a n u n h o ly a llia n c e o f s o p h is tr y a n d n ai f>*
p h ilo s o p h y , o f P r o t a g o r a s a n d D io g e n e s o f A p o llo n ia , is p re s e n te d under 1
m a sk o f S o c r a t e s : in h is th in k e r ’ s s h o p w h e r e w r o n g is m a d e r ig h t , ih ç
a r e tu» lo n g e r u s a b le c o in a g e : it is n ot Z e u s w h o r a in s a n d s e n d s l i g h in in i M ^ ^
th e c lo u d s , a n d o v e r th e m r u le s th e a ll- m o v in g v o r te x , dinos. 1Dinos is kin » k*
h a s o v e r t h r o w n Z e u s . ’ *1 A t th e en d o f th e c o m c d y th e p r o ta g o n is t re tu rn * C
th e o ld g o d s a n d b u rn s th e a th e is ts in th e ir o w n h o u se ; th is is no l o n J ! 9
fu n n y . T h e q u e s tio n in g o f th e g(>ds' e x is te n c e b e c a m e a t r a g ic th e m e in a | S m |
p la y o f E u r ip id e s : B e lle r o p h o n t e s , fin d in g th a t e v il-d o e r s th riv e while
p io u s a r c h e lp le s s , c a n n o lo n g e r b e lie v e in th e e x is te n c e o f th e g o d s ; h e w an n
to a r r iv e a t c e r ta in ty b y a s c e n d in g to th e s k y w ith h is w in g e d h o rs e P cg a ay ,
y e t th e o u t c o m e is not k n o w le d g e b u t a la ll to d e s t r u c t io n a n d m a d n e s s ^ '
T h e m o st p r o m in e n t a th e is t o f th e fifth c e n tu r y s e e m s to h a v e hecit
D i a g o r a s o f M e l o s , ' ’ n ot a p h ilo s o p h e r o r th e o r e tic ia n b u t a p o e t; la te r it w*»
a p h ilo lo g is t s ’ jo k e to q u o te p io u s h y m n s to th e g o d s fro m h is otuvrt, H it
a th e is m , h o w e v e r , is k n o w n o n ly th ro u g h a n e c d o te s . In S a m o t h r a c e , in face
o f th e m a n y c o s tly v o t iv e gifLs set u p to th e G r e a t G o d s fo r s a lv a t io n from tlȍ
p e r ils o f th e s e a , h e s a id th a t th e s e w o u ld h a v e b ee n a g r e a t d e a l more
n u m e r o u s i f a ll th o se w h o h a d d r o w n e d h a d a ls o b ee n a b le to s e t o n e u p .*
B e l i e f in m ir a c le s is re fu te d b y s ta tis t ic s . D ia g o r a s r e v e a le d th e E leusiniai)
m y s t e r ie s to e v e r y o n e ’ a n d th u s m a d e th em o r d in a r y ’ . 17 In th e ligh t o f day
th e n o c tu r n a l c e r e m o n ie s a r e n o th in g . O n a c c o u n t o f th is D ia g o ra s was
in d ic te d fo r asebeia in A th e n s ; h e e s c a p e d p u n is h m e n t, a lt h o u g h a sea rch
se t in m o tio n fo r h im th r o u g h o u t th e A t h e n ia n e m p ire .
T he tr ia ls fo r astbeia w h ic h h ad lo n g b ee n p o s s ib le ’ “ ta k e on a new
d im e n s io n w h e n c o n fr o n te d w ith a th e is m . F ro m th e h e lp le s s n e s s o f thosr
w h o w ish to h o ld on to tr a d itio n th e re s p r in g s a n ir r ita tio n w h ic h can be
d a n g e r o u s , e s p e c ia lly i f p o litic a l o r p e r s o n a l m o tiv e s a r e in v o lv e d «·>
c a t a ly s t s . I h e a c tio n a g a in s t D ia g o r a s w a s b a s e d 011 the p ro fa n a t io n o f thr
m y s t e r ie s . B u t a b o u t 4 3 8 (?) o n e D io p c it h e s . a s e e r, w a s a b le 10 carry
th r o u g h a n o v e l d e c r e e o f fa r - r e a c h in g c o n s é q u e n c e s : o n e s h o u ld denoUtlCC
th o se w h o d o not b e lie v e in th e d iv in e b e in g s (la Ihcia) o r te a c h doctruics
about th in g s in th e s k y . ’ ’" It w a s k n o w n th a t th is w a s d ir e c te d against
A n axag o ras and w a s m e a n t to h a rm P e ric le s . A n a x a g o r a s ' m o si famuli
a s s e r t io n w a s th a t H e lio s , lik e o th e r h e a v e n ly b o d ie s , is a g lo w in g lum p θΓ
m e t a l, a s the la ll o f a m e te o rite in 4 6 7 h a d p r o v e d to h im . N o w s u c h dotit { $ 9
w e r e to b e fo r b id d e n b y th e s ta te . A n a x a g o r a s h a d b ee n te a c h in g in All·*·1
fo r 3 0 y e a r s ; he n o w left th e c ity . T h e r e a ft e r , a s fa r a s w e k n o w , th e (lr c * J Î
w a s n o lo n g e r u s e d , a n d s e e m s to h a v e p a s s e d in to o b liv io n . B u t th e confb
b e tw e e n p ie ty a n d n a t u r a l s c ie n c e , a n d in d e e d w is d o m o f a ll k in d s , h ad
to s t a y ; it r e - e c h o e s in th e Clouds o f A r is t o p h a n e s a s it d o e s in E u r i p i d i » * ·
T h e a c tio n s ta k e n in 4 1 3 a g a in s t th o se w h o h a d m u t ila te d the h c rm s A W B
f J I THE DELIVERANCE: COSMIC RELIGION A N D METAPHYSICS 317
P tr cd th e m y s t e r ie s , d e m o n s tr a b le a c ts o f s a c r ile g e w h ic h r a is e d s u s -
o f a p o litic a l c o n s p ir a c y a n d th u s c r e a t c d a n a tm o s p h e r e o f c iv il w a r .
p ic i° 0 p asebeia in th e o ld s t y le T h e r e w e r e m a n y e x e c u t i o n s / ' T h e
fr* b ro u g h t a g a in s t S o c r a t e s in 3 9 9 w a s d iffe re n t: ‘ S o c r a t e s d o e s w r o n g
jjt. d o e s n o t b e lie v e in th e g o d s in w h o m th e city b e lie v e s , but
'^ ^ n d u c e s o t h e r d a e m o n ic b e in g s ; h e a ls o d o e s w r o n g b y c o r r u p t in g th e
*4' S o c r a t e s w a s a p io u s m a n in even ,· s e n s e , a c c o r d in g to th e e v id e n c e
.u p ia to a n d X e n o p h o n : h e m a d e s a c r ific e , h e g re e te d th e r is in g su n
th îl P r * y c r . h c a d v is e d X e n o p h o n to c o n s u lt th e D e lp h ic o r a c le , he
eD tcd th e w o rd o f A p o llo th a t n o o n e w a s w is e r th a n S o c r a t e s in a w a y
. t d e te rm in e d th e c o u rs e o f h is life. W h a t d r o v e h im in to is o la tio n w a s a
unique e x p é r ie n c e w h ic h , fro m o u r p o in t o f v ie w , v e r g e d o n th e p a th o lo g ic a l.
kind o f v o ic e w h ic h in th e m o st v a r io u s s itu a tio n s c o m m a n d e d h im to h a ll,
u n exp ected ly a n d c o m p c llin g ly . H e s a id th a t ‘ s o m e th in g d a e m o n ic ’ , daimon-
iott, had h a p p e n e d to h im ; it w a s p r o b a b ly too m y s t e r io u s e v e n fo r h i m s e lf fo r
him to b c a b le to c a ll it d iv in e . A n o r m a l c iv ic life a n d p o litic a l a c t iv it y w e r e
t h e r e b v m a d e im p o s s ib le fo r h im : a n d w h a t w a s left w a s a n e x is te n c e o f
3 .1 Pre-Socratic Outlines
c o lla p se o f th e a u th o r ity o f th e p o e ts a n d th e m y th a d m in is te r e d b y th em
id not b rin g a n en d to r e lig io n . It w a s too in tim a te ly in te r w o v e n w iih life,
n the c o n tr a n ,'. th e u p s e ttin g o f o ld p a tte r n s c o u ld a c t u a lly h a v e a lib e r-
a l,ng ellect fo r re fle c tio n o n th in g s d iv in e : th e c o n c e p t o f w h a t is fittin g fo r
8°d had b ee n e s ta b lis h e d s in c e X e n o p h a n e s , a n d w ith th e n e w p le a s u r e
¡^ r a d ic a l th o u g h t o n e c o u ld d r a w c o n s e q u e n c e s u n im p e d e d b y t r a d it io n .1
1 rc a r e n o w c e r ta in p o s tu la te s c o n c e r n in g w h a t a g o d m u s t b e i f h e is to
d tr ? ° d : n ot o f h u m a n fo rm (a n th r o p o m o r p h is m is n o lo n g e r s e r io u s ly
^ C n d c d ) , n o t o n ly in d e s t r u c t ib le b u t a ls o u n g e n c r a t e d . s u ffic ie n t to h im s e lf
not in n ee d o f a n y t h in g : th is is h is s tre n g t h a n d h is b liss . G o d a c ts
° ugh h is s p ir it , o m n is c ie n t a n d g u id in g e v e r y t h in g ; b u t w h e th e r h e c a r e s
3 18 P H IL O S O P H IC A L R E L IG IO N
vu
T h e w a y in w h ic h (h e p u r e r c o n c e p t o f g o d c o m c s to p r e v a il th r,
p r a y to s u c h a d e ity ? '
I a m o f th r o p in io n th at th e g o d s n e ith e r se e k s e x u a l re la tio n s
w h ic h a r e n o t a llo w e d , n o r th a t th e y p u t o n e a n o th e r in c h a in s
d id 1 e v e r h o ld to b e c o rre c t, a n d I w ill n e v e r b e lie v e it, n o r that
o n e is m a ste r o v e r th e o th e rs. T h e g o d , i f h e is tru ly g o d , req u ires
n o th in g . T h e rest is th e w re tc h e d w o rd s o f s in g e r s .'
. re a s o n o f th e g o d , a lw a y s a n d th ro u g h o u t . . S in c c a ll th in g s w h ic h
ii>ink , is n a m e d a c c o r d in g to th a t w h ic h p r e v a ils , a ll th in g s
<*.*> w e r e n a m e d “ Z e u s ” a fte r th e s a m e p r in c ip io . F o r o v e r e v e r y th in g
tog1'1 the a>r a s *a r a s *l w is h e s .' T h e w o r ld is d iffe r e n tia te d in th a t in d iv id u a l
tog1-
rulf- s s f p a r a t c th e m s e lv e s olT, y e t Z e u s ro m a in s d o m in a n t . W h e n O r p h e u s
ihin:
^ b c s a s e x u a l a c t o f th e g o d , th is m e a n s th a t th in g s c a m e to g e th e r in
d f 5f
rttionious m ix tu r e s . T h i s a u th o r o n ce m o re o p p o s e s a g e n u in e , p u r e r p ie ty
{0tra d itio___
n aIl p ie ty , ur(iu-h
w h ic h ιisc Pa IV#»
fa lse
C o sm ic th e o lo g y , th e s p e c u la t io n s a b o u t th e psyche, a n d th e c o r r e s p o n d in g
* ^ lo e lu c id a te o r r a th e r p e r v e rt th e s e n s e o f p o e t r y , re m a in e d th e logos o f
* d iv id u a l s o p h is ts o r p h ilo s o p h e r s , to w h ic h o th e r logoi c o u ld a lw a y s be
n o o s e d . N o o n e th e o ry p r e v a ile d ; th ere w e re a s m a n y p h ilo s o p h ie s a s
h ilo sp h ers. Y e t i f a s a c o n s e q u e n c e th e se m u t u a lly n e u tr a liz e d o n e a n o t h e r
to a la rg e e x te n t, th e re r e m a in e d a g e n e r a l e lfe c t, th e c re a tio n o f a ty p ic a l
enlightened a ttit u d e o f th e a v e r a g e e d u c a te d m a n to w a r d s re lig io n . It is
ch aracterized b y th re e p r in c ip le s :'0 F ir s t , th e p o e ts a r e to b e c r it ic iz e d , for
their m y th s a r e , i f u n d e r sto o d lit e r a lly , u n tru e a n d im p io u s . S e c o n d , th ere
arc o u tlin e s o f theologia lo w h ic h o n e m u st s u b s c r ib e , c o n c e r n in g d iv in e
tfiowcr, p e rfe c tio n , a n d s p ir it u a lit y . A n d th ird , th e p r a c tic e o f p ie ty is n o t to
be tou ched, s in c c it is r e g a r d e d a s c o m p a tib le w ith p u r e r p ie ty , in d e e d a s a
dutv. A d a s h o f P r o ta g o r e a n s c e p tic is m is c o m b in e d w ith th e o ld in h e rite d
caution in r e lig io u s a ffa ir s . T h e in te lle c tu a l r e v o lu tio n e n d s in a c o n s e r v a tiv e
attitude.
T h e g r e a t le a d e r in th e s k y , Z e u s , d r iv e s o ut in (Vom in h is winged i
c h a r io t , o r d e r in g a n d c a r in g fo r e v e r y th in g ; h e is fo llo w e d b y th(. 1
host o f g o d s a n d d a e m o n s m a rs h a lle d in e le v e n d iv is io n s
M a n y a n d b le sse d a r e the v ie w s a n d ih e m o v e m e n ts in th e sk y '
w h e r e th e ra c e o f b le sse d g o d s m o v e s, e a ch p e rfo r m in g his ow n
fu n c tio n ; th ere fo llo w s w h o e v e r w ill a n d c a n ; fo r je a lo u s y sta n d s
o u ts id e th e c h o ru s o f th e g o d s. B u t w h e n th e y go to fe ast and
b a n q u e t , th ey tu rn s te e p ly u p w a r d s to th e h ig h e st a r c h o v e r the
h e a v e n s. T h it h e r th e s te e d s o f the g o d s w h ic h , w ell b a la n c e d
o b e y th e rein s a sc e n d w ith c a s e , ih e o th e rs w ith d iffic u lty . F o r ihe
h o rse w h ic h h a s p a rt in w ic k e d n e s s p u lls d o w n w a r d s . . . T h a i
p la c e a b o v e the sk y a s y e t n o n e o f th e e a r th ly p o ets h a s s u n g , a n d
n e v e r w ill o n e s in g ii w o rth ily . . T he u n c o lo u re d , u n sh a p e d
u n to u ch e d b e in g th at tr u ly ‘ is ’ , w h ic h is o n ly to b e b eh eld b y nous.
th e g u id e r o f th e s o u l, th e b e in g w ith w h ic h th e kin d o f tru e
k n o w le d g e h a s to d o , th is is w h a t o c c u p ie s th is p la c e .
„fphilosop1^
T h e s itu a tio n h as b een e n tire ly re v e rse d sin c c ih c d a y s w hen
th in kers th o u g h t o f ih c s ta rs a s w ith o u t so u ls. W o n d e r, th o u g h ,
w as a w a k e n e d even th en , a n d w h a t now re a lly h o ld s w a s
su sp cctcd b y th o se w h o em b a rk e d on e x a c tn e ss : I h at in n o w a y
co u ld the s ta r s a s s o u lle ss th in g s keep so p re cise ly lo m a rv e llo u s
c a lc u la tio n s, i f ih e y d id not p o sse ss in te llig e n c e . S o m e eve n then
•were bold en o u g h 10 v e n tu re this v e ry p ro p o sitio n a n d they sa id
lh a t »I w a s nous l ^iat o rd a in e d e v e ry th in g in ih e s k y . B u t these
v e ry m en w ere d e c e iv e d a b o u t th e n a tu re o f the so u l, n a m e ly ih a i
it is o ld e r th an the b o d ies; th ey im a gin e d it a s y o u n g e r a n d th us
so to sp e a k ru in e d e v e r y th in g , n ay eve n m o re th em selv e s. B u t
n ow , a s w e h a v e s a id , th e situ a tio n is e n tire ly re v e rse d . It is no
longer p o s sib le th at a n y s in g le m o rta l m a n w ill be g o d -fe a rin g fo r
long i f he h a s n o i g ra sp e d th ese tw o p rin c ip le s m en tio n e d , lh a t
the so u l is the o ld est o f e v e ry th in g w h ic h p a r tic ip a te s in co m in g -
to-bc (a n d th a t it is im m o rta l, a n d th at it ru les o v e r a ll b o d ie s ),
an d m o re o v e r (se c o n d ly ) h e m ust g r a s p , a s h as n ow b een said
m ans tim e s, the in te llig e n c e o f b e in g w h ic h is in th e s ta rs , a s
m en tion ed , and in a d d itio n a ls o the n e c e ssa ry p r e lim in a ry
m a th e m a tic a l scien ces.
I
c o s m o s is p e rfe c t in s o fa r a s s o m e th in g c o r p o r e a l c a n a tta in p r r l ^ i j j j B
Λ se c o n d p r in c ip le o f n e c e s s it y , th e n u rs e o f c o m in g -to -b e ', a ls o c a lle d
is a d e te r m in in g a g e n t in a ll th a t is c o r p o r e a l.io T h e c o s m o s is a g o d ju | 3
s h a p e o f a p e rfe c t s p h e r e ,7' g e n e ra t e d y e t im p e r is h a b le a c c o r d in g ui t|P
w ill o f h is c r e a t o r , fo r th e c r e a t o r is u n c o n d it io n a lly g o o d . M a n y i n t e r p r e t » !
o f th e Timaeus, e s p e c ia lly P la t o ’ s im m e d ia te p u p ils , e m p h a s iz e d that ¡2 m
g e n e r a t io n o f th e c o s m o s to o w a s o n ly a m o d e o f p r e s e n t a t io n ', a n
w ith d id a c tic p u r p o s e ; in re a lity ih e c o s m o s m u s t b e u n g e n e r a t e d as w e l l e *
im p e r ish a b le .* *
W ith in th is c o m p r e h e n s iv e g o d fu r th e r v is ib le g o d s a r c c r e a te d in accoMv
a n c e w ith th c p e rfe c t m o d e l, th e s t a r s in th e h e a v e n s .'* I h e fix e d sta rs arc
d iv in e liv in g b e in g s w h ic h m o v e fo r e v e r in th c s a m e w a y in th e s a m e pUcr
‘ v is ib le a n d g e n e r a t e d g o d s',*'4 n ot im m o rta l on p r in c ip le ^ b u t sh a rin g tlir
u n lim ite d d u r a tio n o f th e c o s m o s a s a w h o le . T h c e a rth a r o u n d w h ich t|ir\
r e v o lv e is th e first a n d o ld e s t g o d d e s s w ith in th c h e a v e n '.'6 T h e planr)«.
p a r t ic ip a t e m o re s tr o n g ly in th c p r in c ip le o f t h e O th e r , in c h a n g e . Besidri
o th e r , le s s e r g o d s , daimones a r e in tro d u c e d in a p la y fu lly ir o n ic n o t e ;'7 a s fai m
th e y a r c c o n c c r n c d . o n e m u st listen to th e th é o g o n ie s o f O r p h e u s a n d his lik<
w h o c la im to b e c h ild r e n o f a g o d th e m s e lv e s a n d th e re fo re s h o u ld know,
e v e n i f the> h a v e p r o d u c e d n e ith e r p r o b a b le n o r c o m p e llin g p ro o fs; following
c u s t o m , o n e m a y b e lie v e th e m . T h e s e th en a r c the g o d s o f c u lt , Z e u s together
w ith h is fo r e b e a r s a n d h is fa m ily . T h e s ta tu s o f th e O ly m p ia n s h as sunk
m a r k e d ly . T h e y o u n g g o d s , th e s t a r g o d s , a n d th e tr a d itio n a l g o d s togcthrr
m o u ld th e b o d ie s o f liv in g b e in g s : b e in g m o r ta l, th e se ca n n o t h a v e bri'fl
c r e a t e d b y th e demiouroos h im s e lf. H e re th e a c c o u n t e n te rs in to a p layM
r e la tio n s h ip w ith m y th o lo g y .
In m a n h im s e lf Nous, th e p o w e r o f in te lle c tu a l c o m p r e h e n s io n , is planted
a s s o m e th in g d iv in e , a daimon in m a n .'* H e r a c lit u s ’ s a y in g a b o u t ch a racter
m a n ’ s daimonJ,‘ th u s re c e iv e s a n e w tw ist. I he daimon s p u rp o s e is ‘ to direct US
u p w a r d fro m e a r th to k in s h ip w ith h e a v e n ’ : th e u p r ig h t p o s tu re distinguished·
m a n , p o in tin g h im u p w a r d s : m a n is ro o te d in h e a v e n , a 'p la n t o f h eaven f)tj
e a r t h / " R e t u r n in g to th e d o c t r in e o f m e t e m p s y c h o s is , it is s a id th a t e a ch 5»
h a s its o w n s t a r fro m w h ic h it h a s c o m e a n d to w h ic h it w ill re tu rn , •’i
n u m b e r ol a ll s o u ls r e m a in s c o n s ta n t.
T h e p r o b le m o f d u a lis m r e m a in s u n r e s o lv e d . 'I h e Nous in th e w o rld
a g a in s t n e c e s s it y , ananke; it c a n ra tio n a lly p e rsu ad e n e c e s sity but
a n n ih ila t e it. A s s p a c e , a s ‘ m o th e r o f b e c o m in g ’ , th e c o u n t e r p r in c ip le S o f B ·
to b e o n ly a condilio sine qua non, n o t a n a c t iv e fo rc e . In th e Imws,
e v il w o rld s o u l a p p e a r s w h ic h is e n g a g e d in an e t e rn a l s tr u g g le w ilÄ * ;
'
A R IS T O T L E A N D X E N O C R A T E S ! S P I R I T G O D A N D D EM O N S 32 9
V I I 3· ^ 1.1 « n i l . 1' S in c c th e n m o n is t ic a n d d u a lis t t c te n d e n c ie s h a v e b ee n
V ' j .;r U iS o t . i -
ςιyoo . vVjth e a c h o th e r in P la to n is m .
P la to n ic p r o je c t o ffe rs so m u c h th a t is e v id e n t a n d in tu itiv e
I cn o r m o u s im p a c t is n o t s u r p r is in g . N e v e r b e fo re h a d g o d s b ee n
tlw jn s u c h m a n ife s t c la r it y . T h i s c o u ld b c u n d e r s t o o d , b e lie v e d , a n d
PP ^
" h c d ev e n a p a r t fro m th e s u b tle t ie s o f o n to lo g y a n d th e th e o ry o f id e a s .
ppO1 ,lCla r ity to w h ic h P r o t a g o r a s h ad a p p e a l e d " s e e m e d to h a v e b een
M a n is at h o m e in a w o rld w h ic h is th e best p o s s ib le ; r ig o r o u s
^ ’c a n d r e lig io u s e x a lt a t io n a r e th e s a m e .
R S s f n o s r e lig io n a n d s t a r r e lig io n a r e h e n c e fo rth , e s p e c ia lly in the
II «istic A g e . th e d o m in a n t fo r m o f e n lig h te n e d p ie t y .44 A d m it t e d ly it d o e s
d em an d o r g iv e m u c h a p a r t fro m fe e lin g s o f e la tio n ; in p r a c t ic e th e g o d s
^ co u ld not b c r e p la c e d . C e r t a in ly it w a s a lw a y s p o s s ib le to id e n tify th e
hical w ith th e v is ib le g o d s th ro u g h th e m e th o d o f a lle g o r y .15 T h e S to ic s in
«articular w e re r e s p o n s ib le fo r c a r r y in g th is o u t in a d e ta ile d w a y ; m a n y o f
[heir eq u a tio n s b e c a m e th e c o m m o n p r o p e r ty o f a ll e d u c a te d p e o p le d o w n to
ihc a g e of the B a r o q u e : Z e u s is th e s k y . A p o llo th e s u n , A r te m is th e m o o n ,
Dem elor the e a r th . T h e p la n e ts , w h ic h a r e less o b v io u s to th e la y m a n , fa ile d
«M ith in a s im ila r p o p u la r it y ; y e t a s t r o lo g y , b a s e d o n th e c a lc u la tio n of th e ir
periods b c c a m e fro m th e I.a te H e lle n is tic p e r io d o n w a r d s , a d o m in a n t
spiritual fo rce a s a n ew k in d o f d iv in a t io n w ith s c ie n t ific a p p e a l .3'* W h a t w a s
truly p ro b le m a tic a b o u t th e s u c c e s s o f c o s m ic r e lig io n , its c o n n e c tio n w ith
δ specific s ta g e o f n a t u r a l s c ie n c e th at w o u ld la t e r b e s u p e r s e d e d , led to a n
explosion o n ly s o m e tw o th o u s a n d y e a r s a fte r P la to .
ABBREVIATIO NS
C lass'0 3' w o rk s a r c re fe r re d to b y s t a n d a r d a b b r e v ia t io n s . F o r s e c o n d a r y
Us referre d to s im p ly b y th e a u t h o r 's s u r n a m e , see th e B ib lio g r a p h y a t th e
ead o f the b o o k .
The fo llo w in g a b b r e v ia t e d fo r m s a r c u se d th r o u g h o u t th e n o te s:
4Λ Archäologischer A nzeiger
A&A A ntike und A bendland
AAA Archaiologikà A n à lek la ex Alhenon
AAnlHung Acta A ntiqu a Academ iae Sríentiarum H ungaricae
ABY [. 1). B c a z lc y , A l lie B lack-figu re Vase Painters, O x fo r d , 1 9 5 6
ACI L'A ntiquité classique
AE Archaiologikè Ephem eris
AF L . D c u b n c r , Attische Feste, B e r lin , 1 9 3 2
AJA Am erican Jo u r n a l o f Archaeology
AK A n tike Kunst
AM M itteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische
Abteilung
ANET Ancient N ear Eastern Texts relating to the O ld Testament, ed.
J . B . P r it c h a r d , P r in c e t o n , 2 n d e d n , 1 9 5 5 ; S u p p le m e n t , 19 6 8
AN R IV A u fstieg und N iedergang der Römischen Welt, ed . H . T e m p o r in i,
B e r lin , 1 9 7 2 -
ARV J . D . B e a z le y , Attic Red-figure Vase Painters, O x fo r d , 2 n d e d n , 19 6 3
A M A rch iv f ü r R eligionswissenschaft
AS
A natolian Studies
ASAtene Annuario della Scuola archeologica d i Alene
B ABesch B u lle tin van de Vereeniging tot Bevordering der K ennis van de Antieke
Beschaving
BAC B
B u lletin de l ’Association G u illaum e B u dé
Bch
Bu lletin de correspondence hellénique
Û IC S
Bu lletin o f the Institute o f C lassical Studies o f the U niversity o f London
B jb
Bonner Ja h rb ü ch er
BM c
B ritish M useum , Catalogue o f Greek Coins
340 N O TES
1 A SU R V EY OF S C H O L A R S H IP
- t9 59 ‘ ... . . J'ktk
t6 F u n d a m e n ta l c ritic ism ol this co n c e p t: C . L é v i- S tra u s s , L e totémisme aujQU™
19 6 2 . S e e II i n . 84
17 R .R . M a re tt. ‘ T h e ta b u -in a n a -fo rm u la a s a m in im u m d efin itio n o f religim li
A R W 12 ( 19 09) 18 6 - 9 4 . 1 M
18 G G R 4 7 - 5 0 ; 68f. T h c position o f L u d w ig D c u b n e r ( 18 7 7 - 1 9 4 6 ) , w h o wfcS *
o f A . D iete rich , is s im ila r; cf. A F passim.
19 C o in e d to a p p lv to O ld T e stam en t an d A n cie n t N e a r E a ste rn cV n .j^
S .H H oo k e. M yth and R itu a l: essays on the myth and ritual ofth e Hebrews in relate*
culture pallem o f the ancient Near East. 19 3 3 ; an d Myth, Ritual and Kingship.
T h .H . G a s tc r. Thespis: ritual, myth and drama in the ancient S ea r Fast, «95 ° ^
INTRODUCTION 3*5
'¿6 0 ' ^ J am rS· Myth and Ritual in the Ancient Near East. 1958; C . Kluckhohn,
?Mvt**5 and ritua,s: a 8cncral theory' H ThR 35 (194 2) 45-79. Criticism :
. pontcnrose. The Ritual Theory o j Myth-, 1966; G S. K irk, Myth: Us meaning and
Jfaftions in annent and other cultures, 1970, 12-29 ; cf. H N 29 -34 ; S & H 35-58.
r M urray ( '8 6 6 -19 5 7 ), ‘ Elxcursus 011 the ritual forms preserved in Greek
i° ffCAy' in H arrison (2) 3 4 1-6 3 ; criticism: A. Pickard-Cam bridge, Dithyramb.
and '9 2 7 · ,8 5 - jo 6 (2ntl cdl'. ■9 *’ -. I'.’b -y)
f M Cornford ( 18 7 4 -19 4 3 ). From Religion to Philosophy, 19 12: Principium Sapientiae.
TH E SOURCES
t See V I 2.
2 Sec I I I i.
3 Sizeab le parts o f the H esiodic catalogues have been recovered through n n r j
finds: R . M crkelb ach and M .L . W est, Fragmenta Hesiodea, 1967.
4 W . H orn, Gebet und Gebetsparodie in den Komödien des Aristophanes, 1970.
5 Apollodori Bibliotheca, ed. R W agner, 1894 (2nd edn, 1962); J . G . Fra *
Apollodorus: the library. 19 2 1.
6 F or the study o f these w riters Felix Ja c o b y has provided a new and in d isp en s*Iffl|
foundation: FG rH ist I I I ; cf. F. Ja c o b y . Atthis: the local chronicles o f ancient Λ thru*
«9 4 9 ·
7 M ost im portant are the Aitia and the Hekale o f C allim ach u s. A ll the material U
presented in the C a llim ach u s edition o f R. Pfeiffer (1949).
8 D u al-lan guage edition by H .L . Jo n e s, The Geography o f Strabo, »917. T h e new
critical editions are uncom pleted: F. Sbordone, 1963; W. A ly, 1968-72· p
L asserrc (and others), C oll. Budé 1966.
9 A nnotated edition by H. H itzig and F. Bliim ner, 18 9 6 - 19 10 ; edition by J.Q ,
F razer see I 1 n. 15 .
10 A n earlier annotated collection: I. v. Prott and L . Ziehen, Leges Graecorum Sacratt
titulis collectae I—I I , 18 9 6 -19 0 6 ; now Sokolowski: L S C G , L S A M , LSS. On the
calen d ar see V 2.
η K . Schefold, Griechische Kunst als religiöses Phänomen, 1959.
12 See II 5.
13 See II 2.
14 See I ι η. i Sim on , W alter, H aw kcs.
15 C f. Schefold (19 6 4 ); Fittschen (196 9 ).
16 O n the problem s o f evaluatin g these paintings: A . Rum pf, ‘A ttische Feste -
A ttische V a s e n ’ B Jb 16 1 (19 6 1) 2 0 8 -14 . A survey o f cult scenes is to be found in
T .B .L . W ebster, Potter and Patron in Classical Athens, 1972, 1 2 6 - 5 1.
17 Sittig ( 1 9 1 1 ).
18 In M ycen aean there is only ‘T h e od o ra ’ te-o-do-ra M Y V 659; ‘ A res’ a-re-i-m-oiw
Τ Η Z 849. 8 51 f. is prob ab ly an appellative (see I I I 2. 12 n. 2). Heracles and
D iom edes, who is really a god, are special cases: this leaves on ly ‘ Diokles’ in
H om er.
19 See 111 2.3 n .35; I I I 2.9 n. 20.
20 See I 3.
2 1 See I i.
3 T H E SCOPE OF T H E STUDY
ι Sec I 4.
2 C f. the title o f the book by des Places (19 5 5 ), see I 1 n. 1.
3 Both a p p ear in connection w ith O rphism : see V I 2.
4 //.V 2 2 -8 2 .
5 C f. G .S. K irk , Myth: its meaning andfunctions in ancient and other cultures, tg70 (
Gnomon 44 ( 1972) 2 2 5 -3 0 ); The Nature o f Greek Myths, 1974; H N 29 -3 4 ; S & H ·
theoretical discussion concerning the nature and concept o f m yth co O u Jj·^
especially in debate with L évi-Strau ss (see 1 n. 28); cf. P. M aran d a l β
IN T R O D U C T IO N 34 ^
2 INDO-EUROPEAN
I 8:l Jtns te> ipopài itsptu flts mda-turaprrm Ι - Ι Γ 1, 196 8-73. Criticism : Schlerath
ft1*""."1 ,)· AHoldi (sec n. 20) 54 f.
,ur drs «mlruskischrn RSnunlaalts, 1974.
JU * „ ,m plc: R Pettazzoni. l.es deux sources <lr la religion grequc' Mnimotynt
** ¿,( 195') ' ” *,¡n [hc [rl|l. scnsr has not been shown lo have existed anywhere in
f J W*tnar J N e3f Eastern prehistory, and to this extent, in spite o f Bacholen
M e f3? and Engels orthodoxy, it plays no role in the history o f Greek religion,
m) T th e position o f the wom an in Minoan Crete w as different from that in the
' “ k olis T h e role o f goddesses and ihe temporary dominance o f women in
P ?l myth is 10 be explained in a different w ay, structurally and
r" ua^logically; cf. S. Pembroke. 'W omen in charge: the function οΓ alternatives
f 5 rly Greek tradition and the ancient idea o f m atriarchy’ , Journal of thr Warburg
'"J'ceurtauM Institutis 30 (1967) 1- 35 · //V +*· 8°
Sce I I I 3 · · " ' 4 : 1 3 ·6 ·
Sec IV 3 nn. 27 -β .
See I 4 · n. 45 ! B u rk c rt. Grazer Beiträge 4 ( 19 7 5 ) 7 5 - 7
5 Se* I I I 2 .1 η . 1 1 .
- P K reisc h m er. Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache, 189 b, 4 0 1- 9 ;
** \ Fick. V or griechische Ortsnamen. 19 0 5 ; S c h w y z c r 5 1 0 f.: R isch 17 4 ; ‘ E a rly B ro n ze
A ge' accordin g 10 V c rm c u lc ( 1 ) 6 0 -5 . ‘ N e o lith ic ’ a cco rd in g to S c h a c h e rm e y r 16 ,
c f W. B ra n d e n ste in , R E S u p p l. V I 17 0 . an d ‘ D ie vo rg esch ich tlich en V ö lk e r- und
S p r a c h b e w c g u n g e n in d er A e g ä is ’ in : ln memoriam H . Bosserl, Is ta n b u l, 19 6 5 ,
m - 3 2 ; J M e lla a rt, B ro n z e A g e an d e arlier la n g u a g e s o f the N e a r E a s t ’ in:
Archaeological Theory and Practice (Festschrift W .F. Grimm), 19 7 3 . 1 6 3 - 7 2 ;
E J . Fu rncc, D ie wichtigsten konsonantischen Erscheinungen des Vorgriechischen, 19 7 2 .
*8 M M R 5 5 6 -β , cf. G F 12 9 -4 0 , G G R 3 1 6 ; M . M c llin k , Hyakinthos, D isse rta tio n ,
Utrecht 19 4 3; L . P ic c irilli, R icc rc h e su l cu lto di H y a k in th o s’ , Studi Classici e
Orientali 16 ( 19 6 7 ) 9 9 - 1 1 6 ; cf. D ietrich iH f. a n d Kadmos 14 ( 19 7 5 ) »33~ 4 2 ·
29Sp arta, G y th eio n (M e g a r a -)B y z a n tiu m , G re te , T h e ra , R h o d e s, K a ly m n o s,
Cnidos. K o s, cf. S a m u e l, In d e x s.v.
W Burkcrt, Grazer Beiträge 4 Í 19 7 5 ) 51“ 79 ·
3 .1 A Historical Survey
ι M M R 53.
2 Em phasized by Rutkow ski (1) 42; 134 ; 147.
3 M M R 53-68; S. M arin ates, ‘T h e cult o f the C retan caves’ , Review oj Religion* 5
( 19 4 0 - 1) 12 9 -3 6 ; F au re (1964) and B C II 96 (1972) 389-426; 102 (1978) 629-40;
Rutkowski (1) 1 2 1 - 5 1. On caves in Greece: see I 1 n. 18.
4 F au re 166 -70: ‘A la recherche du vrai labyrinthe de C rète', Kretika l.'hranikû
17 í 1 963) 3 15 - 2 6 ; Rutkowski (1) 1 2 1 - 5 ; 1 3 1 ; 320.
5 F aure, B C H 93 (1969) 19 5-9 .
6 O n the rareness o f older finds: Rutkowski (1) 147-9.
7 M M R 6 5 -7 ; Faure 178-84 ; Rutkowski (1) 13 7 f.. 14 3, 3 18 .
8 M M R 6 1- 4 ; B oardm an; Faure 1 5 1 - 9 ; Rutkowski (1) 1 3 1 f., 138 f., 319 ·
excavator, D .G . H ogarth, was responsible for the name D ictaran C ave. Cf, AfAw»
458 f ; Faure 96 f ; West 297.
9 Rutkowski ( ι ) 144.
to Horn. Od. 19 .17 9 ; Plat. Leg. 624a, Minos 3 19 b : P R 3 5 1; see I 3.4 n. 45.
1 1 S. M arin atos, Kadmos 1 (196 2) 87-94; Rutkowski (1) 139 f.
12 P M 1 632, M M R 1 7 1 ; Cook II 927; G G R PI. 7.3; cf. Boardm an 4b and Faure
13 Horn. Öd. 19 .18 8 ; M M R 58; Faure 82-90; Rutkowski (1) 1 2 9 - 3 1 , 138, 3 ! 7’.
3 (196 7) 3 1 f. S. H iller, Kadmos 21 (1982) 3 3 -6 3 , especially 49-54.
14 See I 3 .6 n. 4.
15 M M R 67 ; Boardm an 76-8; Faure 136 -9 ; Rutkowski (1) 3 19 ; IC II ix i-
16 Faure 14 0 -4 ; B C H 86 (1962) 47. Bulletin epigraphique (1964) no 4 15 .
17 Em phasized by N ilsson. M M R 64 f.; Faure 12 0 -6 ; cf. Rutkowski (t) 13 5 , 3 *8 » ·* ®
I I I 2 .1 n. 16.
TH E CU LT PLA C ES 355
I 3*3
r ( Ma**03105 ^scc n ‘ 3 )· M M R 395, Faurc passim; Rutkowski ( 1) «45- 7 , 150 f.
jß ~ a r ies before an enlhroned goddess beneath a stalactite ceiling: seal impression
rom Knossos P M II 767, I V 395; M M R 348; G G R PI. 18.5; Rutkow ski (1) 209
c· 88. but cf. P M H I 225, 502; M arin atos and H irm er PI. 234 (left centre).
V o tar*e5 before two shields in a cave: seal from Z akro ASAteru 8-9 (19 2 5 -6 ) 183;
, M 49 (1945) 3° ° Γ
Not Vcl correctly understood as a separate group by Nilsson; cf. N. Platon, T o
*9 . n M aza kai ta tninoika hiera koryphes', Krrtika Chmnika 5 ( 19 5 1) 9 6-16 0 ;
f Faure, B C H 91 (19 6 7) 1 1 5 - 3 3 ; B .C . Dietrich, Hutnna 18 (1969) 2 5 7 -7 5 ;
g Rutkowski, Hislona 20 I 19 7 1) 1 - 1 9 ; Dietrich, HUtona 20 (1 9 7 1 ) 5 1 3 - 2 3 ;
Ru tk ow sk i ( i ) 15 2 -8 8 ; P. Faure, B C H 96 (19 7 2 ) 390-402; D ietrich (19 74 )
2 9 0 *3° 7 ·
JO Faure. B C H ( 1967) 1 4 1 ; Rutkow ski ( 1 1 17 5-9 .
PM I 15 3 - 9 ; Cook 1 15 7 -6 3 ; M M R 71 f.; P. F aure, Minnica (Festschnft Sundwall),
81 1958. i 33- 48 ; Rutkow ski (1) 15 6 -9 , 3 2 1.
22 BSA 9 (>902-3) 3 56 -8 7; P M I 1 5 1 —3; M M R 6 8-70 ; Rutkowski (1) 159 -6 2 , 322.
The beginnings o f Petsophas, however, are placed in E arly M inoan II I by
Branigan (2) 103; Kadmos 8 (1969) 3; the building at Cham ezi (M iddle M inoan I)
tros claimed as a peak sanctuary by Platon (see n. 19) 122, and by F au rc, B C H
(1967) 12 ) ; disputed by Rutkowski ( 1) 50 f.
74 V. Lam brinoudakis, Praktika 1976, 202-209; Archaiognosia 1 (1980) 4 3-6 : in H ägg
and M arinatos 59 -65.
35 Arch. Reports (19 6 3 -4 ) 29 f. Fig. 39; B C H 88 (1964) 843; Sim on 15 2 ; N Platon,
Zakros, 1 9 7 1. 164 -9 ; M arinatos and H irm er 145, PI. to 8 -to ; Rutkow ski (1) 164 f.
Fig. 58-60. And also the rhyton fragm ents from Knossos. Rutkowski (t) 166;
Vcrm eulc (2) 1 1 ; Buchholz and K arageorghis no. 116 7 .
26 Ch. K a rd ara , A E ( 1966) 149 -20 0, assumes that they w ere supposed to attract the
lightning in a thunderstorm as an epiphany o f the god. A n E gyptian precedent:
S. Alexiou, AAA 2 (1969) 84-8.
27 Matz Fig. b: V crm eu lc (a) 13 Fig. 2(f).
28 I.A . Sakcllarakis, A E (19 72) 24 5-58.
2g Platon (see n. 19) 10 3 , 157.
30 Cf. Paus. 9 .3.7; see II 7 n. 93; II I 2.2 n. 55.
3 1 Paus. 7 . 1 8 . 1 1 - 1 3 ; sec I I 1 n. 68.
32 Paus. 8.37.8; sec V I 1.2 n. 19.
33 M M R 66 f., 75; regarded as cx-voto offerings for healing by C . D avaras, Kadmos 6
(1967) 102, and Ruikow ski ( 1 ) 1 7 3 . On the festival on M ount O ita: see II 1 n. 7 1.
34 Zenob. Ath. 2 .7 (ed. M iller p. 360) = Zenob. Par. 5.50 (Parœmiographi I 287). T his
may perhaps be connected with the Diktvnna cult near Polyrrhenion: Strab.
•0.479; H. W alter and U .Ja n tz c n , ‘ D as D iktynnaion’ in: F. M atz, Forschungen au/
Kreta, 1 9 5 1, 10 6 -17 .
35 Paus. 10 .3 2 .17 .
36 Cf. the exchange between Dietrich and Rutkow ski; sec n. 19.
37 R M II 809, I I I 463; M M R 3 5 3 ; G G R PI. 1 8 .1; Rutkow ski (1) 17 3; V crm eulc (2) 13
2 (a). C f. the goddess between lions on the gem from M ycenae: J H S 21 ( 19 0 1)
Ib4; G G R PI. 20.5 and also PI. 20.6; 2 1 . t. O n a fresco from the palace o f M ari,
goddess, standing on a lion, is presenting staff and ring to the king;
E- Strom m cnger, F ü n f Jahrtausende Mesopotamien, 1962, Pl. 165.
? ^ Old Testament II K in gs 23,5,
39 Sec IV 5.1 n. 18.
Ju st how uncertain the concepts and interpretations are is shown in the study by
W.F. A lbright, ‘T h e H igh Place in ancient Palestine', Vetus Testamentum Suppl.
356 NO TES TO P A G E S 2 8 - 3 4
84 In M arath on: V erm eu le ( 1 1 PI. 47b; Buchholz and K arageo rgh is no. (f) * *
found as late as the 8th century at Salam is 011 C yp ru s: HCH 87 ( lo fo ) ^
37 8 -8 0 ; Archaeology 18 (19 6 5) 282-90: V K arageo rgh is. Salamis, 1970.
•>V
3 .4 R ituals and Sym bol·
r C ropean ‘ house urns’ are even later, sec J . Bergm ann, ‘J ungbronzezeitlichcr
TOtenkult und die Entstehung der europäischen Hausum ensitte*. Germania j t
[ (1973) 54" 72 ·
40 V i!7 0 ’ 8 ' 4 ·
‘•e comparison has been made with the trio Z cus-H era-D ion ysos Kem elios in
^ a e u s Fr. 129 (l.obcl-Page): C . G ailavotti, R F I C 34 (1956) 2 2 3 -3 6 ; L .A . Stella,
11 (*956) 3 2 1- 3 4 ; K erenyi (3) 23 f. H era appears in Thebes also with a
my«erious rpithrt: era Keoteja T H O f 28.2. Other names which arc certainly
36 4 N O TE S TO P A G E S 4 4 - 8 j i l
names o f gods have later been forgotten, such as pade, dopola, qerarija, cf. n ^
11 A. Heubeck, Die Sprache 9 (1963) 198; SM EA 1 1 (1970) 69.
12 Od. 3.4-6 6 (see I I I 2.3 n.3); Gérard*Rousseau 18 1 - 5 ; Verm eule (2) 6a.
13 PY Fr 343; Gérard-Rousseau 2 0 1-3 .
14 See I 3 .5 η. 38.
15 J . Chadw ick, 'Potnia’ , Alinos 5 (1957) 117 -2 9 . O n Pakijane: L . Deroy, λ +
internationale d'onomastique 16 («964) 8 9 -10 3.
16 Potnija wokode T H O f 36.2; wotkos, in contrast to do house, might also m**
residential area: an industrial unit according to L .R . Palmer, Gnomon ,18
443 f· * '
17 Not Mistress Athena, cf. Heubeck 99, Gérard-Rousseau 44-7. On the Labyrinth·
see I 3.2 n. 24; 1 3.3 n. 4.
«8 PY An 12 8 1. Gerard-Rousseau i i &-20. See I 3.3 n. 54; I 3.2. n. 29.
19 M Y Oi 701. 704; Gerard-Rousseau 206 f.
20 See I 3.4 nn. 4 -5 ; 3.5 nn. 18 -19 ; II 3 n.14; III 2.5 nn.2 0 -2 1.
21 Paus. 8.25.6 see 3.3 n. 75; I I I 2.3 n. 35.
22 P Y Fr 1202.
23 Sceptical Gerard-Rousseau 46 f ; Ch. Sourvinou-Inwood, Kadmos g (1970) \2-η·
but see A. Heubeck, Gnomon 42 (1970) 8 1 1 f.; T . Christidis, Kadmos 1 1 (197«)
12 5 -8 .
24 P Y X a 102 = Doc. p. 127; X b 14 19 : Gerard-Rousseau 74—6; Kerényi (4) 70-·»·
see II I 2 .10 n. 7.
25 See I 3.3 n. 7 1; V 2.4.
26 anemo ijereja K N F (1) 1; 13; R. Hampe, Kult der Winde in Athen und Kreta, SB
Heidelberg, 19 6 7 .1; see III 3.3 nn. 1 1 - 1 3 .
27 G érard-Rousseau 1 0 9 - 11 ; M. Lejeune, Mémoires de philologie mycénienne I I , 1971,
85-9 3; F R· Adrados, ’ Les institutions mycéniennes’ . Acta Mycenaea, Salamanca,
1972, I 170-20 2.
28 Gérard-Rousseau 12 3 -5 ; Verm eule (2) 71 f.
29 Gérard-Rousseau 76-8: K W undsam, Die politische und soziale Struktur in den
mykenischen Residenzen nach den L.inear-B-Texten, Dissertation. Vienna 1968, 169-79.
30 A tuiveta, thyéstes, P Y Un 267; perhaps in a profane context; cf. on ‘onguent!,
parfums, condiments' M . Lejcune, R E G 72 (1959) 139 -4 5·
31 tonoeketerijo P Y Fr 1222; Heubeck 105; I.K . Prompona, The Athenian fiestital
• Thronoelkteria (to-no-e-ke-te-n-jo) and its Survival into Historical Times, Athens, *974-
Cf. small clay models of a throne with a goddess: G Buchholz, Zur Herkunft fa
kretischen Doppelaxt. 1959, 17 and Fig. 4.
32 K N G a 1058. Other names presumed to be o f festivals are porenozoterija, sapakalerij*
(tfhaktena), porenolute[rija\, turuptenja, kesemwija ( = xenia); on ihe calendar: KN'JU,
280 = Doc. no. 207, cf. L .R Palmer, Gnomon 48 (1976) 442.
33 Read as Peresa or Pereswa, and generally interpreted either as peteia dove or W
early form o f Persephone; G . Pugliese C arratelli, Studi Classici e Orientali 7 0 9 W '
20-6; M .S. Ruipcrez in: Minoica Festschrift J . Sundwall. 1958, 359-64.
34 PY Un 6 + 118 9 + 1250, M. G érard-Rousseau, SM EA 13 ( 1 97 1 ) ’
Vcrm eulc (2) 68; see V 3.2 n. 38. . c
35 P Y L’ n 718 = Doc. no. 1 7 1 ; Vcrm eulc (2) 68. Cf. II i- On the cheese: see II*
n. 32; On the fleece: see II 1 n. 96; II 4 n. 37-9. , pv
36 Gérard-Rousseau 158 f. T he sacrificing priest is called hierou orgos, ijerowOKO *
6 13 .7 . Keupoda. cheuspondas? has been related lo libatior.o, r » r r i- R r .in s e a u *3 1
—----- j.
a sacral context is not established, no more than in the case o f prochoa and ^
(porokowa, epikowa), Gérard-Rousseau 9 1.
37 Still disputed is the meaning of wanasoi, wanasewijo, which has been assoc
j j T H E ‘D A R K A G E AND T H E PRO BLEM O F C O N T IN U m ’ ^65
I Sec I 3 » fl- P A lin, Das Ende der mykenischen Fundstätten, Lund, «962;
Desborough (1) and (2); Snodgrass.
·> Dcsborough (1) 196 -20 5; P. Dikaios, Enkomi II, 19 7 1, 5 1 9 - 2 1 ; F ,G . M aier, Acts o f
the International Archaeological Symposium 'The Mycenaeam in the Eastern Mediterranean’,
Nicosia, 1973, 68-78
•j AA 1 1962) 1—39; B C H 86 (1962) 395 f.; 87 (1963) 3 7 1: Enkomi I, 1969, 295; Enkomi
II, 197 î - 5 2 7 -3 0 ; Verm eule (2) 159 f , Buchholz and Karageorghis
no. 17 4 °
4 BCH 88 (1964) 3 5 3 -6 , PI. 16; Alasia I, 19 7 1, 15 1-3 6 2 ; C R A I (19 7 3) 223-46;
AA (1974) 37° ; Buchholz and Karageorghis no. 17 4 1.
j BCH 97 (» 973 ) 6 48-53; 9e (» 974 ) 86 5~ 7° i 100 (>978) 875-84; V . Karageorghis,
CRAI (1973) 520 -3 0 ; 'K itio n , M ycenaean and Phoenician’ , Proc. Brit. Acad. 59
(1973) 259-82: C R A I (1976) 229-45. T he names Sanctuary o f the Horned God
and Sanctuary o f the Sm ith God serve only for practical differentiation; which god
or gods were in fact worshipped still remains obscure.
6 F.G. M aier, AA (1975) 43 ^— ( ' 977 ) 275-8 5; (»978) 309 -16 .
7 BCH 97 (19 7 3) 653; for M yrtou-Pigadhes: B C H 94 (1970) 299; J . du Plat T aylor.
Mrrtou-Pigadhes. a Im te Bronze Age sanctuary in Cyprus, 1957; M . Loulloupis,
‘ Mycenaean “ horns o f consecration" in C yprus’ , Acts o f the International Symposium
(sec n. 2) 225-44.
8 N .G .L. Hammond, C A H II 2 .6 78 -712. Dcsborough (2) 10 7 - 1 1 tried to find thc
Dorians in thc Sub-M vccnaean stage; contra, Snodgrass 1 17 , 3 1 1 f. T h at there was
a Dorian migration has been denied by J . Chadw ick, .4/i¿. d. Ak. d. Wiss. Wien 1 1 2
11976) 183-204, P P 31 (1976) 10 3 - 1 7 ; contra, E Risch. Kleine Schnften, 1981.
279-81.
X
J M. Sakcllariou, La migration grecque en lome, Athens, 1958.
,υ F. Kicchic, ¡.akomen und Sparta, 1963, 39-54.
II See 1 3.6.
»2 See V a .i; V 2.4 n 2.
'3 See I 3.4 n> 23.
‘4 Vermeule (2) PI. 10 b; J .N . Coldstream , Deities in Aegean Art before and after the Dark
Age, London, 1977. Zeus statuettes from O lym pia. E. Kunze. Antike und Abendland
2 (1946) 9 8 -10 1; Achter Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Olympia, 1967, 2 1 3 - 1 5 ;
Herrmann (2) 73; they may even go back to the tenth century (C . Roíley). Idols of
jpddesses on Crete: Dietrich 2 18 f.; R .A . Higgins, Greek Terracottas, 1967, 17
% «o; see also Schefold PI. 1 2 - 1 3 . C f. H .V . Herrm ann, A M 77 ( 1962) 26-34, on
a Mycenaean idol from O lym pia; see I 3.3 n. 59 (snake tubes); I 1 n. 35 (kemoi).
>6 <5 w V n· 33
• ‘'»annatos, Praktika (1935) 2 0 3 -12 ; B C H So (1936) 2 14 -5 6 ; AA (1936) 2 15 -2 2 ;
WMR 445 f.; ----------
R E Suppl. ----
V II 132 -8- ; the hammered bronze statues: Boardman
^ 9 6 1) j 37 ancj ¡n; Dädalische Kunst auf Kreta im 7. Jh . v. Chr.: Katalog einer
*tellung im .ifuseum fü r Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg, 1970, 16; Simon 125. In thc
366 N O T E S TO P A G E S 4 8 - 5 3
sanctuary at K a to Sym c (see n. 17) the cult bench persists into laie Hel|r ^
times. Ergon (19 7 3 ) 1 1 9
17 See I 3.3 n. 13 . O n the continuity in the Psychro cave (see ! 3 .3 f, »,
Desborough (2) 284; Snodgrass 275. There also seem s 10 be continuity o ith
in the V elchanos san ctuary o f A y ia T ria d a , ASA tene 3 - 5 ( 19 4 1- 3 ) 52-6 9 κ ^
between G eom etric and H ellenistic times) and in the sanctuary o f H rrm r
A phrodite at K a to Sym c, Praktika (19 72) 19 3 -2 0 3 ; (19 7 5 ) 3 2 2 -9 Ergon I
1 1 8 - 2 3 ; B C H 99 (19 7 5 ) 6 85-9; Arch. Reports 24 (19 7 7 -8 ) 64.
t8 See 1 3.3 n. 17; I I I 2 .1 n. 16; V I 1.2 nn. 2 2 -5 , F.. K unze, Kretische B ro n itW f l
1 9 3 1 ; Cook I PI. 35: F. C an cian i, Bronzi orientali e orientalizzanti a Creta nelt 1
V II secolo a. C ., 1970; Boardm an (19 70 see n. 16) 79-S4. Snodgrass 3 4 1, 9
19 See I 3 .3 n. 7 1 ; a break in Subrnvcenaean times cannot he entirely excluded
20 T h e sanctuary o f the G od on the C o pper Ingot (see . 4) nevertheless continues r
som e time longer. A A (1974) 371
21 O . M asson, Les inscriptions Chypriotes syllabiques, 19 6 1. T he oldest inscripii(w
(i ith cent.) C U M (1980) 12 2 -3 7 . T h e sanctuary o f A yia Irini is revived aftrr injq
with anim al sacrifice becoming prom inent: Swedish Cyprus Expedition I I jk«-
642 IT., 820-4 .
22 E specially Desborough (I) 40-7, (2) 2 78 -8 7 ; Snodgrass 3 9 4 -4 0 1. against the
optim ism o f M M R 4 47-84; but this is questioned in turn by Dietrich 19 1-2 8 9 and
‘ Prolegom ena to the studv o f Greek cult continuity’ , Acta Classica it ( 1968)
15 3 -6 9 ; 'Som e evidence o f religious continuity in the Greek dark age’ , B IC S 17
(19 7 0 ) 1 6 - 3 1 ; cf. YV. den Boer, H S C P 77 (19 7 3 ) 5; im portant for one body ol
evidence is R. N icholls. ‘ Greek votive statuettes and religious continuity', Auckland
Classical Essays presented to E .M . Blaiklock, 1970. 1-3 7 .
23 A gain st M M R 466-8: L . L erat. B C H 81 (19 5 7 ) 70 8 -10 , Desborough (1) 43.(4
differing Dietrich 224: 011 the lion rhyton beneath the A pollo tem ple Î11 Delphi;
O C R 3 16 ; M . G u arducci. S M S R 19 -2 0 (19 4 3 -6 ) 8 5 - 1 1 4 .
^4 Galtet de Santerre 2 0 3 -18 : B C H 7 1 - 2 ( 19 4 7 ^ ) 148 -254; M M R 6 1 1 ; C . Vatm, BCH
8y ( 1965) 225-30 : Bergquist 26-9; the fact that no cult can be shown to have existed
before the 91I1 century is emphasized by C . Rolley, B C H Suppl. 1 (1973) 523 f,
25 M M R bi 1—14; G allct de San terre 9 3-6 .
26 M M R 468-70 ; M vlon os 3 3 -4 9 ; Desborough {1 ) 43: Snodgrass 395.
27 E B uschor and YV. von M assow , A M 52 ( 1927) 1-Ô5; M M R 470 f , Dietrich 222 Γ;
D rsborough (2) 83, 2 4 1, 280; Sn odgrass 395.
28 M M R 305. 471 f.: Desborough (1) 1 19 ; Snodgrass 397.
29 D esborough ( 1) 42: (2) 28 3, Snodgrass 397; Dietrich 222. YV. I.ambrinudaki».·
Archaingnnsia 1 <19801 4 3-6 (no finds between Late M ycenaean and eighth century)·
30 D aw kins; a late dating o f the beginnings (about 700): J . Boardm an, B SA 58 ( 1963)
1 - 7 ; B ergquist 4 7-9 . See I I I 2.6 n. 32; V 3.4 n. 18.
31 M allw itz 77-0 4; cf. H errm ann (2) 49-59; Desborough (2) 2 8 t; Dietrich 223*
P. L eveque. P P 28 ( 1973) 23 -50 .
32 G ruben 28 f.
3 3 Od. 7.8 1.
34 M M R 485-96: G G R 34 5 -50 . ,
35 See V 2.2 nn. μ and 35; I 3.4 n 30. T w o young girls whom Evan s PM*
‘ handm aidens o f the G o ddess’ (e.g. P M II 3 4 0 -2 ; I I I 458) appear repeatedly “ ffl
M in o a n -M ycen a ea n images.
36 C . N ylan der, Opuscula Atheniensia 4 (196 2) 3 1- 7 7 .
37 C h . K a rd a ra . A E { i960) 16 5 -8 4 . In the 1 2th century tombs were installed ^
A cropolis: Desborough (2) 64.
38 A gainst M M R 4 7 5 -9 . cf. K . M uller, Tiryns III , 1930. 2 1 3 f ; Desborough (*) ♦
THE DARK AGE AMD THE PROBLEM OF CONTINUITY 367
14 *
' c K. Kilian. AA iig S i) 1 jq f.; J.C . Wright, /MS toa (1982) 19 5 -7 ; sc<‘ · S -3
Í 76 a ·
\fM H 483 f.; cf. A n st. Alh, Pol. 57; s « · I 3.3 nn. 45-fi.
39 Lcjeu n c, Mémoires de philologie mycénienne I I , 1 9 7 1 . 169-95.
4° gcc ( j 5; agalmata. neoi, bomoi H dt. t, 1 3 1 ; 4, 59 etc.
*! S « 1 3 5 η π · 3 2 -3 1 1 3 3 ° 66·
K See I 3·6 n lC-
4 Εΐξοη ( 1972 ) 6° - 4 ; A n h · H'P1” 1* ( ' 972 - 73 ) ‘3 f · sec I 3 .3 n. 75.
4·* p C on rad, Studien zum Altargesetz, Dissertation, M arb u rg, 1966, 8 5 -10 0 . O n the
45 ¡n the temple o f Beth Sh an : A . Row e, The Four Canaanite Temples o f Beth Shan
I 1Q40; H .O . Thom pson, Mekal, the God o f Beth Shan, 1970, 1 7 - 2 1 . In Pv
building presum ed to bc a shrine is oriented towards an altar (without any traces
0f burning): see I 3 .3 n. 54.
6 Old Testament N um . 6 .1 4 - 1 7 ; 1 Sam . lo.B; 13.9 ; I K in g s 8.G4; 9 .25; J e r . 7 .2 1 f.;
Ezck. 45 · 1 7- srp u slmm in U garit: C .H . Gordon, Ugaritic Manual, 19 55, 13 2 T ext
q 7; iu h w dbhn in an A ra m a ic text: A. C o w ley, Aramaic Papyn o f the fifth Century fíe,
1923, 30.28; cf. L S C G 15 1 A 29 -36; H N 9 n. 41
47 C R A l ( 1973) 523 f·, sec n. 5.
BC H 88 (1964) 354 f., see n. 4; AA (1962) 7 - 1 2 . see n. 3.
49 See II I n. 94, cf. II 7 n. 44.
50 Asklepiades FG rH ist 752 F 1 = Porph. Abst 4 .15 ; Burkcrt, GrazerBeiträge 4
(1975) 7fi-
«μ W. K räm er, ‘ Prähistorische B ran dopferplätze’ , Helvetia antiqua: Festschrift h. Vogt,
1966, 1 1 1 - 3 2 ; cf. Y a v is 2 0 8 -13 ; G G R 8 6 -8 ; at O lym pia: Paus. 5. 13 .8 —1 1 ; at
Didyma. T h . W iegand, Siebenter vorläufiger Bericht über die . . . in Milet und Didyma
unternommenen Ausgrabungen, Abh. Berlin, 1 9 1 1 , 4 1 —3; Didyma I, 19 4 1, 136 -9 ; on
Samos: A M 58 (19 3 3 ) 146 -50 , 17 4 - 2 10 ; J d l 49 (19 34 ) 14 2-4 .
52 Burkcrt. Grazer Beiträge 4 (19 7 5) 5 1 —79; D. C ollon , ‘T h e sm iting g o d '. Levant 4
(1972) ι ι »-34. ln addition to the finds frum G recce listed in Grazer Beiträge 57 f.,
there is a further exam ple from D odona, B C H 53 (1929 ) io 8 f and one from
Sunium, Hesperia 3 1 (1962) 236 f., one from Selinus, Orientalia 32 (19 6 3 ) 2 16 ;
Heick ( ig y q ) 17 9 -0 2 ; H. Secdcn. The Standing Armed Figurines in the Levant. 1980.
53 It would be possible to com plete ]pe-ro-ne K N E 842 as ‘ A pellon ei’ C .J. R uijgh.
Lingua 25 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 3 1 3 . See I I I 2.5.
54 See II i n . 66; I I I 2.7 n. 7.
55 See II 8 n. 8.
56 E. Buschor. A M 55 (1930 ) 1-9 9 ; D. O hly, A M 68 (19 5 3 ) 2 5-50 ; O . Reuter, Dei
Heratempel von Samos, 1957; H. W alter. Das griechische Heiligtum: Heraion von Samos,
1965 = Das Heraion von Samos, 1976; G rub en 3 15 - 2 9 : Bergquist 4 3 - 7 ; D rerup 13 f.;
see II I 2.2 n. 52.
57 Zuntz 1 2 7 - 3 5 ; S & H 12 9 -3 2 .
5® Ch. K a rd ara , A JA 64 (i9 60) 343-58 .
>9 G. Riza and V'. San ta M aria Scrinari, II santuario sull'acropoli di Gorlina, 1968.
especially 24 f., 54 -6 .
?° J · Boardm an, The Greeks Overseas 3rd edn. 19 7 3, 3 7-4 6 : Grazer Beiträge 4 ( 1975) 65.
1 Sec I 1 n. 14.
2 Sanctuaries for the sacrifice o f oxen in the open air are found as early as M yrtou-
Pighades and A y ia Irini on C y p ru s (see nn. 7 and 2 t) . and A via T ria d a on C rete
(η· 17 ). then on Sam os (n. 56) and 011 Lindos (E . D yggvc, Lindos III , i960,
457- 6 6 ); ch aracteristic o f these open-air altars arc wheel-m ade terracotta votive
bulls, cf. N icholls, n. 22.
Rit ual and S a n c t u a r y 1
1 S e e Introduction I n. 8.
2 R. O tto. Das Heilige, 19 17 , 30th edn, 1958. Eng. tr.. The Idea o f the Holy
G . M ensching, Wesen und Ursprung der Religion: diegrossen nichtchrisllichen Ú ¡;
' 954 · 1 1 - 2 2; R G G , 3rd edn, V 9 6 1; H eiler 562.
3 F. Pfister, R E X I 2 10 7 f.; G G R 48 f., 6 8 -7 1.
4 T h is view is given very radical expression by Pfister, R E X I 2 10 7 f-ί cf. Frazer I
Introduction 1 n. 15); L . Deubner. Magie und Religion, 1922. Λ protest is registç^I
by O tto (2) 1 1 - 4 5 ; cf also M . Douglas, Purity and Danger, 1966, 18-28
Λ bib liography on the problem is given in H eiler 26.
I ‘W O R K I N G S A C R E D THI NGS *: A N I M A L S A C R I F IC E
¿ I S r Ä n .,,
11 rtV 6 n. 22.
' "ùW ôüî Hes. Th'og. 5 4 ·; H N 6 n. 24.
13 Meuli ( 1) 2 | 8 ' * $ 6 · s 6 2 ·
*♦ V^c form ula ou phora\ exam ples: G R B S 7 ( 1966) 103 n. 36 ; L S S 88; 94.
*5 ,gacraiization' - ‘d esacralizatio n ’ are fundam ental concepts for H. H ubert and
'** M M auss, 'E s s a i sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice', Annie sociologique
2 (1898) 2 9 - 13 8 = M . M au ss, Oeuvres I. 1968, 19 3 -3 0 7 ; E n g. tr. Sacrifice: its nature
andfunction, 1964.
,7 E.g. Hom er //. t .40; 2 2 .17 0 : Od. i .66; //. 9 .5 3 4 -7 ; H N 1 f.
18 Hes. Theog. 5 3 5 ; V ern an t 146. C f. also A. T h om sen , ‘ D er T ru g des P rom etheus’ ,
ARH’ 12 (190 9 ) 46 0-9 0 ; J . R u d h ard t, M H 27 (19 7 0 ) 1 - 5 ; V ern an t 17 7 -9 4 .
19 West 3 2 1; F . W ehrli, Theoria und Humanitas. 19 72, 5 0 -5 .
30 UN 6 η. 24; η η. 30.
ul GRBS 7 (1966) especially 1 1 3 - 2 1 ; J . P . G u ep in , The Tragic Paradox: myth and ritual in
Greek tragedy, 1968.
■22 OttO (2) 23.
23 Meuli (1): H N passim , especially 12 - 2 2 .
24 Meuli (1) especially 2 2 4 -5 2 .
25 HN 16.
¿6 Thus for the sacrifice in E leusis the oulai are taken from the R harion plain where,
according to m yth, the first corn grew ,. Paus. 1.38.6.
27 ‘What sacrifice is pleasing to thc gods w ithout the fellow b an queters?', D io C h rys,
Or. 3.97. C h an ce visitors are invited to jo in thc feasting: Horn Od. 3 .1 ÍT.
28 H.L. Strack, Das Blut im Glauben und Aberglauben der Menschheit, 7th edn, 1900;
H. Tcgnaeus. Blood-brothers. U p p sala 1 9 5 1; J . H. W aszink, R A C I I , 1954 , 459-73.'
OCR ,5 0 f.
*9 A thoroughly profane ‘ black p u d d in g’ is a lread y m entioned by H om er: Od.
ao-2 5~ 7 *
Sept. 2 75 · T h cocr. Epigr. 1 ; Porph. Abst. 1.2 5 ; Stengel 18 f.
u US· 5 * 3 - 1 1 ; G G R 87; p resu m ab ly m ixed w ith oth er sacrificial rem ains, and
basically o f the ash a ltar type (see I 4 n. 5 1) .
2 5 ? v 4 n · 26
nc most fam ous case w as thc C ylon ian pollution in A thens in 636 or 6 32 which
its shadow for 200 years; see 1 1 4 η. i8. C f. S. Schlesin ger, Die griechische Asylie,
t “ s t a t i o n , G iessen , 19 3 3 ; G G R 77 f.
Ή t i - *· · —
<». p Ur‘ Taur. 14 5 0 -6 1.
aus. 3 .16 .9 ; that blood must flow is em phasized only in the late sources; sec I I I
· 1 6.9;
2 -6 η·
n. 3 102·; V « . „n. 18
V 3.4 «o
370 N O TES TO P A G E S 6 0 -4
3 6 S te n g e l 9 2 - 1 0 2 ; Z ie h e n . R E I I ] A 16 6 0 - 7 0 · f a o h 0* 1 ,
u n d s P h ;’ S ·* '· E m bo la, O úonun ,8 ( ι ^ β ) ^ S ' E i ' r' m , L *
37 X en . Lak. Pol. 13 .8 ; Hili. , n. pi ,, , J ....
38 P hainias Fr. 25 (W chrli) = Plm Thrn . ^ ‘ V ^ f é ñ r i h ' PrilChetl 8 3 J
39 π Τ ζΤ En!M,imFonda“°" ^ n (■98.?,2o8-a4 s m: u * a â
•io Aesch. S 'P , ^ a slm ilaro a th _ . (.ςΓ; X cn w 9 2 on ^ J
1 p, ui · * »·
the T hesm ophoria: sec V 2 ί penod o f purification: see π. .
49 See I I I 3 ., „ . 2.
50 See II 5 nn. 6 1 - 3 , cf. I ,6; I I I 3 ., n .5 .
51 A csch . Sept. 2 75.
. Ä Ä ' K f ^ iS fc
35 742 = ¿ Í Í 2 5 . " ’ CÍ' H N 1 5 ,1 Arg0S: Paus· '2 Λ η ·Τ' A ^ lc p io s : / C I V 1 (2nd ednl
Í B urkcr' c ß ' “ U97o)\~fe7m Γ9Λ " α " 207 in ,he T cubncr rdi,K>,‘'
6 9 6 - 0 '7 ^ 7 2 8 G ^ r ° r ' h/ Pyt,halS ttlC milin sources arc Strab. 9.404; S K 296 1.·;
^ '90 5; A BoethiusV
59 ä & ä - * ® 1 r
6 ? P ^ u s ' t t l r " raCCS: J a i h ' ,Cr· Ä £ X “ » 69 - 77 : on vase paintings: M etzger « F
|f , 4 friiz c , Die Rauchopfer bei den Griechen, Dissertation, Berlin, 1894, F . Pfister,
g , H- v u0pfcr\ R E I Λ 26 7-8 6 (19 14 ); M . Détienne, Les jardins d Adonis, Ι 97 2 » 7 ,_6
•jfciuc ym iäien on : H. W iegand. Bonner Jahrbücher 122 (19 12 ) 1-9 7 : R E V I A
On i,,c ΕΛ Α I V 12 6 -3 0 . Frankincense libanon, libanotos (H ebrew lebona); myrrh
ck rfW mur), E. M asson, Recherches sur les plus anciens emprunts
W % lu, ¡ en grec, 1967, 53 -6 ; W .W . M üller, Clotta 52 (1974) 53-9 .
g 2 (Lobel and P age); frankincense and m yrrh; Fr. 44.30.
67 -, ift 1 t - n : G F 2 1& -2 1 On the whole com plex o f the fire festival: Nilsson
« Η « ι Γ; M e in ( .) ,0 9 f.
It Q .V<r 9 9 ' Phrynichos Fr. 6 { T G F p. 559); B acchyhd. 5 ·97 - » 54 ; P R 1 1 8& -J00;
^ der K o lf, R E X V 4 46-78; I. T h . K akrid is, Homeric Researches. Lund. 1949,
•7-48. O n the san ctuary: E. D yggve and F. Poulsen, Das ÍMphñon, der
'jffnptllit-J’f· im Kalydtm, Copenhagen, 1948.
Hvampolis: Paus. 10 .1.6 ; Plut. De mul. viri. 244 bd, G F 2 2 1 - 2 5 ; G G R 27 f.
^ Messene: Paus. 4 .3 1.9 ; G F 4 33 f.
Excavation: Deltion 5 (19 19 ) A ppendix 2 5 - 3 3 ; Y Bequignon, La mitée du
Spercheios, 1937, 20 4-26 ; Nilsson Op. I 3 4 8 -54 ; G G R 87 η. 1 3 1 ; G R U S 7 ( 1966) 1 1 7 .
'Pjra': Soph. Phil. 1432. On the festival: Schol. T . II. 2 2 .15 9 . O n the myth: sec
IV 5 ?
Ç2 Pind. Isthm. 4 .6 7-74 ; Pherckydcs FG rH ist 3 F 14; Apollod. 2.72; P R II 6 27 -3 2 .
73 See I 3-3 " · 3" ; 1 1 7 n. 9 3; I I I 2.2 n. 55.
-4 Nilsson writes o f ‘das alte, gem eincuropaischc Jah rcsfcu c r' as early as G F 225,
cL G G R 13 0 -3 2 . T h e O ile agon, however, took place every four years, and the
Daedala were celebrated at even greater intervals.
75 See I 3.3 nn. 29 and 38-40.
76 Carthage: Diod. Sic. 2 0 .14 ; The Oriental Institute Annual Report 19 7 8 -79 , 56-9. Old
Testament Exodus 2 9 .38 -4 3; N um bers 2 8 .1-8 ; R inggrcn 162. Cf. I 4 n. 45.
;7 Theophrastos apud Porph. Abst. 2.26; cf. Philo Leg. ad Gaium 356.
78 Od. 1 1 . 3 1 ; See n. 42; cf. also n. 7 1.
79 Rohde 14 8 -52 ; Pfister 4 77; KA 10 5; 124 H arrison ( 1) 1 - 3 1 .
80 Stengel *3 1 —3; K A 124 f.
8t Nock II 57 5-6 0 2 ; sec I V 1 n. 25; IV 3.
82 Calendar from Erch ia L S C G 18 Γ 23 for Zeus Epopetes, cf. for Epops J 2 1 , E 13
83 On K os: LSC.G 15 1 A 29 -36 ; see I 4 n. 46.
84 Especially C ook, S. R cinach and also Harrison and Cornford, cf. Introduction t
nn. 16 and 2 1 - 3 . V isser 1 3 - 1 6 , 157 -20 9 . Rejecting these ideas: C . M euner, Der
Totemismus bei den Griechen, Dissertation, Bonn 19 19 ; cf. G G R 2 1 2 - 1 6 .
5 For the problem o f the anim al form o f E gyptian gods see S. M orenz, Ägyptische
Religion, 19G0, 2nd edn, 1977, 20 f.; E. H ornung, Studium Generale 20 (196 7) 69-84;
fttr Line und die Vielen, 19 7 1, t o i - 1 2 . R. M erz, Die numinose Mischgestalt. 1978.
On the snake: see I 3 .3 nn. 59 -6 4; I V 2 nn. 3 -5 .
* See H , 2 .3 n . 34 f
68 i l i 1 3 ' "· 2 ‘ ·
“ Λ 16 1 - 8 ; Cook I I I 6 3 0 -4 1.
^ ™ut. Quaest. Graec. 29g B = P M G 8 7 1; Eur. Bacch. 10 1 7 f.; ‘ god bull’ , theos tauros,
on stele from T h csp ia i: / G V I I 178 7, G G R 2 1 5 η. 2. Kyzikos: Ath. 476 a. With bull
norns: Soph. Fr. 959; Stesim brotos FG rH ist 10 7 F 13 ; Ath. 476 a: H orace Carm. II
37 a N O TES TO P A G E S 64-70
19.30. In his long chapter entitled ‘ Zeus as an o x', Cook ( I I I 605— ^ ' j
produce only one single representation o f a horned Zeus O lbios ( f f l K “ al>|t ft!
Im pen al stele from the neighbourhood o f K yzikos; for Zeus O lb U r 9) " "
3 4 ' f· cr }( !
90 G uardian G od and W eather G od on reliefs from M alatva \k uroal .
PI. 104 f. ' K " ar" l Ι|(ΓΓΓι(ΐ
91 O n thc owl o f Athena M M R 4 93-6 ; Cook I I I 776-836;
83 (1968) 16 7 -7 4 ; in the background there is probably N ear
and iconography concerned with a Potnia οΓ birds o f prey cf
(he Syrian seals Z D P V 64 (19 4 1) PI. 7.89-90. On the bird
nn. 2 3 -5 .
92 E ur. Fr. 968 = 42 c (Snell).
93 H N 6; Bucran ia very often denote the sanctuary on vase paintings; cf. the 1 ·
T em ple Chronicle, FG rH ist 532 C 38-4 0 ; Theophr. Char. 2 1.7 . Dcnosiit
horns arc already fonnd in the cave o f Psychro (I. 3 .3 n. 8), Rutkowski (1) S° al
K a to Sym e (sec I 4 n. 17), and in thc temple o f Dreros. B C H 60 ( 1 0 , 6 1 ' 3S’ m
2 4 1 - 4 · On the Horn A ltar: D ikaiarchos Fr. 85 (W ehrli); C allim . Hymn I S / '
E Bethe. Hermes 72 (19 37 ) 19 1 - 4 ; R. Flacelière. R E G 61 (1948) 7 9 -fl/
94 E. Sjoquist, .4 Α ΙΓ 30 (19 32) 345; V . K arageorghis, H ThR 64 ( 1 9 7 , ') „ ,
O v. Met. 10 .2 2 3 -3 7 ; cf. thc horn-bearing m aidens in the cult o f D ionvSi
L aphystios in M acedonia. Lycophr. Alex. 12 37 and Schol., see I 4 n. 49; I I ; n Γ *
95 Nevertheless, the relationship o f the tragedy to the satyr play and thc'relaiinnrf
thc satyrs to thc he-goat has long been hotly contested; suffice it here to rder to
A . Lesky, Die tragische Dichtung der Hellenen, 3rd edn, 1972, 17 -4 8 , and CR fis
7 (1966) 8 9 -10 2 . See II 7 η. 34.
96 Ih e 'ram ’s fleece o f Z eus’ , Dios kodion, cf. Harrison ( i ) 23-8 ; G G R 110-10
H N 1 12 -15 .
97 G R B S 7 ( 1966) 1 12 f., 11 6; H N 20Π; cf. A . Brelich in: Myths and Symbols,- itudia in
honour 0/ M . Eliade . 1969, 19 5-20 7.
98 P o rp h . Abst. 2.28.
2 G IF T O F F E R IN G S A N D L IB A T IO N
,0 PJ“ '· ” " · ? ■ T heocr. 7.3; Anth. Pal. V I 258: R E V A 12 30 f. On the Thargciia
I» 4 n. 70. O n the O schophona festival: A F 14 2 -7 .
‘ fi'C C e .g .A lh · toq ef. 1 1 4 ab, 148 f; Poll. 6.75: C .A . Lübeck. Aglaophamm, 1829,
' 1050—8^,. On pétanos·. Stengel 66 -72: on ttaptiai. see II 6 n 16.
U>CG 15 5 (Asclcpieion on K o s): L S C G 88 (O lbia).
ifl Paus. 8 .4 2 .11sec II I 2.3 n. 35; H I 2.9 " · 20. ,
19 Delos: Arist. Fr. 489; T im aios FGrHist 566 F 147; C ic . Nat.I). 3.88. Athens: Paus.
1.26.5.
20 Tac. Hist. 2.2 Γ sec I 3.4 n. t6: I 4 n. 6.
i\ The fundam ental work is Rouse (19 0 2); treated briefly in G G R 134;
M .L. Lazzarini. Le formule dellr dcdiche votive nclla G recia arcaica'. Memori 1
d. class, d. sciende mor. e star. d. Arc. d. Lincei 19 (1976 ) 4 7-354 : F .T .v a n Stratcn in:
Versncl 6 5 - 1 5 1 .
«2 See II 3 η. 7 and 10.
23 II- 6 .3 0 5 -10 ; Od. 10.521- 5 ; 11.29- 33 .
¿4 After 480 temples were creclcd by Them istocles (Plut. Them. 22) and also by
Gelon o f Syracuse (Diod. Sic. 11.2 6 .7 ).
*5 Slave girls for Aphrodite: Pind. F t. 122 (sec I I I 2.7 n. 9); for Delphi: Paus. 4.34.9;
Eur. Phorn. 2 0 2 -3 8 ; temple herds: KA 93 f.. H N 16 n. 2 1. Large numbers ol
hierodoulo1 are found in the Hellenistic sanctuaries o f A sia M inor. O n the
dedication o f the Lokrian M aidens see II 4 11. 86.
^6 See 1 1 5 η. q6. T h e consécration o f a tract o f land: Plut. Aie. 3.6.
*7 Λ. 7.81 ; 10.458-64; 570 f.
*8 Cf. thr inscription from Selinus. I G X I V 268, W .M . Cald cr, The Inscription Jrom
Temple G at Selinus (Greek. Rom an and Bvzaniinc M onographs no. 4). 1963. T he
dedication o f battle trophies: e.g. Paus. 5 .2 7 .12 = Fricdlânder and Hoffleit 95 a,
IG V II 37 = Fricdlânder and ΗοίΠπΊ 23; 95 c; Hdt. 9 .8 1; 8.27.5; Rouse 95“ l 48 ·
°n votive dedications in O lym pia: M allw itz 24 -39; L . Scm m linger, Weih-, Sieger-
^ d Ehreninschriften aus Olympia und seiner Umgebung. Dissertation. Erlangen 1974,
nos. 1- 5 6 ; on the Nike by Paeonios: R H arder, Kieme Schuften, i960. 12 5 -3 6 .
*9 L. Som m er. Das Haar in Aberglauben und Religion der Griechen, D issertation, M unich,
374 NOTES t o p a g e s 7 0 - 3 J
1 9 1 2 ; P. Schredelseker, De superstitutionibus Graecorum quae ad crjftft J
D issertation, H eidelberg, 1 9 1 3 ; Rouse 2 4 1- 5 . A chilles: II. 2 3 .i4 j._ e
T heop hr. Char. 2 1 .3 . Delos: H dt. 4.34, C allim . Hymn. 4.296, Paus. 1.40 ? ’-,!^Μ ιι
E ur. Hippol. 14 25 f , Paus 2 .3 2 .1 . C f. also e.g. Paus. 1.3 7 .3 ; 1 -43.4· 7 - '^4
8 .4 1.3 ; 8.20 .3 Pind f y lh 4 ·8*; P°*· 3 -38 ; Diod. S ic 4.24.4; A th. ι ι - . ^ Τ Ϊ ' 7, ι ϊ 4 .
V I «5 5 , 156; 276; 277; 59. E viden ce already in M inoan times: PAf | y ^
30 T o y s: Rouse 2 4 9 - 5 1; Anth. Pal. V I 280. G irdles: Anth, Pal. V I 5g; Pau* . J l
A postol. X . 96 (Paroemiographi II 5 1 3 ) ; J . B oardm an , Excavations
l 95 2~ , 955 : Greek empono, 1967. 2 1 4 - 2 1 . A sim ilar practice is already fo u'
Ancient Babylon: R A C I X 46. A ccording to an A thenian law (375/4 ) en IÜ?jl
coins are dedicated to M eter, Hesperia 43 (19 74 ) 17 4 f. - and thus i«fT
w ithdraw n from use.
3 1 Anth. Pal V I 1; 5; 18 f.; 2 5 -3 0 ; 38; 46; 63 etc. T h u s, before the sea b a ttleo fS aj- ■
Cim on pointedly dedicates the bridle o f his horse. Plut. Cim. 5.2. A ris t o p h » ? 11
84 2-9 m akes fun o f such customs.
32 E u r. Iph. Taur. 146 4 -7.
2 .3 Libation
ÿ l*uí·' strikingly represented in the L ate H ittite reliefs from M ala ty a, A kurgal
\î ^ ^ H ir in c r PI >04 f· Perhaps it w as for this reason that libation w as later m ade
f 1 the phial held by the god (11. 44).
• i n R E X V I 2484 f. follow ing C . M ayer, Das 01 1m Kultus der Gütchen,
& «yûrzburg. *í>1 7 -
J s-ç 2 B 4; ,0 A 2; 12 4 .10 ; cf. the sacrifice in P higaleia; see n. 18.
îa ««<· An>,'d a l ·
Theophr. CAar, 16 .5, cf. A rnob. 1.39 . T h e ‘anoin tin g’ o f a hcrm : B ab r. 48. T he
S® m in tin g o f stones in the Old Testament. G enesis 2 8 .18 (B ethel); 3 5 .14 ; Sm ith 17 5.
^ sac red stone covered with the fat o f sacrificial victim s am ong the A inianes: Plut.
Quaesi. Graec. 294 be. C f. also M M R 246.
,λ Eur. E l. 5*3 f· . . . .
to The sacred men and wom en in A n d an ia make libation with blood and w ine at the
swearing o f the oath, S JG 736 = L S C G 65.2 (see V I 1.2 nn. 9 - 14 ) . T h a t the wine
libation is a substitute for libation with blood has often been repeated since Sm ith
173 f.t cf. K irch er 86, Eitrem 434, 4 55, 457; R E V I A 2 1 3 4 f.
(j\ Votive reliefs show ing a Nike m aking libation over the O m phalos in
VV.H. R oscher, Omphalos, 1 9 13 . Pl. V I I . 1 ; 4, cf. V I I I . 3. In the ritual o f die
Milesian M olpoi, a sacred stone is placed before H ecate, garlanded and covered
with libations, SIC 57.25 = ISA M 50.25. Cf. Sis 7/ 4 1 - 3 .
62 See i n. 8.
63 Soph. E l. 84; 4 34 ; Kleidem os FG rH isl 3 2 3 F 14 = Ath. 4 10 a; see I V 1 n. 43.
64 Dem. 4 4 .18 ; 30; Eu5tath. 129 3.8; Cook I I I 3 7 0 -9 6 ; P. Stengel, Hermes 57 (19 2 2 )
μ »-6 ·
65 W. Deonna, ‘ L a so if des m orts’ , R H R 1 1 9 (19 39 ) 53 - 8 «- E specially the gold -leaf
texts, Zuntz 3 7 0 -4 ; see V I 2.2.
66 A F 1 1 3 . A sim ilar custom in B am b yke-H ierapolis: L uc. De Syr. Dea 13 . A custom
of this kind w as still being practised in the 19th century in T y re , Revue des etudes
juives 43 (19 0 1) 19 5 f.
67 Proel. In Tim. I l l 176 .28 (ed. D iehl); A F 86; H.W 293. T h e fountain inscription: IG
I I - I I I (2nd ed n), 4876. O n the outpouring o f w ater as rain m agic also Sm ith
*74 f.
i Epict. Ench. 3 1.
* Horn. II. 9 .1 7 1 ; K A l i t . cf. G . M en schin g, Das heilige Schweigen, 1926. ι ο ί f.; Plat.
b g . 800 b.
3 C. Ausfeld, De Graecorum precationibus quaestiones, N e u e ja h rb iic h e r Su p pl. 28, 1903,
502-47; K . Ziegler, De precationum apud Graecos formis quaestiones selectae, D isserta
tion, B reslau, 190 5; K A 7 8 - 8 1; F. Schw en n , Gebet und Opfer, 1927; G G R 157 -6 0 ;
Κ>· v. Fritz, ‘G reek P ray e r’ , Review o f Religions 10 (19 4 5 -4 6 ) 5—39; W . K lu g .
Untersuchungen zum Gebet in der frühgriechischen Lyrik, D issertation, H eidelberg, »954,
E· des Places, 'L a prière cultuelle dans la G rè ce ancienne’ , Revue des sciences
religieuses 3 3 ( 1959) 3 4 3 -5 9 ; A . C o rlu , Recherches sur les mots relatifs à l'idée de prière
d Homère aux tragiques, 1966; W .F. B akker. The Greek Imperative: an investigation into
the aspectual difference between the present and the aorisl imperatives in Greek prayer from
376 N O TES TO P A G E S 7 3 —tí
Homer up to the preienl day, Am sterdam , 1966; A .W .H . Adkins. ‘ F.uchoniai t ^
and Euchos in Horner’ . C'Q 19 (1969) 2 0 -3 3; J 1. Perpillou, ‘ L a s i ^ j f , ’ Τ ^ β ,
verbe euihomai dans l’épopée'. Melanges P Chaniratne, ig ^ a 10,1
L .C M uellner. The meaning ojHomeric E l C H O M A I through its formulae, Γη '
1976; W. Horn. Gebet und Gebetsparodie in den Komödien des Λ rislobhan
Versnel 1-6 4. ** 'fl* *
4 Pind. 01 . 6.78. P. Chantraine. RPh 43 (1969) 202.
3 Od. 4 759-67.
6 A sacrificial festival in Delphi ‘with the supplication (hiketeiai) ol the whole dm Æ
of happN G reece' Philodam os Hym n 1 1 2 - 1 4 . Powell 168. T he inscription
o f Peisis' on a votive sheep from the Acropolis: /6' 1 (2nd edn) 434, R o u ie^ Ir*
7 See Adkins. M uellner (n. 3); on the Indo-European origin see I j n. tü: attest A '
M ycenaean in the proper nam e E-u-ka-me-no [Euchomenos) P Y J n 725.2a
8 II. 7 .19 3 ; Eur. E l. 809.
9 Soph. O C 486-9.
to A csch Cho. 145 I Ard on a votive relief from Epirus: J H S 66 (1946) J12 .
it //. 1 . 1 1 ; 94; 3.78.
12 L. Deubner, Ololyge und Verwandtes. Abh. Berlin. 19 4 t; see II ι η. 1 1 . On Eilcuhvift*
see I 3.6 n.4. Possession: Eur. Med. 1 1 7 1 - 3 .
13 See H .S.V ersnel Tnumphus, 1970.
14 L . Deubner, ‘ P aian ’ , Neue Jahrbücher 22 (19 19 ) 385-406; see I 3.6 n. 20; III -¿ =
nn. 2 0 -1.
*5 A F 73; G G R 664; H N 279.
16 E.g. Horn II 1.3 5 -4 2 ; 10.277 -9 4 Sappho Fr. 1 ( I.olx -1 and Page).
17 Plat. Crat. 400 e; Phdr. 273 c; Tim. 28 b; Phlb. 12 c; Acsch. Ag. 160.
18 Socrates in X en . Mem. 1.3 .2 ; Plat. Euthyphr. 14 d. C f. Iam bi. De rila Pyth, 145.
18a Archilochus Fr. 26 (W est), cf. Epicur. 388 (Usener).
19 C f. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 5 .5 .1; confined to chthonic worship and Oipcrstitiort.
(T heophr. Char. 16.5, see II 2.3 n. 58) according to KA 80. M M R 281 f., GGR 159;
contra, F .T . van Straaten B A Beuh 49 (1974) 159-8 0; the splendid picturc of Ajax
praying before his suicide (Soph. Ajax 856-65) A K 19 ( 1976) PI. 15. But £wm«Û7i<n
in prayer (e.g. Anacreon P M G 348; 357) signifies the intention to clasp another’s
knees, cf. Od. 6 .14 1- 9 ; S í¿H 46 f. Hands raised to the sk\; II. 15*371: Pind. hthvi
6 .4 1. G . Neum ann. Gesten und Gebärden in der griechischen Kunst, 1965.
20 E.g. M en. Samia 444-6.
21 K . Sittl. Die Gebärden der Griechen und Römer 1890. 18 1 f.; in this sense one speaks of
proskynem, Aristoph. Eq. 156, Soph. OC 1654 f. See I 3.2 n. 13.
22 Plat. Symp. 220 d, cf. Aristoph. Plut. 7 7 1. M enander Fr. 678 (ed. Kocrlc).
2 3 Aristoph. Lys. 4 35 -8 5.
24 Horn. II. 9.564; Hymn, Apoll. 3 33; Aesch. Pers. 683; Eur. Tro 130 5 f.; cf. Ch. Picard.
R H R 1 1 4 (1936) 13 7 -5 7 ·
25 From Selinus, since middle o f the sixtfi century: S E G 26 (19 76 -7) no. 1 1 1 2 - 1 ® ·
(1959 ) no. 573 (M alophoros sanctuary; W .M . C alder. Philologus 107
136 -6 2 ). From the Keram eikos. from the fifth/fourth century: W. Peek, Attiscm
Grabinschriften II, Abh. Berlin, «956, 5 9 - θ ι. With a magical d o ll:J. Trum pf, A M T !
(1958 ) 9 4 -10 2 . Cf. Plato Leg. 933 a. E arlier collections: R. W ünsch, ‘Tabella*
defixionum ’ , Appendix to I G I I I 3, 1897; Antike Fluchtafeln, 19 12 ; A . AudoUCW
Defixionum Tabellae, 1904; cf. G G R 800-04.
FU N C T IO N A N D M ET H O D S^ 377
4 PURIFICATION
<re II η ·4 ·
1 Wächter (>910); Fehrle (19 10 ); KA 155-6 9 ; F. Pfister. ‘ K a th arsis’ . R E Suppl. V I
3 k_£2 ; G G R 8 9 - 1 10 ; M oulinier (19 52 ). Cf. generally: Guilt or Pollution and RiUs o f
'pnfication. Proc. o f the Xlth international Congress o j the International Association fo r the
Riston o f R é g i o n H · ! 9 ^ ® : Douglas. Purity and Danger, 1966. R . Parker.
Miasma, i 9® 3 ·
Scf II ι nn. 6 3 -7 .
4 Od. 22.481-94
7 gurkert, Grazer Beiträge 4 (19 75) 77. Purification by burning o f incense in Babylon:
’ Hdt I . 198
6 Schol. Eur. Or. 40, cf. Plut. Quaest. Rom. 263 e. Thus hagnizein (Eur. Or. 40; Suppl.
U l i f.) and kathagizein mean in practice to bum .
η J . Harrison. ‘ M ystica vannus Iacchi’ , J H S 23 (190 3) 29 2-324 ; M .P. Nilsson. The
Dionysiae Mysteries in the Hellenistic and Roman Age, 19 57, 2 1 - 3 7 . Sec n. 39.
fl On katachysmata: E. Sam ter, Familienfeste der Griechen und Römer, 19 0 1, 1—14; cf. on
the oulai see II 1 η. 9.
g Aristoph. Fr. 255; Theophr. Hist. Plant. 7 .12 ; D iphilos Fr. 126 {C A F II, p. 577).
10 AN E T 346; Babylonian evidence in H. Ringgren, Religions o f the Ancient Near East,
1 9 7 3 .9 1·
H Klcidemos FGrH ist 323 F 14. Silent outpouring: Aesch. Cho. 9b f.
12 See II I 3.5; V I I 3.4.
13 The daimones view was overtaxed by E. Sam ter (see n. 8), the material view by
L. Deubner (e.g. A F 2 1 ; 180 f.). In Hippocr. Morb. Sacr. 1 (vol. V I, p. 362,
ed. Littré) miasma and alastores stand side by side.
14 Sec n. 48.
15 See n. 5 1.
16 See nn. 56-g.
17 GGR 6 15 -2 5 ; 6 3 2 -7 .
18 Arist. Ath. Pol. 1; Plut. Solon 12; his method: Diog. L acrt. 1 .1 to; legendary human
sacrifice: Neanthes FGrHist 84 F 16; all testimonies in FGrHist 457. See II 8 n. 87.
19 Plat. Phdr. 224 de; Resp. 364 be; E ur. Hipp. 1379 f.
20 Hes. Erga 740.
21 Plat. Leg. 7 16 e. C f. Eur. Or. 1604; Aristoph. Ran. 355.
22 Demosth. 22.78.
a3 Quoted in Porph. Abst. 2 .19 from Theophrastos, and in Clem . A l. Strom. 4 .12 4 .1;
5· *3 -3 ; cf. also L S S 59; 82; 86; 9 1; 108; L S A M 20 = S IG 985; Pollux 1.25.
234- 428 .
35 Paus. 10.34.8.
36 H N 258 n. g.
4 ' G r a f°o 6 " al"’ maii° " ' Soph F' 34 (cd ρ' ΗΓ5° η ): ^ C G 64.16 (Mcunnu|·
46 Eur. Ate. 9 8-100 and Schol.; Aristoph. Ecct. 1033 and Schol.
^ ' 6.58.2, L S C C 97 A 25-8 , cf. Plut. Quaest. Crate. 296; see IV' 1 n. 47.
48 II. 1 .3 1 3 f
49 Callim . Fr. 19 4 .28 -3 1; Clem . AI. Strom. 5.48.4.
50 Abaris: Paus. 3 .13 .2 . T halctas: Plut. D , mus. 114 6 bc. Bakis: Thcopompos FGrlHlt
1 ‘5 F 77· Rohde II 69-99.
51 0 “ , /T ', 37· ' 4 Γ: ' 33 · P R II 246-53; H N 168-74; localized in Lousoi sina
Bacchyhd. 11.3 7 -9 ; Stiglitz 10 1-0 5.
52 Hippocr. Morb. Sacr. 1.42 (vol. V I, p. 362, cd. Littré).
53 Plat. Ion 534 a; Symp. 2 15 b; Phdr. 234 d; Leg. 790 d; Minos 3 18 b; I.M . Linford».
7 he Corybantie Rites in Plato (Univ. o f California Publ 13) 1946 12 1-6 2 ; Dodds
77-g.
54 A n si. Pal 1342 a 7 - 16 in relation to Poet 1449 b 28. For the poctolog«*1
discussion see Lesky 640 f.
PU R IFIC A T IO N B Y BLOO D 379
H era cle s B 5.
§ V/ \n 'In "Hiuc 1.126 .2. T hc sacred law from Cyrene (LSS 155) which was
ϋ « g . ' „ nrd b y D elp h i (cf. J . S e rv a is . B C H 84 (i9 6 0 ) 1 1 2 - 4 7 ) » fra g m e n .a ry an d
r a s to contents. A n e x trac t from the dccree of the A th en ian E u p a tn d a ,:
b· the fu llest lite ra ry text is A p o ll. R h o d . 4 .7 0 2 -17 ; cf. A e sc h . Eum. 2 8 1 ;
h O T o o - E u r. Ilip p 34-7. ¡p k . Taut. 12 2 3 f ; Or. 8 16 f. H dt. 1.3 5 ; P la t.. L et·
^ P rl-8 6 o c H o m er seem s to ignore the ritu al bu t for the sim ile II. 2 4 .4 8 0 -3,
v w ñ n U m e r s o - v , on the other h an d. O d y sse u s p urifies A ch illes o f thc m u rd e r o f
Thersites a cco rdin g to thc 'A ith io p is ' {Ham m Optra V , ed. A lle n , p. 10 5 f.).
φ P»us. = ' 3 ‘ · ^ v 2
» P rin cip a ^ so u rce: L iv . 40.6 from P olyb ios. G F 404 f.; G G R 10 6 f.; S . E ltrem ,
Symbrlat Oilotnsts 2 5 (19 4 7 ) 3 6 -4 3 · T h e H ittite ritu al: G u rn e y 1 5 1 ; R I M ·37
(1950) 5 - 2 5 . T h e O ld Ttslamrnt: G e n esis 15 .9 - 1 8 ; Je r e m ia h 3 4 .18 I. 1 he Persian s:
Hdt. 7.39 f. In m yth : A p o llo d . 3 .1 7 3 : H .S . V ersn e l. 'S a crific iu m lu stra le 1, Mtdrd.
Std. Init, tr Ramt 37 ( 19 7 5 ) I - I 9 -
4-5 Pharmakos
5 T H E SA N CTU A R Y
5 . 1 Temenos
5 .2 Altar
5.4 Anathernnta
6 P R IE S T S
7 T H E FESTIV A L
7. i Pompe
7 .2 Agermos
•20 Λ. Dieterich, ‘Som m ertag’ , Kleine Schriften. 19 1 1 , 3 2 4 -53 ; K M culi, ‘ H rur|u -
im Totcnkultus. O pferritual und Volksbrauch', Scfuveiz. Archiv f ü r V n lT f ^ S
28 (19 27 -29 ). 1-3 8 = M euli (1 9 7 5 ) 33- 68 ; K . Latte, Kleine Schriften, ufi%
21 Parnemiographi Suppl. I 65; Nilsson Op. I l l 246 f.
22 S I G 10 15 = L S A M 73.
23 Acsch. Fr. 355 (cd. M eile).
24 Hdt. 4.35. Cf. also S I G 1006 = L S C G 175 (Demetcr. Kos); L S A A f 47 rfcfijjS
IJ> C G 64 (M essenia).
25 Schol. Theocr. p. 2 f ; 7 f ; 14; 16 f. (ed. Wendel).
26 Plut. Thes. 22.10 ; Schol. Aristoph. Eq. 729, Plut. 1054; Diehl II (antj j ,
‘Carm in a Popularia’ 2; F G rH isl 401 c F t.
27 Sam os: Diehl II (2nd edn) ‘Carm ina Popularia’ i; Rhodes: Theognis FCr/l
äs6 F ι = P M C 848 = Aih. jbo bd.
28 Iam bi. Vit. Pyth. 91 f.. L & S 149 f.
29 See III 3.4 n. 21.
30 Luc. Sa il. 15. Cf. Latte (1); F. Weege, Der Tanz in der Antike , 1926; L .B . Lawler
The Dance in Ancient Greece, 1964; R. T olle, Frühgriechische Reigentänze , lytyj
P. Prudhornmeau. La dame grecque antique I—11. 1966; Calam e (1977).
31 J .A . Haldane, ‘ M usical instruments in Greek w orship’. Greece & Rome 13 (196G)
98 -10 7 .
32 SIG 57 = LSAM 50; molpoi in Olbia: F. Graf, M H 31 (1974) 20 9 -15; cf. F. Poland«
R E Suppl. VI 509— 20.
33 Pind. 01 . 13 .19 ; Burkert, G R B S 7 (1966) 98.
34 G R B S 7 (1966) 8 7 - 1 2 1 ; contradicted in favour o f a Hittite etymology by
O. Szemerényi, H erm a 103 (1975) 300 -32, but in an account which ignores the
goats in the Dionysian context on Attic vase paintings ( G R B S 98-100) and the
parallel of the amados ( G R B S 92 f.; H N 124). See II I 2 .10 n. 18.
35 Latte (1) 6 7 -7 1.
36 See I 4 n. 18; III 2.1 n. 16; V I 1.2 nn. 22-5.
37 B S A 15 (1909) 339-56 ; S I G 685; Powell 160-2; Harrison (2) 1-2 9 ; Latie (t) 43“ 54î
M .L . West, J H S 85 (1965) 149—59; on the temple at Palaikastro: BSA 40
( 1939-40) 66-8.
38 Latte (1) 34-6. Apollodoros POxy. 22641 Col. ii, A Henrichs. Cronache Ercolantsi
5 (19 75) 20 f.
39 Sec I 3.6 n. 20 (Paean), cf. I 3.5 nn. 18-22; II I 2.5 n. 20; 2 .10 n. 8.
40 Chorus o f Artemis II. 16, 183; Hymn. Aphr. 118 , cf. Od. 6. 150—2; Calam e (>97P ‘
174-90. See III 2.5 n. 27; III 2.6 n. 1 1 ; V 1 n. 28.
41 Sec I I I 3.2 nn. 5 -18 .
Fitments orientaux dans la religion grecque annenne, JC)(k>. 14 5-5 3; Ugantica 6 (1969)
^ . 1 8 ; Arch. Reports (19 7 0 -7 1) 75; B C H 99 (1975) ö34 E»g Φ - H. Kühne,
ßoghdader Mitteilungen 7 (1974) 1 0 1 -to .
Λ See I 4 n 49 · 1 1 > n 94
Tauroi- Ath. 425 c; poloi: Hsch. s.v. palia; polos, a priest in Messenia, IG V 1 1444;
' 'Milissav. Callim . Hymn. a. 1 10 f.; Apollodoros FGrHist ¿44 F 89; Porph. De Antr.
tfymph. 18; Schol. Pind. Pyth. 4 .10 6 a; Schol. Theocr. 15.94; arktoi'. see V 3.4 n. 34..
Í , Kahil, CR A I (1976) «26-30.
, q q r PI. 3 1.2 ; EAA I! 999 f.; sec V I 1.2 n. 18; I 3.4 n. 10 -12 .
t See HI 3.2 n . j o .
To Sec III 2.IO n. 42.
,q D a w k in s 163, PI. 4 7-6 2: G G R PI. 3 1 .1 .
•o Hsch. s.v. kyrittoi and bryllichistar, G F 184-7; G G R 16 1 f.
Paus. 6.22.9; H N 170.
-2 Pickard-Cambridge («) PI. 12 b. no. 69; H N 170; T h .G . K aragiorga, Gorgeie
kephalf. 1970, 8 1-9 . See II 4 n. 5 1.
CO Hsch and Phot. s.v. Praxidikai.
On the Gorgon type: J H. Croon, J H S 75 (1955) c>—16; T h . Ph. Howe. AJA
58 («954) 2 0 9 -2 1; Karagiorga, see n. 52; J. Floren, Studien zur Typologie des
Gorgoneion, 1977.
55 Paus 2.20.7.
56 Paus. 8 .15 .3 ; Stiglitz 134 -4 3.
57 See V 2.4. T he Jacies o f Artem is at Chios, by Bupalos (Plin. Nat. Hist. 36. 12) was
not a ma.sk (pace W. Dconna. R E G 40 (1920) 244-33) but a normal statue, cf. Thes.
Ling. Lat. s.v. facies.
58 Sernos FGrHist 396 F 24 = Ath. 622 b.
59 Hsch. s.v. lombai; G G R 162 f.
Bo A. Körte, J d ! 8 (1893) 6 1- 9 3 ; H. Payne. Necrocorinthia, 19 3 1. 118 -2 4 ; E- Buschor,
Satyrtänze und frühes Drama, M unich, 1943; A. Greifenhagen, Eine attische schwarz
figurige I 'asengattung und die Darstellung des Komos im 6 J h ., 1929; Pickard-Cam bridgc
(1) 1 1 7 f., 16 7-74 ; I. Ju ck e r, A K 6 (1963) 58-60; A . Sceberg, Connthian Komos
Vases. B IC S Suppl 27, 197«.
61 H. Fluck, Skurrile Riten in griechischen Kulten. Dissertation, Freiburg, 19 3 1;
M .L. West. Studies in Greek Elegy and Iambus, 1974, 22-39 ; ^ Siems. Aischrologia:
das Sexuell-Hässliche im antiken Epigramm, Dissertation, Göttingen. «974.
62 Hymn. Dem. 202 f.. Apollad. 1. 30; Richardson 2 1 3 - 18 ; G ra f 194-9.
A F 53; 57 f
64 Hdt. 5.83.2; cf. Demeter M ysia: Paus. 7.27.10.
65 Apollod. 1.13 9 ; Apollon. Rhod. 4 .17 19 -3 0 ; G F 17 s f.
Gephynsmoi: H N 278.
67 HN 229 n. 18.
^ GB IX 2 34 -52; C C S III 103; G G R 161.
69 Cursing in Lindos: Burkert, Z R G G 22 11970) 364 f. Ritual lament in the
Leukothea cult in Elea: Xenophanes A 13 = Arist. Rhet. 1400 b 5.
7 .5 A gon
7 .7 Sacred M arnage
8 .1 Enthousiasmai
8 .3 Oracles
T h e Gods
I ΓΗ Ε S P E L L OF H O M ER
g „ e llf Die Entdeckung des Geistes, 4th edn, 19 7 5, 1 5 1 —77: N ilsson, ‘ G ö tter und
f) 8· chologie bei H om er’ , Op. I 3 5 5 -9 « : Dodds 1- 2 7 ; A . L esky, Göttliche und
chache Motivation im homerischen Epos, H eidelberg, 19 6 1; on the interplay o f
^ j ^ o l o g y and oral technique: J R usso and S. Sim on , j f i i s t l d 29 (1968) 483-98.
j £ ; especially K . Reinhardt, Das Parisurteil, 1938 = Tradition und Geist, i960, 16 -36 .
p V fazo n , Introduction à l ’Iliade, 194 2, 294; cf. C .M . Bow ra, Tradition and Design in
t1 ¡Had, «930. 222; G . M u rra y, The Rise o f the Greek Epic, 4th edn, 1934, 265.
a On the ‘laughing go d s’ : see I I I 4 n. 48.
n the distinctive nature o f the Odyssey: A . H eubeck. Der Odysseedichter und die Ilias,
19 j954 7 2 -8 7 ; B urkert, ‘ D as Lied von A res und A p h rod ite’ , R hM 103 (i960)
1 30*44 ·
See West (1966).
‘The K in gsh ip in H ea ven ’ : A N E T 120 f.; ‘T h e Song o f U llikum m is’ and ‘T h e
Myth o f Illu y a n k as’ : A S E T 1 2 1 - 6 ; A . L esky, ‘ H ethitische T exte und griechischer
Mythos’ , Anzeiger der Akademie in Wien ( 1950) 13 7 -6 0 = Gesammelte Schriften, 1966,
3 5 6 -7 1, cf. 37 2 -4 0 0 ; A . H eubeck, ‘ M ythologische V orstellungen des Alten
Orients im archaischen G riechen tum ’ , Gymnasium 62 (19 5 5 ) 5 0 8 -2 5 ; F. D irlm eier,
»Homerisches Epos und V ord erer O rien t’ , R h M 98 (19 5 5 ) >8-37 = Ausgewählte
Schrißen, 1970, 55 —67; G . Stein er, Der Sukzessionsmythos in Hesiods Theogonie und ihre
orxentalischen Parallelen, D issertation, H am b u rg, 1958; P. W alcot, Hesiod and the Near
East. 1966. In the Iliad, the succession m yth is presupposed in the - linguistically
late - form ula ‘son o f crooked-m inded K ro n o s’ for Z eu s (e.g. II. 2.20 5).
yi T.W . Allen. W .R . H alliday and E .E . Sikes, The Homeric Hymns, 2nd edn, 1936;
Richardson (19 74 ).
33 Hd(. 2.53.
$4 K. Reinhardt, Vermächtnis der Antike, i960, 17 ; ‘ D as "H o m erisch e" ist aber hier wie
allenthalben nicht nur D ichterphantasie, cs breitet sich als etw as schlechthin
Überlegenes über Ä lteres aus: als eine neue R eligio n .’
35 Sec Schefold (196 4 ) and Fittschen (1969).
36 Schefold 27 Fig. 4 (675/50).
37 Schefold PI. 10, Sim on 127 (c. 650).
38 Schefold PI. 13 , Sim on 186 (680/70).
39 See II ι n. 90 and 9 1.
4° Sec I I 5 n. 22; P .G . M axw ell-Stu art. ’ M yrtle and the E leusinian m ysteries', Wiener
Studien 6 ( 1 9 7 2 ) 1 4 5 - 6 1 .
41 N. H im m elm ann-W ildschfuz, Zur Eigenart des klassischen Götterbildes, 1959; W’alter
passim. On the assem bly o f the gods on the Parthenon Frieze: H. K n ell, Antaios
¡0 (1968-69) 3 8 -54 .
4a Sec II 5 n. 83.
43 Strab. 8.354; D io C h rys. Or. 12 .2 5 ; ^ a l . M ax . 3.7 ext. 4; M acrob. Sal. 5 .13 .2 3 . II.
‘ •528-30.
2 IN D IV ID U A L G O D S
2 .1 Zeus
2 .2 Hera
ι Ruscher. R M L I 2 0 7 0 - 2 13 4 ; C G S I 17 9 -2 5 7 ; E itrem , R E V I I I 3 6 9 -4 0 ,. J Ê
42 7- 33 ; Sim on 3 5 -6 5 ; K eren yi (3). P .E . Slater, The Glory o f Hera, Greek
and the Greek Family. 1968, gives more o f a psychoan alysis o f the Greek
structure.
2 W . Pötscher, R h M 104 ( 19 6 1) 3 0 2 -5 5 ; 108 (19 6 5) 3 17 - 2 0 . G dH I 2 3 7 an(j
350 argue for the m eaning M istress as a fem inine to Heros. M aster; voun*
heifer: A .J. van W indekcns, Glotta 36 (19 58 ) 3 0 9 - 1 1. M vcen aean E -τα· sec Γ *
nn. 6 and 10.
3 Ch. W aldstein, The Argive Heraeum. 19 0 2 -0 5; P. A m an d rv, Hesperia 2 1 ( i ot
2 2 2 - 7 4 ; B ergquist 19 -2 2 ; G rub en 10 5 -8 ; H Lau ter, A M 88 (19 7 3 )
J . C . W right, J H S to2 (198 2) 186-99. See I 1 n. 38; II 5 n. 34.
4 V .K . M üller, Der Polos, die griechische Götterkrone, 1 9 15 . C f. above all the woode
statuette from Sam os: Sim on 55 PI. 49.
5 Phoronis Fr. 4 (Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, ed. K in kel) = C lem . AI. Sinn
1.16 4 .2 .
6 See I I 5 n. 65.
7 See II i after n. 88; U . Pestalozza, Athenaeum 17 (19 3 9 ) 10 5 - 3 7 an d Rettçi(nu
Mediterranea, IQ 51, 1 5 1 IT.
8 See II 5 η. 64.
9 H . P ayne. Perachora I. 1940; J . ü u n b a b in , Perachora I L »962. T h e relationship of
the two tem ples to one another is problem atic: J . D u n b a b in ,7 / ^ 6 8 (1948) 59-Í19;
J . Salm o n , B S A 67 (19 7 2 ) 159 -20 4 .
10 See I I 5 11. 78; I 4 n. 38.
1 1 Paus. 5 . 1 7 .1; G rub en 50 -5.
12 L iv . 2 4 .3.4 f·· R E V I I I 3 8 1 ; Sim on 4 5 f.
13 Archeologia Classica 4 (19 5 2 ) «4 5-52; Arch. Reports (19 5 5 ) 54; P. Sestieri, 'Icon·
ograp hie et culte d ’ H éra à P aestum ’ , Revue des arts ( 19 55) 14 9 -58 ; G ruben 24$ - 5 >·
2 5 5 -6 2 ; EA A V 8 3 3 ; K erén yi (3) 13 3 -4 2 .
14 P. Zan can i M ontuoro and U . Zanotti Bianco, Heraion aile foce del S ilt, l-M.
1 c)51 —4; Ε Λ Α V I I 15 7 .
15 II. 4.59 f ; ‘ sister and w ife’ : II. 16 .4 32; 18 .35 6 ; in Hes. Theog. 454, H era is thí
youngest daughter o f K ro n o s, ju st as Z eus is the youngest son.
16 11. 1 4 .2 1 3 .
17 O n chrysothronos: E. R isch , Studii Classice 14 (19 7 2 ) «7 -2 5 .
18 II. 1 4 . 1 5 3 - 3 5 3 , the line cited 294; see II 7 n. 90; I I I 2 .1 n. 8.
19 A M 58 (19 3 3 ) 12 3 Fig. 69; A M 68 (19 5 3 ) 80 and B eilage 4 1; W alter 158 Fig· *4°·
20 A M 68 (19 5 3 ) B eilage 1 3 - 1 5 ; Schefold PI. 39; Sim on 50.
2 1 Sim on 52 f.
22 M ount O che: Steph . B yz. s.v. Karystos\ at the E lym nion: Soph Fr. 4 37 ( P e a r s o n ,
cf. Plut. Fr. 15 7 .3 .
23 Diod Sic. 5.7 2.4 ; see II 7 η. 95.
24 E ur. Hippol. 748; E ratosth . Catast. 3.
35 od. 23. 296. . -Æ
26 A F 17 7 F. ; new ly m arrieds must bring w edding offerings ίο her, gamelon
inscription (see II 6 n. 2 1 ) A 25); but not all w eddings take place in one tn°
contra K eren yi (3) 87 f.; Z eus H eraios: L S C G 1 A 2 1 ; but there is also a -
A ph rod isios on Paros, and a Z eus D am airios on Rhodos: R E X A 2 8 4 .51;
c ,e II 7 η · 7 '·
5Î L p p h o Fr. 17 ( L o bel and P age), cf. Anth. P al. X I 18g.
5 .16 ; on the E lean hym n !0 D ionysos: P M C 871 see II 1 n. 89; I V 4 n.^24.
»9 n r rather ‘o f all the A eo lian s’ , A lcaeu s 129 .7 (L ob el and P age); sec 1 3 .6 n. 10.
* //5 .8 9 0 ·
S' cK I 3 3 nn. 1 3 - 1 4 ; H I 3 .! n. 10.
3* γ ι,,τ ε are a n um ber o f p o rtrayals o f this scene, for the most part E tru scan : Cook
53 j „ g^-94; M . R en ard, Hnmmages Rayet, 1964, 6 1 1 - 1 8 ; a fter a N ea r E astern m odel:
y ; O rthm ann, Istanbuler Mitteilungen 19 -2 0 (19 6 9 -7 0 ) 13 7 -4 3 .
. . Paus. 8.22.2.
II 14-296: C allim . Fr. 75.4; T h eocr. 15.6 4 ; connected w ith pre-nuptial rites in
35 and P aros: C allim . F r. 75 and Schol. T II. 14.296.
, paus. 2 .3 6 .1 f ; 2 .17 .4 ; Schol. T h eocr. 15.6 4.
*, Callim- F t. 599
58 Steph. B yz. s .v . Herrn,on.
w Paus. 2.38-2.
i i . 1.53 6 -6 9
11 U- 15 * 18 -2 4 ; H eraclit. Allegoriae 40.
*2 II. 18 .36 4 -7.
Acsch. F t. 3 5 5 -8 , cf. Plat. /?«/>. 3 8 1 d. H era seems to bc a step-m other already in
M ycenaean tim es: see I 3 .6 n. 10.
44 HN 17 8 f.; 16 8 -7 4 ; 16 5 -8 .
45 II- 19.96—1 3 3 , cf. 14 .2 4 9 -6 1; 1 5 .2 5 -3 0 ; E uripides, Heracles; the lion and the h ydra:
Hes. Theog. 328; 3 14 .
46 Hymn. Apoll. 3 0 5 -5 4 ; Stesichoros P M G 239; according to E uphorion F t. 99
(Powell) she is also the m other o f Prom etheus.
47 Hes. Theog. 927 f.; F t. 34 3; 11. 18 .3 9 5 -9 ; Hymn. Apoll. 3 16 -2 0 .
48 Alcaeus F r. 349 (L ob el and P age); U . v. W ilam ow itz-M oellendorfT, Kleine
Schnßen, V 2, 19 3 7 , 5 - 1 4 ; V ase paintings: F. B rom m er, J d l 52 (19 3 7 ) 19 8 -2 19 ;
A. Seeb erg tw/ / / 5 85 (19 6 5 ) 102-0 9 .
49 A ‘ secret m yth ’ to explain the pom egranate in H era ’s hand (P aus. 2 .17 .4 ) and
‘secret sacrifices' (P aus. 2 .1 7 .1 ) .
50 H N 16 5 -8 .
5* Menodotos FG rH ist 5 4 1 F 1 = A th . 14.6 72 a -6 7 3 b, with further details 6 73 bd,
including the testim ony o f A n acreon . P M G 352. G F 4 6 -9 ; G G R 429 f.; cf. II 5
n. go.
52 Bergquist 4 3 - 7 ; see I I 5 n. 19; I 4 n. 56.
53 Echrle 13 9 -4 8 . C o rrespon d in gly, m yrtle w reaths are forbidden near the Sam ian
Hera: N ie. Alex. 6 19 f , Schol. A risto ph. Ran. 330.
54 H era’s w eddin g on Sam os w as spoken o f by V arro : L ac t. Div. Inst 1 .1 7 .8 ; A ug.
Oe civ. D. 6.7. A hieros gamos w as inferred by E. B uschor, A M 55 (19 3 0 ) 19, and in a
different w ay by G . K ip p , ‘ Z u m H era -K u lt a u f S a m o s’ , Innsbrucker Beiträge zur
Kulturwissenschaft 18 (19 74 ) 15 7 -2 0 9 . Q uite enigm atic is the votive im age o f H era
fellating Z e u s on w hich C h rysip p o s expatiated, S V F I I no. 1 0 7 1- 4 .
55 Paus. 9 .3 .3 -8 ; Plut. F r. 1 5 7 -8 ; G F 5 0 -6 ; G G R 4 3 1 ; K e ren y i (3) 1 1 4 I.; S & H 13 2 - 4 ;
?fc 1 1 7 n. 93; II 1 n. 73.
3® ace I 3 .3 n. 30; II 1 n. 73.
Paus. 9*2.7.
5® See I 2 n. 10. C f. R . R enehan, ‘ H era a s earth -goddess’ , R A M 1 17 (19 7 4 ) 1 9 3 - 2 0 1.
402 N O T E S TO P A G E S I 3 6 - 4 O
III
2 .3 Poseidon
2 .4 Athena
2 .5 A pollo
2 .6 Artemis
2-7 Aphrodite
33 Sappho hr. 2; 5 ; 1 (L ob ei and Page); W . Schadew aldt, Sappho: Welt und Dichtung.
Dasein in der Liebe, \ 948.
34 Plat. Symp. 180 d (T.: X e n . Svmp. 8.9. A ph rod ite Pandem os and prostitution
introduced by Solon: Philem on Fr. 4 ( C A F 11 479).
35 Laum onier 4 82-50 0 ; Fleischer 14 6 -18 4 .
36 F. Sokolowski, 'A p h ro d ite as G u ard ian o í G reek M agistrates , H T hR 57 ( 1964)
1-8 ; F. Croissan t an d F. Sa lv ia t, 'A phro dite gardienne des m agistrats’ , B C H
9 0 (19 6 6 )4 6 0 -7 1.
37 Dümmler. R E 1 2776-80; F urtw än gler, R M l. 1 4 0 6 -19 ; Sim on 24 1 f.
38 The evidence is collected in O verbeck 110s. 12 2 7 -4 5 , especially L uc. Amores 13 f.
On Venus G e n e trix : C . K o ch . R E V U I A 864-8; R . Schillin g, La religion romaine de
Fouit, 1954.
2 .8 Hermes
2 .9 D em e Ur
2 .IO Dionysos
2 . 11 Hephaistos
I
j LESSER GOD S 415
|H 3·
V IH 3 3 3 —7; in m rdical terms: E. R osn cr, Forschungen und Fortschritte 29 (19 35)
f.; 3s dw arfs: W ilamowitz, Kleine Schriften V .a , 3 1 - 4 ; as an archetype: S. Sas.
p/r Hinkende als Symbol, 1964
cfC III 2-3 Π. +7-8. ,
Alcaeus Fr. 34g (Lobel and Page). Lcm nian Kabeiroi and wine: Aesch. Fr. 45
19 /¡vielter); Burkcrt. CQ 10 (1970 ) 9.
//. 1 .5 7 1 —
10 0 1 8.266-366; see II I J-7 II. ¿4.
1 n 18.369-430.
\V Niarg, Homer über die Dichtung, det Schild des Achilleus, 1957; cf. H. Schrade.
^ Gymnasium 57 (»950) 3 8 -55; 9 4 - 1 1 2 .
•2 .12 Ares
j Sioll and Furtw ängler, R M L I 4 77-9 3. T üm pel and Sauer. R E II 6 42-67; CGS V
396-414; W· Pötscher. ‘ A res', Gymnasium 66 (1959) 5 -14 .
3 A. Heubeck. Die Sprache 17 (19 7 1) 8 -2 2 ; the personal name Areimenes, see I 3.6
η· 9
3 See I 3 6 n. g. A res and Athena A reia, for instance, in the oath ol the Athenian
epheboi: T od II no. 20 4.17; L. Robert, Hellenika 10 (19 55) 76 1.
4 Cf. Lexikon des frühgriechischen Epos I 1259-6 2.
5 H. JO.4&-53.
6 11. 1 5 .1 1 0 —42.
J 11. a 1.3 9 1-4 3 3 .
8 il £89 0 f., cf. 590-909.
9 II. 13 .3 0 1; Od. 8 .3 6 1.
10 //· 5-385-9 1: E. Sim on. Studi Etruschi 46 (1978) 125-4 7 . Cf. the oracle concerning
the setting up o f a chained Ares statue from Sycdra: L. Robert, Documents de l'Asie
Mineure meridionale, 1966, 9 1-10 0 .
11 Divergent accounts in Hes. Scutum 57 IT. and Apollod. 2 . 1 14; PR II 50& -12.
12 PR II 10 7 -10 ; F. V ian, Le j origines de Thebes, 1963.
13 Near Troizen Paus. 2.32.9; Gcronthrai Paus. 3.22.6; HaJikam assos Vitr. 2 .8 .11;
for Ares and Aphrodite see V 1 n. 36. A priest in Erythrai, I E 201 a 3. T heritas at
Sparta. Paus. 3 .19 .7 . is rather Enyalios, cf. Hsch. s.v. Theritas.
14 Overbeck no. 8 18 ; Lippold 186.
15 Paus. 1.8.4; Hesperia 28 (1959) 1-6 4 ; H .A. Thom pson, The Agora of Athens, 1972,
1Ü2-5. The Hymn to Ares which is transmitted am ong the Homeric H ym ns dates
from Late A ntiquity and is perhaps by Proclus: M L. West, CQ 20 ( 1970) 300-04.
3 .1 Lesser Gods
i
römischen Welt 1. 2. 1972. 397-420. T h e relationship heslia-histie - Vesta cannot bc
explained in terms o f Indo-European linguistics; borrowings from a third
language must also be involved.
4 16 N O TES TO PA G ES 1 7 O -3
3 Hdt. 5.7a f.
4 A rist. Pol. 132 2 b 26; R M L I ¿630 -4 3.
•3 Plut. Arif lid. 20.4. S e r II [ π. 50.
6 G G R 3 3 7 f.: A ristokritos FG rH ist 493 F. 5.
7 Plat. Phdr. 247a.
8 Hymn. Aphr. 2 1 - 3 2 ; cf. Hymn. 24 (for D elphi); Pind. Non. t i . 1 - 1 0 .
9 Hes. Erga 733; G . B achelard, Psychoanalyst du feu ,1949.
10 See I 3 .3 n «3; I 3.6 n. 4; Je sse n . RF. V 2 i o i - t o ; G G R 3 1 2 C; R .p u n u
'C retan E ilcith yia', CQ 52 (19 58 ) 2 2 1 - 3 .
11 See I 3.6 n. 3. G érard-R ousseau 89 f . J essen, R E V 2 6 5 1—3.
12 X cn . Anab. 1.8 .18 ; 5 .2 .14 .
13 //. 1 7 .2 1 1 f.; 20.69, c<- 2 1 .3 9 1 f.
14 Steuding. R M L I 18 8 8 -19 10 ; C C S II 5 0 1 - 1 9 ; H eckcnbach. R E V II 2769-^2· r j u
I 16 9 -7 7 ; G G R 7 2 2 -5 : T h . K rau s, Hekate, i960.
15 Aesch. Suppl. 676; E ur Phuen. 109; I G I, and edn, 3 10 .19 2 - 4 , L S C G 18 B 1 1 · ‘fo,
A rtem is H ecate in the precinct o f H ecate’ .
tf> R ohde II 80 -9 ; E ur. Med. 3 9 5 -7 ; Flur. Hel. 569 f.
17 See I I I 2.9 n. 15.
18 Laum onier 4 06 -25; ΕΛΑ IV 456 f ; see II 6 η. 23. Doubts about the C arian origin
are expressed by W. Berg. Numen 21 (19 74 ) 128-4 0 . with reference 10 the evidence
for L ag in a which is all H ellenistic, but this carries little w eight. T h e name Hccatf
w as associated with the H u m a n G reat G oddess H cpat by K raus (see n. 14) 55
n. 264 Cf. also II I 2.5 n. 30.
19 H es Theog. 4 1 1 - 5 2 , on the authenticity o f the hymn cf. West 276-80. Hesiod’*
brother Perses probably has a thcophoric name, cf. W est 278, H N 210 .
20 K Kerenyi. Prometheus: das griechische Mythologern van der menschlichen Existenz, 1946;
L. Séchan, Le mythe de Promethee, 19 5 1; W. K ra u s. R E X X I I I 653-702;
L. Fxkhardt, R E X X I I I 702-30; U . Bianchi, ‘ Prom etheus, der titanische
T rick ste r’. Paideuma 7 ( 19 6 1) 4 14 - 3 7 ; R Trm isson, Le thème de Promethée dans la
littérature européenne, 1 964; J . Duchem in. Prométhée: histoire du mythe, de ses origines
orientales à ses incarnations modernes, 1974. A s the spelling Prométhia (IG I (2nd edn)
84.37) show s, the nam e is properly Promethos, cf. Prornathos on an early inscriptionj
Je ffe ry 225. For the Greeks. Prom etheus w as connected with the v e rb prometheomai,
to take forethought (cf. V Schm idt. Z P E 19 (19 75) , 83 ~ 9 ° ) · which led to thc
creation o f an F.pitnriheus. Afterthought. The association with the Old Indie
word for fire wood, pramanth- (A. K uhn. Die Herabkunft des Feuers, 1859). does not
w ork linguistically.
21 Hes. Theog. 5 1 0 - 6 1 6 , Erga 4 7 -10 5 , O . Lendle, Die Pandorasage bei Hesiod, >957»
G . Fink, Pandora und Epimetheus, D issertation, E rlangen, 1958.
22 O n the continuing controversy about w hether A eschylus w as in fact the author of
Prometheus Bound, see Lesky 29 2-4 : M . G riflith. The Authenticity of Prometheus BouruL
»977 ·
23 T h e creation o f m ankind: A esop 228 (ed. H ausrath ), Plat. Prot. 320 d -322 a*
M en ander Fr. 7 18 . T h e burlesque m otif o f the bungling o f the creation o f mankind
(Phaedrus 4 .14 Γ; O . W einrcich, Fabel, Aretalogie, Novelle, 1 9 3 1, 4 3-50 ) already ha*
a Sum erian counterpart. S .N . K ram er, Sumerian Mythology, 2nd edn, 19 6 1.
24 Sum erian scenes o f thc captive Sun G od who is threatened by a bird o f prey
rescued by a hero with a bow and arrow : FI. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, 1939»
and Pl. X I X a. Greek representations o f the bound figure since thc 7th century»
Schefold PI. 1 1 a, following a N ear Eastern prototype. C h . K a rd ara , AAA 2 (ïÿ^PJ
2 1 6 - 19 .
Jjj g 2 S O C IE T IE S O F G O D S 4 17
i f i n r
‘J Apollodoros FG rH ist 244 F 147.
, \Vchrli. R E Su p pl. V 555-7 6 .
A See V 3.4 n· 6.
; lite rally M other o f this Precinct: trilingual stele from X an fh os C R A l (1974)
*9 117 .3 8 ; E. Laroche, B S L 55 (i960) 183 f.
M ayer, R E V I A 206—4 2. T h ctideio n : R E V I A 205 f., Hdt. 7 . 1 9 1 . P hcrekydes
5° ¡,'dffiist 3 F ι a; cult m yth: Phylarchos FGrHist Hi F 8 1.
P S lG 5'. Paus. 3 .14 .4 ; J .P . V ernant in: Hommages à M . DeUourt. 1970, 38-69.
5 p R H 6 5-7 9 . T h e m yth seems to su rvive in modern G reece in the folktale o f the
* ruraides.
Eiirem , R E X I I 229 3-2306 .
»4 H S 204-8.
. Paus 8 .4 1.4 ; Μ· , 8-398; GdH I 220 f.; West com m entary to Theoç. 358.
S CG R 24 0-4; S & H 95 f.
.»7 CG S V 464-8: F. Brom m er. R E Suppl V I I I 9 4 9 -10 0 8 . R. H erbig, Pan: der
griechische Bocksgott, 1949; G G R 235 f.; P. M erivale, Pan the Goal-God, 1969;
Ph. Borgeaud, Rechercha sur le dieu Pan, 1979.
38 Luc. Bis acc. 9 f.
39 Hdt. 6 .10 5 ; see I ι η. 18.
3 .3 Nature Deities
ι S e e V I I 3 .1 .
2 II. 2 0 .4 -9 .
3 O . W a sc r, * F lu ssg ö ttc r\ R E V I 1 7 7 4 - 2 8 1 5 ; G G R 2 3 6 -4 0 .
4 P a u s . 4 .3 .1 0 ; 3 1 .4 ; N .M . V a lm in , The Swedish Messenia Expedition , ia ¿ 8 4-jΤ-€ις
Temenos nt S p crch e io s: 11. 2 3 .14 8 .
5 S e c I I 2 n. 29.
6 Λ fountain house with a votive figure shown on a bell kratcr in Paris: Btbl. Nut.
4 2 2 , F u rtw ä n g le r a n d R e irh h o ld PI 14 7 .
7 Z e n o b . Ath. (E . M ille r. Melanges de Littérature Grecque, i8 6 8 í8 l) .
8 H .P . Isler. Acheloos, 1969.
9 Solon F,. 3 ß,4 r. (W est); Aesch. Sept. 1 6 - 19 ; ‘ M other o f the gods’ Soph. Fr. a6oa
51 (R adt); ‘ M other o f all': Aesch. Prom, go; cf. Plat. Menex. 238 a; Tim. 40 b: ù g .
886 d. A . Dieterich, Mulle, Erde: em Versuch uber Volksreligion, 1905; G G R 456-611
see I I I ¿.9 n. 2.
lo See I I 2 n. 66; II 5 n. 14.
' ' n ’- 2·^’ 2 ^' · '6 A 1; P aus. 2 . 1 2 . 1 ; 9 .3 4 .3 ; H sch . s .v . ·inernutai-
C(tS V 4 1 6 (,; G G R 1 16 t.: L . Robert, Hellenika 9 (iq so ) ^6-61.
12 P a u s. 2 .3 4 .3 ; «ce II 4.4 n 65.
13 S e c V 3 .5 n 29.
14 H d t. 7 .18 9 .
15 H N 10 9 f.
16 P M G 8 58 .
17 S e e V I I 2 n. 39.
18 C C S V 4 17 -2 0 ; Jesse n , K E V I I I 66-9; G G R 839 f ; on theicon ograph y;
K . Schauenburg, Helios, 1955; see I I I 2.5 n. 55.
19 U S 94, Festus, De verborum significatione quae supersunt, (ed. C .O . Müller), I * '·
■20 G . Türk, R E X 1X 15 0 8 -15 ; J . Diggle, Euripides Phaethon, 1970.
f o r e ig n GODS 4 19
, Them ennaelai Apol. Rhod. 2 .12 7 3 , and the scholiast writes: 'in a foreign land one
s a c r i f i c e s to the native gods and heroes.'
5 The father o f Adonis is mentioned as Phoinix (Hes. Fr. 1 3 9 ) . and also as K invras
o f Paphos on C yp ru s (Apollod. 3 . 1 8 2 ) .
6 For this reason the connection between the cults was called ,n question both by
Greek scholars (P Kretschm er, Clolta 7 (19 16 ) 3» G · Zuntz, M H 8 (19 5 1) 34 )
and also by N ear Eastern scholars (H. Frankfort, The Problem o f Similarity in Ancient
Near Eastern Religions, 19 5 1; C. Colpe in lisan mithurli. Festschrift ll r. Soden, 1969,
2 i) . C f. O . Eissfeldt, Adonis und Adonaj, S B Leipzig >15-4 · ' 97 ° · s Ribichini yWom.i,
Aspelli ‘orientali ' di un mito greco, 19 8 1. stresses thc Greek re-elaborations o f foreign
7 Luc Dea Svr. 6 f.; C yril of A lexandria M igue P C 70, 440 f . cf. K leitarchos FG rH u l
J 37 F 3; ó e s c 18 5-β .
8 Ezekiel 8 .14 ; Jerem ia h 32.29; 4 4 .15 ; Isaiah 17 .10 .
9 Aristoph. Lys. 289-98; Plut. Ale. 18; M en. Sam. 39-46; Eust. 17 0 1.4 5 ; I h e o c r . 15
Adoniazousai. ·.,# ·» / / -
‘ 0 Luc. Dea Syr. 6; P. Lam brechts, ‘ L a resurrection d Adonis , Melanges I. Levy. 1955,
207-40. C f. H N 263. ,
I I PR I 3 5 9 -6 3 ; birth o f Adonis: Apollod. 3 .18 3 f ; Anton. Lib. 34; Paus. 9 .ib .4.
'a Panyasis apud Apollod. 3 .18 5 ; on a Latin mirror: J H S 69 (1949) u .
1 3 D é tie n n e , U s jardins d'Adonis. 1 9 7 2 , passim, e s p e c i a lly 1 5 1- 8 .
H Rapp, R M L II 16 3 8 -7 2 , Drexler, R M L I I 2 8 4 8 -9 3 1; Schwerai R E X I « 5 0 - 9 8 ,
CC S II I 28 9-39 3; G G R 7 25-7; H. G raillot, Le culte de Cybele, 19 12 ; E. Will,
‘Aspects du culte et de la légende de la G ran de M ère dans le monde grec in:
Eléments orientai« dans la religion grecque, i960, 95r ” ; W. Helck, Betrachtungen zur
grossen Göttin,und den ihr verbundenen Gottheiten, 19 7 1; S & H »02 22.
'5 See I. 3.6 u. 22.
420 N O T E S TO P A G E S I 7 7 - 8 2 jjj
16 E. Laroche, ‘ K o u b a b a, déesse anatolicnne et le problème des origines de C ^
in: Elementi orientaux dans la religion grecque, i960, 1 13 - 2 8 ; K . Bittel, ‘ Phrv · ^'
Kultbild aus B ogazkoy’ , Antike Plastik 2 (196 3) 7 - 2 1 . O n the Lyd ian nan?*ί**1
Kuvav: R. G usm ani, Kadmos 8 (1969) 15 8 -6 1 ί>Γ»η
17 C .H E H aspels, The Highlands o f Phrygia, 19 7 1; K . Bittel, see η. t6.
18 C .H .E . H aspels (ser η. 17) I 293 no. 13 ; C . Brixchc, Die Sprache 25 (1970}
C f. the inscription Kybalas in Italian Lokroi from the seventh d
M . G uard ucci, Klio 52 (1970) 13 3 -8 .
19 Hdt. 4.76.
20 E . W ill (see n. 14) 98 f.
21 Srm onides F t. 36 (W est): cf. H ipponax Fr. 156 (W est), K ra
1 3 i) . ' (C 4 F
22 A ristom achos FGrHist 383 F. 13 ; Pind Fr. 80; 95; Dith. 2; Pyth
23 T ravlo s 3 5 2 -6 . O n the statue: A . von Salis, DieGot ter mutter des Agoral
J d J i Q ( 1 9 1 3 ) 1-2 6 ; A E 1973. 18 B -2 17 .
24 Horn. Hymn. 14
25 See II I 2.7 n. 25.
26 M elan ippides P M C 764; Eur. IIel. 13 0 1-6 8 ; in O rphic theogony: Burkcrt, AntHu
und Abendland 14 (1968) ΙΟΙ.
27 S re II 8 n. I2; M enander Theophoroumene.
28 Eur. Hel. 134 6 -56 ; E ur. Bacch. 12 3 -9 ; l^c M eter Hymn from Epidauros: PM Govc.
= I G I V i, 2nd edn. 1 3 t ; H N 263 f.
29 H. H epding, Attis, seine Mythen und sein Kult, 1903.
30 Plut. Nie. 13.2.
31 C allim ach us Fr. 7 6 1; Catullus 63; P Lam brechts, Attn, van herdersknaafi lot
God { Verhandelingen van de Kon Vlaamse Académie loor Heten.sehappen 46), 1962;
M .J. V erm asercn, The legend o f Attis m Greek and Roman Art, 1966.
32 Aristoph. Vesp. 9 f ; Lys. 387; Dem. 18.259 f. ‘ M ysteries’ : C R A l (19 7 5) 307-30.
Sabazios — Dionysos: Am phitheos FG rH ist 4 31 F 1. Cook I 390-400; G G R 836;
Schaefer, R E I A 15 4 0 -5 1; A . V aillan t, La nouvelle Clio 7 -9 (19 5 5 -5 7 ) 485 f.
interprets the nam e as Liberator (cf. slav. svoboda = liberty).
33 Eupolis C A F I 273; G G R 835.
34 L S S 6 = /6’ I (3rd edn) 136 ; Plat Resp. 327 ab, 354 a, Phot, b t26;G G R 833 C
35 Pind. F t. 36; Paus. 9 .1 6 .1 ; G G R 832; Parke 19 4 -2 4 1.
36 L . V id m an , Isis und Sarapis bei den Griechen und Römern, 1970.
3 .5 Daimon
1 J .A . Hild, Etude sur les demons dans la littérature et la religion des Grecs, *ö8l
J . T am bornino, De antiquorum daenwnismo, 1909; Anders, R E Suppl. I I I 267-32*»
G G R 2 16 -2 2 ; J . ter V rugt-L cn tz, ‘G eister und Däm onen’ . R A C I X
G . François. Le polythéisme et l ’emploi au singulier des mots ¡heos, daimon dans la litteraturt
grecque, 1957; M . Deticnne, L a notion de Daimon dans le Pythagorisme ancien, 1963; F-Λ·
W ilford, ‘ daimon in H om er’ Numen 12 (»965) 2 1 7 - 3 2 ; H. Now ak, ¡tur F.nto/U^·'
lungsgrsc hichtr des Begriffs Daimon: cine Untersuchung ep i graphischer Zeugnisse W i 5
Jh . v. Chr. bis zum 5 Jh. n. Chr., D issertation, Bonn, i960.
2 See V II 3.4.
3 T h e root dai- is am biguous; the most common interpretation as A pportions
(e.g. GdH I 369; K erén yi (3) 18 f., Ir. 16 f.) encounters the difficulty that flW
m eans to divide, not to apportion; but Alem an. P M G 65 daimonas edassato alreaa
seems to play on this m eaning, cf. Richardson on Hymn. Dem. 300; ‘T ea te r a
jjf 4 G R E E K A N T H R O P O M O R P H ISM 421
r flOOiCI corP s c 5 : VV. Porzig, I F 4 1 (19 2 3 ) ,6 9 ~ 7 ΐν Lighter (torch-carriers in the
would also bc a possibility.
// ι .22a; 3 420; W. K ullm an n , Das Wirken der Götter in der Hias, 1956, 4 9 -5 7 . In one
^ lyric poet (Sim onides?) Pan is addressed as ‘goal-shanked daim on’ : Supplementum
lyricis Graecis (P agel no. 387.4.
, H « . Theog. 2 2 1.
j* g Brunius-N ilsson, daimonie: an Inquiry into a mode o j apostrophe in old Greek
literature, U ppsala, 1955.
, II. 17 98 f
8 Od. 5 396 ·
Eq. 85; Vesp. 525; Diod. Sic. 4.3; Plut. Quaest. Cow. 655 e; Suda a 122,
A risto p h .
LSS 68; L S C G 134 , Paus 9 .39 .5; 13; relief from T hespiai: H arrison (1) 357,
cf. H arrison (2) 277-809; G G R II 2 13 .
10 Hes. Erga 12 2 -6 , in which 124 f. — 254 f. is no doubt a secondary interpolation
In Theog. 991 Phaethon is m ade a Daimon.
,i Arist. Fr. 193; L & S 73 Γ, 17 1 n. 34. 185 f.
12 Pind. Pyth. 3 .10 8 f.
13 Pind Pyth. 5 .12 2 f.
14 Plat. Phd 107 d, cf. Lys. 223 a, Rtsp. 6 17 de, 620 d, Isg . 877 a; L ysias 2.78;
M enand. Fr. 7 14 (ed. Koerte).
(5 VS 22 B 1 19 = 94 (M arcovich ), cf. Epicharm os Fr. 258 Í Comicorum Graecorum
Fragmenta, cd. K a ib rl).
16 Pind. Pyth. 3.34.
17 Aesch. Ag. 1468; 1476 f.; 148 6 -8
]8 See IV 2 n. 3 1.
19 Aesch. Ag. 1500 f.: Pers. 353 . Soph. O C 787 f.; Eur. Med 13 3 3 ; cf. Socrates o f Argos
FG riJist 3 10 F 5; Apollodorus FGrH ist 244 F 150.
20 Hippocr. Pen Parthenion V I I I 466 (ed Littré).
21 Aesch. Pers. 6 4 1, where ih r king is sim ultaneously theos, 642
22 Eur. Ale. 1003.
23 Eur Rhes. 9 7 1.
24 Plat. Resp. 469 b; 540 c; see V II 3.4 n. 20; cf. Crat. 398 c. Nowak (see n. 1).
25 Plat. Apol. 3 1 cd; G uthrie (2) I I I 4 02-05; see V II 2 n. ^2.
I l ^ l l M ^ Ä t ' Ä Z p a u , 6 , 6 . , A rn«k t i r a d e :
4 g Ä l i S L ’ B / á t 4 ( 19 6 1) 3 0 -4 0 . W Horn, f t * - f t * « * « * » *«
LetUrkunde 3 8 .2 ) , 1 975 *
60 //· 1-2 0 7 .
61 II. 2 3 ,2 0 .
6α A . G o c tz c , Kleinasien, 2n d e d n , 1 9 5 7 , 1 47 -
IV 1
T h e Dead , Heroes, and C ht hon ic Gods
' v ° hdC ' ¿ i " ' j 0 2 - 1 6 ·' W ifsn er " 9 3 8 ): GGR 174-9 9 : 374- » : A n d ro n ik «
K u rtz and B oardroan 1 19 7 1 ); K . Schefold, Die V erantw ortun g vo r den t J Í 9^
Deutung des L ebens- in: Wandlungen: Studien zur antiken und neueren Kumi ,
255-77 ' ' ^ 5.
2 u \ - R Vl OSS’ T hf U fr Φ ' ü ,a ,b 0ctama m d th' Archipelago 1 « -
M K ees, Totenglauben und JenseitsvorsteUungen dt, alten Ägypter. srnd edn i J k
3 K M euli, 'Entstehung und Sinn der T rau ersitten '. Schweiz. Archiv fü r
58'
37 T he ‘ K leoboulos . epigram
■ , see n. A
3b.
38 trita, enata, triakas. en,aus,a: Isaios 2.3 7: 8.39; H ypercides f t . 1 10; Poll. 8 .14 b I hat
the ‘ third d a v ' m eans the day o f the burial (K u rtz and Boardm an 145 f., cl. Plat.
Leg. 950 a) is difficult to reconcile with Isaios 2.37. O n the second d ay, on the
tenth d ay. on the a n n iversary': L ab y a d ai decree L S C C 77 C 28 -30 , cf. L S C G 97.
On the 'seated' eating on the thirtieth day: Phot. s.v. kathedra,Anécdota G
(Bekker) 2 6 8 .19 , H arpocr. s.v. triakas; R ohde I 233.
39 H egesandros apud A th. 334 Γ; Hdt. 4.26; Plat. Leg. 7 . 7 e ; R ohde I 23 5 f.; A F 299 Γ;
F Jaco b y, 'G en esia: a forgotten festival o f the d ead ', CQ, 38 (1944) 6 5 -7 5 -
Abhandlungen zur griechischen Geschichtsschreibung. 1956. 2 4 3 -5 9 ; G G R 181 Γ.
40 O11 the A nthesteria festival: H N 225 f.; see V 2.4. , . -r
41 D escribed in A esch. Pets. 6 1 1 - 1 8 (milk, honev, w ater, w m e, oil), t u r . Iph. la u r
159 -6 6 (w ater, milk, w ine, honey), and Aesch. Cho. 8 4 -16 4 {pelanas 92; ehern,ps
12g). W ine libations mentioned in a C yprio t inscription: O . M asson in Excavations
in the Necropolis oj Salamis 1. >9^ 7« 133 42 ·
42 haimakouria satiation with blood: Pind. Ol. 1 .90; Plut. Λ π ϋ Λ « ι; cf. Eur. Hec. 536.
43 P. W oltcrs J d l 14 ( 1899) 1 2 5 - 3 5 ; G in ouvcs 244 - 6 4 ; K u rtz and Boardm an 149-6« ;
sec II 2 n. 63.
42 6 N O TES TO P A G E S 194“ 9
44 G. O econom us, De profusionum receptaculis sepulcralibus, Athens. 1 9 2 1; Anrt . *
9 3 -7 ; H errm ann ( i) 5 3 -5 7 ; G G R 17 7 , PI. 52. *
45 G G R 17 7 n. 1.
46 chein and enagUein: A ristoph. Fr. 488; Isaios 6 .5 1; 65; L uc. Catapl. 2; see IV
47 Acsch. Cho. 483 f., cf. Soph. E l 284. A description o f the enagismata in ï.ijr » 0
Cond. 28: ‘T h e y pour unguent over the stele, set the w reath on it, and ih
them selves enjov the food and drink which has been p repared.' C f H N oôû
the Chytroi. ^ 1 u'«
48 E. Ruschenbusch, Solonos Nomoi (Historia Ewzelschriften Heft 9) 1966, F 72 a = pi
Leg. 2.63 = Demetrios o f PhaJeron Ft. 13 5 (W ehrli); F 72 b = C ic. Leg. 2.-0 -
= Plut. Solon 2 1.5 ; F 109 - Demosth. 43.62.
T h e L a w from lulis on the island o f K eos: I G X I I 5.59 3 = S I G i 2 j8 » / »/>/>
97. T h e I ^ by ad ai decrce: LSC G 7 7 C. LSA M 16: Plat. Leg. 9 58 d - ytk> a
7 »4 f.; R everdi η 1 0 7 - 2 4 : sec nn. 2 3 - 4 ; Il 4 n. 47.
49 Isaios 2.46; 6 .5 1; 65, 7.30.
2 A F T E R L IF E M YTH O LO G Y
1 ' + h , M eso po tam ian s: D .O . E dzard, W M 1 Anunnaki (42) and Igigi (80). The
*1 u n it e s : E . v. Schüler W M I 16 1 sarraies and kälteres stunts.
Corpus Ä tableurs en cunéiformes alphabétiques. 1963, 5 = B aal l* v 6 in G .R . D river
r anaaniti Myths and Legends, 1956, 106 f.
I i i n . n ; ! 3 3 n. 80; M alz . .
« n rhe inscription from P vrgi: M . P allotüno (G . G a rb in i), Archtolagxa classica
& jg (,9 64 ) 4 9 - 1 1 7 : the ‘ god’ is M elq art: S. R ibich in i. Saggi Femci 1 (19 7 5 ) 4 1- 7 .
. See H l 3-4 nI'· 3- ' 3 -
*5 Callim- Hymn. 1.8 r.. see I 3 .3 n. 2 1 ; 111 2 .1 11. 18.
4 T H E HEROES
1 Rohde I 146 -9 9; 1 1 34 s - 6 2; p f,s!cr (> 9 0 9 -1* ): p - F o ucart, Le culte des heras c h a les
greu (M ém oires de l'A cadém ie des Inscriptions 42) 19 18 ; F arn ell ( 1 9 2 1 ) : Eitrem ,
R E V I I I 1 1 1 1 - 4 5 ; M . Delcourt, Légendes et cultes de héros en Grèce, 194 2: Nock
5 75-6 0 2 = ‘T h e cult o f H eroes' H T hR 37 ( 1944) 1 4 1 - 7 4 ; G G R 1 8 4 - 9 1; A . Brelich ,
Gti eroi greci, 1958. C f. also H . H ubert, Le culte des héros et ses conditions
sociales', R H R '70 (19 14 ) 1-2 0 ; 7 1 ( 1 9 1 5 ) 195—247.
2 Frisk I 644 Γ; C h an train e 4 17 . O n H era in thc sense o f (sexual) m aturity:
W. Pötscher. R h M 104 (19 6 1) 3 0 2 -5 5 ; 108 (19 6 5) 3 17 - 2 0 . M ycen aean ti-ri-se-ro-e
is understood as ‘ thrice hero’ . Trishéros, cf. G é ra rd -R ousseau 2 2 2 -4 , H em berg,
Eranos 52 (19 54 ) 17 2 —90.
3 Diod. Sic. 13 .3 5 .2 speaks o f'h e ro ic honours’ at a temple ( híoí) being accorded to
the L aw g iv er Diokles o f Sy ra cu se as early as the y ea r 4 12 .
4 J-M Cook in: Geras Antoniou Keramopoullou, A thens 1954 , 1 1 2 - 1 8 ; B S A 48 ( 1953)
30-68; R . H am pe, Gymnasium 63 (19 56 ) 19 f.; Sn odgrass 19 3 ff.; J . N . C oldstream ,
JH .S'96 (19 7 6 ) 8 - 1 7 . T h e mention o f thc ‘ 13th G am elio n ’ in D cin ias FG rH ist 306
F 2 gives thc date o f thc enagismala for A gam em non in M ycen ae/A rgos:
U v. W ilam ow itz-M oellendorff, Aischylos Orestie: das Opfer am Gralie, 1896, 204.
On the T o m b o f C lvtem nestra: M M R 604 f.
5 T he Seven : P au s. 1.3 9 .2 ; Plut. Thes. 29; cf. E ur. Suppliants, M ylo n as 62 f and
Praktika (19 5 3 ) 8 1 - 7 . ‘ A m ph ion ’ : T h . Spyro po ulos, A A A 5 (19 7 2 ) 16 -2 2 .
6 See I ,| n. 25.
7 p. W olters. J d l 14 (189 9) 1 0 3 - 3 5 ; M M R 6 0 0-0 3; Hesperia 44 ( 1973 ) 4 '
8 See I 3 .3 nn. 77 and 82 again st M M R 584—6 15 , G G R 3 7 8 -8 3.
9 ¡I 5.304; 12 .3 8 3 ; 449; 20.287: 1.27 2 .
430 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 0 4 - 9
Aka demie ' i'9 8 o 3, ° ' H ' H o m m C l' D c r G o U A c h , l l < · ^ · . Sitzungsberichte der H e l d i l Æ
18 Paus. j.ig jb Bulletin ipigraphique 119 6 8) 110. 264; R. S tig litj. A lexan rt« -
A m yklai , O tjh 40 (19 5 3 ) 7 2 -8 3 ' andra/viiB
19 Bethe, R E V I I 28 24-6 ; M .I.. W est, Immortal Helen, 1975
30 I he findings at the Pelopio,1 and the question o f their datin g are at p re ,e „,
3 2 v " m 1 r " - d ΐ ' 0 : 1358 " U C G m - T h c '>«<> A stra l,akos fathers a Spart»"
king: H dt. 6.69, B u rk e n . M H 22 (196 5) ,6 6 -7 7
3 3 Paus. 4.27.6.
34 Plis,er 2 ,8 -3 8 .
35 E .K. T h e ra /C X I I 3.86+: Athens. I C 1M I I (2nd edn). ,3 2 6 = S I G H O , = LSCO
49 -4 b 1 ' 76/5 Bi-): R o h d r II 3 58 -6 2; Farn ell 366 f.; R E V I I I , 1 3 7 f
36 Battus oí C yren e: Pind. Pyth. 5.93. B rasidas in A m phipolis: T h u c 5 . 1 1 ; Hdt. B .W
R ond e 17 5 f.; Pfister 445 f ; F arnell 4 1 3 - 1 8 .; R M artin, Recherches sur l ‘a g«*
19 5 1 194 -20 0. C f C . Berarcl. Eretria I I I : l 'Héroon à la porte de l ’ouest, »¡»7e ·
37 R I U vch crley , Th, Athenian Agora III , 19 57, 85-90 : Parke and W orm ell I I » " * »
L κι-οη. D ,e zehn attischen Phylenheroen. 1967. ( .1 .1 / 9 , Beiheft 5)
30 H d t. 1.6 8 . ' J
H ERACLES 431
*3 f i C;; r i b o Û i,’ ,'heî L okr,an victory over K ro to n a. the battle by the river Sag ra:
4* . „n r e r H i J i 26 F 1 .1 8 ; Paus. 3 .19 .3 · .
Hd" 8.64, Plut. Them. 15; cf. H dt. 5.80 f : D iod. Sic. 8.3 » ; lu su n . =0.2.
Paus * · » 5-3 -
. Hdt- 6 .1 1 7 -
{ έ Hdt- 8 .3 7 f
49 Heroes^of M arath o n: Paus. ..3 2 .4 : cf. P la ta ,» : Plut Arùteid. » 1 A late renew al of
50 erave inscription for the heroes' o f the Persian W ars from near M egara. / C M
= Sim onides Fr. 96 I Diehl). Plato w ishes to make all those who fall in battle
Jaimones: see I I I 3 .5 » 2 4 ; V I I 3_4 n -
Ci. D U r K c r i , Í M I I ¿X V » y u D ; »v»u I.
,η VV. Derichs. Herakles, Vorbild des Herrschen, Dissertation, Cologne, 1950.
' F. Pfister, ‘ Herakles und Christus’ , A R W 34 (19 37 ) 42-60; J . Fink. Herakles,
Held und H eiland'. Antike und Abendland. 9 (i960) 73—87; C . Schneider, ‘ Herakles
dn Todüberw indcr’ . Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Universität Leipzig 7 (19 5 7 -5 8 );
661-6-
I P/? 11 306-30; S. F.itrem. Die göttlichen Zwillinge bet den Griechen. Oslo. 1902; Beihe.
R E V 10 9 7 -12 3 ; Farneil 17 5 -2 2 8 ; 6 GR 4 0 6 - 11.
ί L. M yriantheus, Acvins oder arische Dioskuren, 1876: R. H arris, The Cult o f the
Heavenly Twins, 1906; H. Güntert. Der arische Weltkönig und Heiland. 1923, 260-76.
D .J. W ard, The Divine Twins, 1968; M .L . W est, Immortal Helen. 1975. See I 2 n .i 1.
3 T ind aridai: IG V i, 305; 9 19 ; 937; c f Frisk 1Γ 945. On the name Polydeuces
Ghantrainc 633.
4 F Ghapouthier, Les Dioscures au service d'une déesse, 1935.
5 Paus. 10.38.7; there is a fixed identification o f the Anakes with che Dioskouroi in
Athens. B. Hemberg, Ana.r. anassa und anakes als Göltemamen unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung der attischen Kulte. Uppsala. 1955. On Sam othrace see V I 1 3 .
6 Epicharm os Fr. 75 (K aib el); Plat. Ltç. 796 b: M essenians disguised as ihr
Dioskouroi: Paus. 4 .2 7.1 f.; cf. N. W agner, ‘ Dioskuren, Jungm annschaften und
Doppelkönigtum'. Zeitschrift f u r deutsche Philologie 79 ( 1960) 1 —17; 225-4 7.
7 Hdt. 5.75.2; E. M eyer, R h \t 4t (1886) 578: Λ. A lföldi. Die Struktur des
vorctrtiskisehen Römeritaate\, 1974. 15 1-θ ο .
8 Eur Antiope. Supplementum Euripideum (cd. H. von Arnim ). 19 13 , 22; PR II 114 - 2 7 ;
H X 185-8 9; see IV 4 n. 5.
9 Plut. De gen. Sou. 578 b.
to PR II 699-703; L . G h ali-K a lil, Les enlèvement> et le retour d'Hélène, 1955.
11 Find. Pyth. 1.66; sec n. 8.
'** Od. 1 1 .3 0 1 ; 302 f.; C ypria Fr. 6 (Homerx opera V . ed. Allen) = Fr. 11 (Beihe);
II 3.243 f. seems to speak sim ply o f their death.
'3 P M G 7.
4 Pind. Pyth. 11 .6 1-4 : cf. Nem. 10.49—9 1.
‘5 Haus. 3 .1 6 .1 ; 3 .14 .8 f.; Wide 3 26 -32.
’ 6 Plui. De frat. amore 478 a; Etymologicum Magnum 282.5 (ai1 'opened lom b’ ); GG R
Pl. 29.4; Cook 11 1063; M .C . Waites, ‘T he meaning o f the D okana'. A JA 23 (19 19 )
434 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 1 3 - 1 9 ]y
1 - 1 8 (doorposts); W. K ra u s. R A C II I 1 12 6 ; VV. Steinhäuser, Sprache a ( lf ^
10 f. (the horse pole o f the horsem en nom ads); G G R 408 f. (a housr
Λ . A lfö ld i. A JA 64 (i9 6 0 ) 142. '
17 Like the ‘ Tigillum sororium' in Rom e (cf. L atte (2) 13 3 ).
18 Pind. 01 . 3 and Schol.; Nem. 10, 49 f.
19 See 1 1 7 η. 84.
20 V otive reliefs from the banqueters' for the Dioskouroi: W ide 2 1 1 r r n
PI. 2 9 .1. ’
21 Horn. Hymn. 33; P M G 10 27 c.
22 Diod. Sic 8 .32: Iustinus 20.3.
23 L atte (2) 17 3 Γ.
24 A . D egrassi, Inscriptiones luilinae liberae reipublicae II, 1963, no. 12 7 1 a.
25 Act. 2 .18 = X en oph an es K S 2 1 A 39. M ctrodoros VS 70 A 10.
26 Eur. Hel. 140; Plut. Lys. 12; Polemon Schol. L ur. Or. 1637; Cook I 760-75
27 X en . Hell. 6.3.6 ; the Pourtalcs* K ra te r B ritish M useum F 68. A R V (2nd
14 4 6 .1; K eren yi ( 1) PI. 2.
5 .3 Asklepios
T H O U G H T P A T T E R N S IN G R E E K P O L Y T H E IS M
3» Od. 6 .2 33: '¿3-1 60; then Solon .3.4 9 (W est); Plat.. Pwt. 3 2 , d- C ,,,
U g .y ia d .
32 See I I I 2.4. n. 44.
33 Paus. 1.14 .6 ; see II 1 n. 55; V 2.2 n 14
3 ·
■
a
ιοί, ..
*
34 Soph. F t. 844 (Pearson); A F 35 f.: C . Berard, Λ Κ ,9 ( , 976) , 0 , - u
35 H es. Thtog. 933 7 Hmd Pyth. 4.87 t ; A esrh . Sept. 105; 135 (f.; Suppl. y e . -
N axian am phora:lora: Chr. K k aaru
ru so s, Jld
sos, d li s522 Í10T
(19 3 77)) ifitw
,6 6 -9mon
n ih r K y p sd o1__
s c. h ^ , V " 3
5 .18 .5 ; K . Iuim
m ppel. Jahrhuch JÜ , dtusixht Philologi', Suppl, 1 1 ,890
e lJahrbu a,‘ >·
B C H 62 ( i 9;
3b B a ' 62 (,M 8 ) 1^ 408 ; Krrtika C h n o E , (1969) Ä / Λ
M. I V I I I 4.35. · 0/G 56 «
37 See I I I 2.7 n n. 8.
38 Pint. Pelopid. 19.2; see I I I 2.7 n. 36.
39 668 r .n 2 3 " J5' 111 2’9 j 6 r)rm rlc r a n d t,os'‘id u '' im nooi: Hlut. Qai/W, ^
40 G r a f 1 72 n. 72.
i · ¿ - U 7* . ( , 957 ) 77—9 : G ruben 325: Bergquisi 45; in A rgos, sec 11. 1 1 · A il.
Haus. A u . p i 2 (H. Erhsr, p. 2 2 1); Zopyros FC rH ist 336 F 2; ¡n Halikarr.;.
Viir. a . 8 . , a .elW ,»-rhapsfrr.m LokroiV C,«,k II
42 See I 4 n. 17.
43 See I I I 2.7 n. 5.
44 T heophr. Char. 16; Posridippos Ft. 11 ( C A F I I I , p. 338); Diod. S ic . fi
// 7 n’/ann · 1 2 3 ' 4- 4 *. Jesse n . R E V I I I 7 1 4 - 2 1 ; M. Dclcoun'
tltrmaphiiidilt. 195b, Eng. ir. Hermaphrodit! , 19 6 1; Hrrmabhtoditia iq66
45 I hcocr. 27.63 f.
46 Sec II 2 n. 30.
47 In A lheiw : Plut Mona 9 .1 1 ; Eur. Errchthrus;Jo rd a n 29 -3 2 ; at M iletos: W .D. Ubelt
and Th. D rew -Bear, C R B S 14 (19 73) 6 5-73 .
48 See II I 2.1 n. iy -2 0 .
49 A csch. Eum. β 16—18.
50 Pind. 01 13 .6 3 -8 2 ; sec 111 2.3 nn. 30-6; IV' 2.4 n. 24. In Pvlos. w here the worship
Ol Poseidon is prom inem , there is also a M istress o f the H orses, see I 3.6 n. 18
51 H N 15b I. 0 -
52 Paus. 10.5.6: 10.24.4: G. D aux. B C H 92 (1968) 540-0
53 LSS m B .
54 A risteides FG rH ist 444 I 2; Apollo Panionios: 1C I I - I I I (2„d cdn l. 4905: Otjh
45 ft9bo) B eiblatt p 76 n. 2.
55 Hymn. Apoll. 244-76 , 37 5 -8 7 : cf. T hebais Schol. 11. 2-1. u 6 .
5b Pans. 8 .2 5 .4 - 1 1
57 Hymn. Apoll. 230 -8 : Bulletin e'pigraphiifue 11^ 7 3 ) no. 2 12 : (1074 ) no. 271
58 // 7.425; 2 1 .4 4 1- 5 7 ^ '
59 Richardson on Hymn. I)em. 424: G r a f 1 54 -7.
bo Hymn. Dem. 5 1 - 6 1 ; 438-40.
bi Paus. 1.38.6 ; M vlonas 167—70.
62 cf. c.R. Demeter Phylaka and Dionysos K arpios side by side in L arisa, /<? IX
-■ 573 · Bulletin epxgrnphique ( 1 959) no. 224
b'j S« r \ ’ I 2 .3 nn. 15 -2 2 .
64 I.ippold 241 t.; PI 84 2.
65 H S 239; see V 2.4 n. 25.
66 M. G oldm an. A JA 46 1 1942) 58-68; F. M at*. U m y s M r Trittt. M ainz, 1963.
THOUGHT PATTERNS IN GREEK. POLYTHEISM 437
* and D i l D io n y s is c h e n S a r k o p h a g I I I . 1969. no 205 P l- 2 U ' 2 ,8 : J Frcl
<4 (1967) 28 -34 .
Q f 179 ff., 188, 259; Jea n m a ire (2) 2 0 9 -13 ; Sim on 165.
6] S « I1 I‘ I 2.6 » 2 1 .
S8 Ser
f>9p\IG 778
JC p'.us 'i iqCf'; n 9H cgv¡, 'D er K u li des Dionysos Aisym nctcs in P atrae', AAntHung
V p? ;;<,768) 9 9 -10 3 ; M . M assenzio, 'L a festa di Artem is T n k la n a e Dionysos
Aisym neics a P atrai'. SM SR 39 ( .968) 1 0 .- 3 2 .
2 .1 Festival Calendars
1 Sec II 7 n. i.
2 E. Bickerm ann. Chronology o f the Ancient World, iq 6 8 ’ Sam uH /,
nn. 3, 4, 12. * ’ ' WM %cf
3 E BischofT, ‘ De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus', Leipziger Studien tur Am /JU
Philologie 7 (,8 8 .,) 3 , 5 - 4 ,6 and R E X 156 8-6 0 3; Sam uel (19 7 2 ). cf. D M , ^
C R 25 (19 7 5) 6 9 -72. ■
.) YV K . Pritchett and O. Neugebauer. The Calendan o f Athens, 1947· B D M eri.t -r.
Athen,an year «961; Λ. M om m sen, Feste de, Stadt Athen im Altertum Seordne, ,
alt,schen, Kalender, 1898; A F 'T ab elle des Festkalenders'; J.D . M ikalson ThTc ,
and Citnl Calendar o f the Athenian Yea,. ,975. O n the C alen d ar Frieze em bedded ^
'» 3 ^ 4 7 ° A,itr°P°H church in Athens: / I f 348 -54 . Pis. 34-40 ; f ' u i V
5 S. Dow " I he L aw C odes o f Ath en s', Prac. o f the Massachusetts Historical Society 7,
Ϊ // * 3 Hesperia 30 (»961) 58 -73. T he fragm ents arc: Hesperia i (lü 'u ) ab
and Hesperia14 _ ( ' 935 > 1 3 - 3 2 = U S 10; Hesperia to ( 19 4 ,) 3 2 -« ; /C I I - I H , irici
edn) 135 7 ab - LSC. 6 t 7 ; I C I (2nd edn). 844-5 = I S C G 16 . C f. L ys. Or. 3 7 - 5 «
v i n. 6 . % Λ ίί ^
6 Sec V 2.4.
7 Ser V 2.2 un, 18 -2 2 .
8 Sec V’ 2.2 11 32.
9 Sec V I 1.4.
io See V 2.5.
r I Sec V 2.2 un. 5 and 25.
13 N ib so n · D ic ä ltcs,c ffficchische Zeitrechnung, A pollon und der O rin il.
14 ( 1 9 1 1 ) 4 23-4 8 = Op. 1 3 6 - 6 1; Die Entstehung und religiöse Bedeutung <lei
griechischen Kalenders, Lu n d , 19 18 , 2nd edn, 1962; Primitive Time Reckoning, 1 920.
13 Hes. Erga 504.
14 See I 3.6 i l 1; Doc. 304 f.
15 Sec I 3.6 nn. 3 1 - 2 ; themomh names arose through thealtered accentnation trf
the genitive plural olfestival names ending in -to (e.e.Aulhcxlerffiji Itliß 3
Anlhtslrnon): Stlnryzer 488.
16 J . Sarkady, ‘ Die Ionischen Feste und dic Ionische Urgeschichtc*, Acta
Univ. Scient. Debrecrniensis i (1965) 1 1- 2 0 ; *HcorioloKischc Bemerkungen r.üT
Dorischen L rgcschichte’ ibid. 5 (1969) 7 -19 ; Z u r Entstehung des griechische*
Kalenders: Festsetzung der M onatsnam en' ibid. 8 (1072) 7-0 . O n A p e l l a d
B urkerl, RhAf 1 18 (19 7 5 ) 8 I
Y E A R E N D IN G A N D N E W Y E A R 439
\¡ 2·2
2 .2 Year Ending and N ew Year
,n Paus 1 27^3; A F 9 - 1 7 (the connection with the T hcsm ophoria is w rong); Burkert,
Herma 9 4 (1966) 1- 2 5 ; H N 15 0 -4 . T h e date o f the festival m ay be established from
the fact that according to the Nikom achos calendar (L S S io A 20; supplem ent by
S. Dow ), sacrifice is m ade to Athena, the Kourotrophos, and A glauros on the 2nd
Skirophorion, and according to the E rch ia calendar (L S C G 18) sacrifice is made
to the Kourotrophos, A thena Polias, A glauros, Zeus Pohcus, and Poseidon
(= Erechtheus?) on the 3rd Skirophorion.
n O. Bronecr, Hesperia i (19 3 2) 3 1 - 5 5 ; 2 (19 3 3 ) 3 2 9 - 4 17 ; 4 ( ' 935 ) ' ° 9- * 8 ·
12 P R I '9 9 f·; H ' 37- 55 ; B- Powell, Erichthonius and the Three Daughters o f Cecrops,
1906; on vase paintings o f the scene: M . Schm idt, A M 83 (1968) 200-6. M .C .
Astour, llgaritica 6 (1969) 9 -2 3 mentions a curious U garitic parallel.
13 See II 5 n. 18; the A glauros sanctuary is the place where the epheboi sw ear their
oath: cf. R . M erkelbach, Z P E 9 (19 72) 2 7 7 -8 3.
14 H N 15 2 ; see I I I 2.4 nn. 44-5.
15 Paus. 1.24 .7 . O n the relationship between Erichthonios and Erechtheus: HM 149;
156.
16 V arro De Re Rust. 1.2.20.
»7 See I I I 2.4 n. 19. , . .
18 Lysim achos FGrH ist 366 F 3; A F 4 0-50 (the association with the Thesm ophona is
wrong); H N 1 4 1-9 ·
19 ToeplTer 1 1 3 - 3 3 ·
ao Paus. 1.36 .4; 37.2.
Paus. A tt. d 18 (Erbse).
22 Eur. Erechtheus Fr. 6 5.90 -7 (ed. C . A ustin); P R II 14 0 -3 ; **N 147“ 9 ·
23 L S C G 3 6 .1 0 - 1 2 ; A ristoph. Eccl. 18 ; H N 14 5 f.
24 Schol. Paus. 1.1 .4 . ° n lhc function o f ‘white earth*, i.e. a lime m ixture to line the
pits and cover the seeds’ see Brum field (19 8 1) 1 73 · . . .
25 Aristoph. Nub. 948 f. A F 158 -7 4 ; Cook I I I 57 0 -8 73; H N 135- 43 ; thc principal text
is Theophrastos apud Porph. Abst. 2.28 -30 .
26 M euli (1) passim; on thc Bouphonia 275—7.
27 Plat. Leg. 828 cd.
44° N O TE S TO P A G E S 2 3 I - 9 y S |
39 f ; r 35-4 0; ·''/·' 1 5 3 -5 ; in K ydon ia 011 C rete ihc slaves arc even allowed lo w V
freemen: Ephoros iros FG
r -------- rH isl4.»
--------- 70 »..v.
F 29.
1 HAuna
l theicsnvai
Peloriainfestival
i nessaiyin Tthe
hcssalv
rK·.· the , P ι|"·
the prisoners are a r r Iloosed:
n m rd - RBaton FflrNirt
a t o n FG »k Q F
rH isl 268 . M
p 5. n * . dPohlenz
.li . .'K ronos ^«T
T itan en ’ , N Jb 37 (19 16 ) 549-94; U . v. VVilamowitz-Moellend'orff, ‘ Kron di‘
die I itanen", S B Berlin ( 1939) 3 5 - 5 3 = Kleine Schriften V 2, 1 9 7 ,, , - , o " M .Ur>tt
Pohlenz and VVilamowitz sought to find a pre-Greek god in Kronos (see f ir 11
n. 19); Nilsson, C C R 5 1 0 - 1 6 understands Kron os as a harvest god on a r r 31
h.s sickle, but this is contested by West 2 17 f. T he altar and temple- P h il^ 'i“ ' ^
FGrH ist 328 F 97; Paus. 1.18 .7 . ""M lo ro ,
3 0 Cf. Plat. Leg. 7 13 b; on the Island o f the Blessed: Hes. Erga 17 3 a, Pind Οι
see IV' 2 n. 39. ' a-70,
31 A F 36-Ô.
32 A F 2 2 -3 5 ; U N 154 -8 ; Parke (2) 29-50.
3 3 O n H ekadem os/Akadem os sec IV 4 n. 57; Ath. 561 c; Schol. Soph. OC 7m
34 I C I I —I I I , 2nd cdn, 334 = L S C G 33 B 10 (T.; cf. .1 F 25 f.
3 5 llespena 8 (1939) 423, cf. .inliauiti 30 (1956) 9 - 18
3 6 W .V 1 6 Î - 8 .
■2.3 Karneia
2 .4 Anlhesteria
2 .5 Thcsmophoria
3 S O C IA L F U N C T IO N S O F C U L T
1 See V I I 3 .1 n. 23.
2 M .P . Nilsson. kDie G riechcngötter und die G erechtigkeit·. H ThR 50
1 9 3 - 2 1 0 = Op. I l l 3 0 3 - 2 1.
3 Solon Fr. 29 (W est).
4 Theog. 27.
5 X en oph an es KS 2 1 B 1 1 .
6 Pind. 01 . 1.52.
7 E ur. F t. 292.7; cf. Ion 4 3 6 - 5 !.
8 E ur. Here. 130 7 f.
9 See V II 3.2 n. 19.
10 De facto much survived in popular customs, e.g. anim al sacrifice, H N 8;
cf. J . C . Law son, Modem Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion, 19 10 .
it A ct. 1.6 .9 (H- Diels. Doxographi Graeci, 1929, 295); Pontifex M ucius Scacvola:
A ug. De cio. D. 4.27; V arro : A ug. De civ. D. 6 .5; this ‘ theologia tripartita’ is traced
back to Panailios by M . Pohlenz, Die Ston I, 1948. 198; cf. G . L ie b e rg in ; Aufstieg
und Niedergang der Römischen Welt I 4. 1973, 6 3 - 1 1 5 .
12 A rist. Pol. 1 3 1 4 b 38.
13 A satyr play Sisyphos attributed to Euripides or K ritia s: KS' 88 B 25. See V II 3
n. 22.
14 A rist. Met. 1074 b t-8 .
J5 Isocr. Bus. 25.
16 H ipper. Morb. Sacr. i (V I 360 L ittré); text following H. Grensem ann, Die
hippokratische Schrift ‘ Heber die heilige Krankheit’, 1968. 64.
17 Od. 9 .274-8 .
18 Od. 6 .12 0 f.; 9 .1 7 5 f.; 13 .2 0 1 f.
19 H. L lo yd -Jo n es, The Justice o f Zeus, 19 7 1.
20 A esch. Ag. 174.
21 See I I I 2.8 n. 26.
22 See V 2.4 n. 19; IV 4 n. 53.
23 H N 8 4 -10 3 .
24 S. K ierkegaard . Fear and Trembling. Ix»ndon 1939.
25 See V 4 n. 8 and 55 on hosion and eulabeia.
26 It w as Plato who first interpreted the relation o f M inos to Zeus and o f Lycurgus t
Delphi in such a w ay that Zeus and A pollo gave the law s o f C rete and S p ftf®
respectively, Leg. 624 a, 632 d. 634 a.
27 O n the forbidden precinct on M ount L ykaion: Theopom pos FG rH ist 1 1 5 ^
Architim os FG rH ist 3 1 5 F 1; H N 85. O n the branch in Eleusis: And 0< ^ ·
1 . 1 1 3 - 1 6 ; H N 283 f.
r γΓ 3.2 T H E OATH 445
48 jn the H om eric lan guage there is a spécial term for olTending against god,
alitesthai.
A- Dihle, K anon d*r Zu’e’ Tugenden, K ö ln iq68.
' //. 16 .3 8 5 -9 2 ; often regarded as interpolated.
I , E ’ g i 267; 252 - 5 ·
,3 Erg“ 2 5 6 -6 °·
/Sr#** 2 4 1—7·
,4 3 2 7 -3 « ·
i od. 1 3 2 - 4 3 ; 2 4 .3 5 · r
,6 od. 14.83 f.
«7 Solon F t. 36.3 (W est); cf. F. Solm sen, Hesiod and Aeschylus. 1949, 1 1 2 f.; W. Ja e g e r,
Scripta Minora I, i960, 3 2 0 -32 .
38 Theognis 373-8-
3Q 11- 9 -497 - 5 0 '·
40 Hymn. Dem. 36 7-9 ; sec I V 2 n. 33.
Aesch. Eum. 2 7 6 -8 3; see II 4 n. 60.
42 Plat. Resp. 364 b -3 6 5 a: Leg. 885 b, 905 d -9 0 7 b; see V II 4 n. 9.
3 .2 The Oath
1 R. H irzel, Der E id, 1902; Zieb arth, R E V 20 76 -83; KA 13 6 -8 ; K . M aro t, Der Eid
als Tat, Szeged and Leipzig 1924; G G R 139 -4 2 .
2 L ycurg. Or. in Leocr. 79.
3 Frisk II 388; 4 18 f.; E. Benvenîste, ‘ L ’expression du serm ent dans la Grèce
ancienne’ R H R 134 (1948) 82-94; R· H iersche, R E G 71 (19 58 ) 3 5 -4 1.
4 II. 1.2 3 3 -4 6 ; cf. the oath sworn ‘ per lovem lapidem ’ ; Latte (2) 122 f.
5 Hdu, 1.1 6 5 .3 ; A rist. Ath. Pol. 23 .5 ; Diod 9 .10 .3 .
6 See II 2 n. 45.
7 II. 3 .10 3 - 0 7 ; 2 6 8 - 3 13 ; cf. 19 .24 9 -6 5.
8 In the treaty between M uw attallis and A laksandus o f VVilusa, at the end o f a long
list o f oath gods, we find ‘ the m ountains, rivers and springs o f thc land of H aiti,
the great sea, heaven, earth, w inds, clouds’ : J . Friedrich, Staatsvert rage des Haiti*
Reiches II, 1930, 8 1.2 5 -6 . U garit: Gcse 168; A ram aic: Ringgren 130. ‘Sky, earth,
springs, rivers' are also invoked in the oath from D reros: see n. 12.
9 //. 15.3& -8.
10 R E X A 345.
ti Cook II 729 f.; Zeus, Poseidon, A thena in D rakon’s law : Schol. B. It. 15.36 .
• 2 L. Robert, Etudes épigraphiques et philologiques, 1938, 29 6 -307; T od I I no. 204;
R. M erkelbach, Z P E 9 (19 7 2 ) 2 7 7 -8 3 ; on ‘ H egem one’ cf. hegemosyna sacrifices for
H eracles, X en . Anab. 4.8 .25, and A rtem is Hegem one, see V 2.3 n. 14. Cf. oath
gods o f Dreros: S I G 527 = I C I ix i.
l3 See n. 4; II. 15 .3 9 f.
*4 Aesch. Sept. 43 f.; X en . Anab. 2.2.9.
‘5 Demosth. 23.6 7 f.; Paus. 5.24.9; Stengel 7 8-85: H N 36 n. 8.
*6 II. 3.299 f.; 19.26 4 f.
*7 L aw in A n doc. 1.9 8; anecdote and oracle in Hdt. 6.86.
*8 Proverbia C oislin ian a, Paroemiographi Graeci I 225 f. Note.
*9 Paus. 5 .2 4 .10 .
20 3 -3 10 ; 19.267 f.
21 IG I (2nd edn) 10 = S I G 41 = I E 4 .18 ; S I C 685; L S C G 6 5.2; L aw in Andoc. 1.97 f.;
S IG 229 = I E 9 .22. P. Stengel. Hermes 49 ( 19 14 ) 9 5-8 w rongly interprets hierateleia
4-t6 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 5 2 - 7 y j
. .
in this contcxt as ‘ wholly burned sacrifices’ ; they are sacrifices o f f u l l y
anim als after the prelim inary sacrifice, cf. Aesch. Ag. 1504; Paus. 7 .18 .12
22 Hdt. 6.67.3; Aischines 1 .1 1 4 ; ‘ holding oneself fast to the altar’ at the oath: S i r
= IG 11/111 (and edn) 1237.76.
23 A. Henrichs, Die Phoinikika des Lollianos, «972, 2 9 -3 3, 37 f : H N 36 f.
24 R . Lesch, Der Eid, 1908; G G R 139 f.
25 Aristoph. Nub. 397
26 See IV 2 n. 3 1.
27 Hcs. Erga 803.
28 Thuc. 5.18 .9 ; 5 47 8; 5.104.4. Histiaios, about lo become a traitor, swears by tb©
Gods of the Great King in order to break the oath at oncc, Hdt. 5.106.6.
29 The sale o f land in Ainos: Theophrastos apud Stob. 4.2.20, IV 12 9 .10 (ed. Hensel
30 Hdt 2 .178 f.
31 IG I I/I 11. 2nd edn. 337 = S IC 280.
32 Plat. Protag. 328 b c .
33 L S C G 77 D 24 f. Cf. the procedure o f the Je w s in Elephantine for the settlement of
a claim by oath: A N E T 491.
34 Aesch. Eum. 429.
35 Plat. Leg. 9 4 8 b c .
36 ‘T o walk through fire' and ‘carry red-hot iron': Soph. Ant. 264 f. The drinking of
a poisoned drink lies behind the Styx drink o f the gods: Hes. Theog. 775—¿>6.
G . Glotz, L'ordalie dans la Grèce primitive, 1904.
37 J .H . Lipsius, Attisches Recht und Rechtsverfahren, 19 0 5 -15 , 830-4.
38 Demosth. 23.67 f.
39 Aischines 2.87; Paus. 1.28.6.
40 M . Leum ann. Homerische Horter, 1950, 79-92.
41 Od. 19.395 f·
42 T h e dictum o f C y r u s : Hdt. 1 1 5 3 .
43 11. 15.4 1 and Schol.
44 Hes. Fr 124 = Apollod. 2.5, as an aetiology o f ihr wise maxim ‘ Demand no oatn
in matters o f love.'
45 Eur. Hippol. 6 12 ; Aristoph. Ran. 14 71.
46 Hcs. Theog. 23 1 f.
3.4 Initiation
36 Phot* (ed. Reitzenstein) aigos tropon, Zenob. Ath. 2.30 (ed. M iller p 3 6 1) ; G R B S
7 (1966) 1 18.
37 See V 2.2 n. 16.
38 See I I 6 nn. 3 5 -4 1
450 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 6 4 - 9 V
3 .5 Crisis Management
i See II introduction.
a Cf. the important essay by B. Malinowski. ‘ Magic. Science and Religion' (1925) j
Magic. Science and Religion and other Essays, 1948, 17-9 2.
3 Pind. Pyth. 8.53; Nem. 6.24: 01 . 8.67; H. Strohm . Tyche (194 4 ).
4 See V 3 .3 n. 40.
5 See II 1-2 .
6 Eur. Ion 16 19 f.
7 A F 68 f ; sacrificial calendar from Eleusis, I G 11—111 (2nd edn) 136 3 = S I G 1078
= L S C G 7, S . Dow and R .F . H ealey, IIT h R 21 (1966) 15 f.; the writing Prerosia is
found in L S S 18 (first published 19 4 1) from P aiania; hence Plerosia in IG I I —H I
(2nd edn) 1 183 must be considered an orthographic varian t o f the sam e word too
pace A F 68.
8 See V 3.4 n. 30.
9 LS S 18 B 2 1.
10 Plut. Praec. com. 144 a. referred to the Proerosia in /IF 69.
1 1 See V 2.5 n. 14.
12 Hes. Erga 46 5-72.
13 Hes. Erga 39t f.; U . v. VVilamowitz-Moellendorff, Hesiods Erga, 1928, 87 f.
14 .4 F 6 0 -7 ; Philochoros FG rH isl 328 F 83 with Ja c o b y ad loe.; contra M .P . Nilsson,
De Dionysiis Atticis, 1900, 99 an^ ^ 6 5 , Λλ/μ can only mean threshing floor, not
tilled field; farm ers bew are of treading down the crops, they therefore assem ble on
the threshing floors which arc laid out between the fields. There is one isolated
vase painting which has upright phalloi placed am idst germ inating seed, Pelikc
British M useum E 8 19 , /Iß T (2nd edn) 1 13 7 .2 5 , Cook I 685, .'IF 65 Γ, PI. 3.
15 Sacrificial calendar from M arathon, IG I I —111, 2nd edn, 1358 = L S C G 20 B 9.
16 Anécdota Graeca (ed. Bekker) 385.2.
17 Schol. Luc. 2 7 9 .2 4 -2 8 1.3 ; .4 F 6 1 ; for the term telete 28 0 .12 cf. L S C G 20 B 10: 280.25
endon m eans indoors, not in the fields.
18 For pom egranates at the T hesm ophoria, see V 2.5 n. 44; there is Demeter
M alophoros, carrying an apple, at Selinus; rooster sacrifice for Persephone, see
II i n. 2; on eggs cf. Nilsson Op. I I 3-20 .
19 L S S 18; M . Jam e so n Athenaeum 54 (1976) 444 no. 5; Dcm eter C hloe L S C G 9 6 .11;
Eupolis Fr. 18 3, C A F I 309; Philochoros FG rH isl 328 F 6 1; I E 201 b 5, c 9;
Cornutus Theol. Graec. 28; cf. L S C G 20 B 49; I G I I —I I I , 2nd edn, 1299.
20 A F 67 f.
21 LS S 18 B 7, 29, both times sacrifice o f a pregnant sow, parallel to the Premia
(n. 7); this has nothing to do with the Anthestcria (see V 2.4 ), pace Sokolowski.
'i i II. t.39 with schol., Strab . 13 .6 1 3 , Ael. Nat. an. 12.5; the cult o f Smintheus was
widely populat, R E II 68 f., C G S I V 164 f.; month names Sm inthios and Smision,
Sam uel 296 (Index). M .K . Schretter, Alter Orient und Hellas, 1974, ΐ7 4 -θ 2 argues
that the ‘m ice’ o f Sm intheus represent the plague.
23 Strab. 1 3 .6 13 ; R E II 63.
24 Strab. 13 .6 1 3 ; since inscriptions present the form Erithimios instead, Erysibi*J
may be a secondary product o f popular etym ology, G G R 53 5 , cf. Grazer Beitrag*
4 (* 975 ) 7 «·
25 A F 179-9 8, esp. 188 f.; see II 4 n. 70.
26 See II 2 n. 1 1 .
27 Cook I I I 52 5 -7 0 ; R E X A 344, 368.
V 4· 1 SA C R ED 451
3g Aristoph. Ran. 847 with schol.
Paus. 2 .34 .2 ; T im aio s FG rH isl 566 F 30; this is rem iniscent o f A iolos’ w indbag,
Od. 10 .19 -4 7 , R . Strom berg, Acta Univ. Gotoburgensis 56 (»950) 7 1-8 4 ; L & S 154;
see I I I 3 .3 n 1 1 - 1 6 .
3o Paus 8.38.4; Cook I I I 3 1 5 f.
, , H N 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 84-93.
p Sec Introduction 1.
33 See II 1; H N passim.
34 W achsrnuth, Rompimos ho Daimon, D issertation, Berlin, 1965 and Der Kleine
Pauly V 6 7 -7 1 s.v. Seewesen.
35 Od. 15.2 2 2 f.
36 T huc. 6.32.
37 E.g. H arrison (1) 182.
38 See I V 5.2 n. 25 f.
39 Schol. A poll. Rh. 1 .9 17 b; see V I 1.3 n. 35.
40 H N 4 6-48. 64-66; see Pritchett.
^ i Eur. Erechtheus: Fr. 65, 65-89 (C. A ustin, Nova Fragmenta Euripidea. 1968) H N 66.
42 X cn . Hell. 6.4.7; Plut. Pelop. 20; Diod. 15.54 ; Paus. 9 .13 .5 .
43 See II i n. 3 6 -7 .
44 See II 8 n. 32.
45 K . W oelcke, B Jb 120 ( 1 9 1 1 ) 12 7 -2 3 5 ; F. Lam m ert, R E V I I A 6 6 3 -7 3 ;
A J . Ja n sse n , Het antieke tropaion, 1957.
46 Eur. Phoen. 1250 ; G orgias PS 82 B 6.
47 See I h n . 4 5-6 ; V 3.2 n. 6.
48 See II 2 nn. 27-8 .
49 See I I I 2.5 n. 20.
50 Paus. J Î . 4 1 . 7 -9 . A t a sim ilar occasion a statue o f H eraclcs w as set up at M elite,
Schol. A ristoph. Ran. 5 0 1.
51 See IV 5.3.
52 The most detailed docum ent is a Lex sacra from Pergam on, M . W örrle, Altertümer
von Pergamon V I I I 3, 1969, 16 7-9 0 ; it seems to reproduce an older form ula, W örrle
18 5 -7 ; further I E 205; LS S 22, from Epidauros, see also L S C G 60; L S C G ui from
Piraeus. Prelim inary sacrifice is mentioned in Pergam on, Epidauros. E rythrai,
Piraeus, pig sacrifice only in Pergam on, ‘ M nem osyne’ in Pergam on and Piraeus.
53 IE 20 5.31
54 H sch. s.v. hygieia, Anécdota Graeca (ed. Bekker) 3 1 3 . 1 3 , A ih . 3 .1 1 5 a ; R . Wrünsch,
A R W 7 (190 4 ) 1 15 f.; on E pidau ria and M ysteries A F 72 f., K erén yi ( i) 73.
55 Anecdote o f D iagoras, see V I I 2 n. 36.
4. i ‘Sacred’
2 R . O tto, Das Heilige, 19 17 ; G . M ensching, Die Religion, 1959, 18 f., 129 f.: cf. H eiler
( 19 6 1), part A.
452 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 6 9 - 7 3 V
3 P. W ü lfin g von M a rtitz , Giotto 38 ( 19 5 9 -6 ) 2 7 2 -3 0 7 ; 39 { 1 9 6 0 - 6 1 ) n
J . P L o ch e r. linier suchunpen su hier ns hauùtsàchlieh hei Homer D i« p rta» m n » ‘ o t
4 -2 Theos
31 See I 2.
W Pötschcr, Theos, Dissertation, Vienna, 1953; on C Gallavotti, S M S R 33 ( 1962)
25-4 3 sec A. Brelich ibid. 44-50. Frisk I 662 Γ; sec II 8 n. 18.
33 Schol. Aristoph. Ran. 479; A F 125.
34 Od. 19.40; 1.323.
35 See II 8 n. 1.
36 Deus! fcce dtus! Verg. Aen. 6.46; cf. E. Norden ad loc.; Bacchyl. 3 .2 t; Eur. Here.
772 f.
37 See II 8 n. 18.
38 Hes. Erga 764; Aesch. Cho. 60; Hippoihoon T G F 2 10 F 2; Eur. Hel. 560; GdH I 17;
K ercnyi (3) 14; with qualification, W. Pötschcr, ‘ Das Person-Bercichdenken in
der frühgriechischcn Periode', WSi 72 (1959) 5-25.
3g On Sam othrace see V I 1.34.
40 Votive relief from the Meilichios sanctuary in Piraeus, Harrison (1) 20.
41 F. Ja c o b i. Pañíes Theoi, Halle 1930; for the M ycenaean evidence see I 3.6 n. 4.
42 II. 17 .5 14 ; Od. 1.267 c*c
43 Archilochus F t. 13.5 (W est); Theognis 134.
44 Achilochus F t. 2 4 .15 (West); Semonides F t. 7; Theognis 1 5 1 ; G . François. Le
polythéisme et l'emplui au singulier des mnls THEOS, DAIMON. 1957.
45 See III 3.5.
4 .3 Eusebeia
46 Od. 6 .t2 r , 8.576; 9 .17 6 ; 13.202; 19.10 9 ; cf. Thcogn. 1179 . Sec V 3 .1 n. 16.
47 P. Koets, Deisidaimonia: a contribution to the knowledge oj the religious terminology in
Greek y 1929; H. Bolkcstein, Theophrastos' Charakter der Deisidaimonia. 1929;
S. Eitrem , Sy mb. Oslo 31 (1955) 155-6 9 ; P. A. M cijcr in Vcrsncl 259-64; the word
is used in a positive sense by Xen. Ages. i t . 8, Cyr. 3.3.58. Thucydides uses the
word theiasmos with reference to Nikias, 7.50.4.
48 B. Snell, Die Entdeckung des Geistes, 4th edn, 1975, 30 f.
49 Frisk II 686 f.; cf. Aesch. Pers. 694.
50 O dysseus to N ausicaa, Od. 6 .16 1: sebas is mentioned between aidos and deos when
the goddess reveals herself, Hymn. Dem. 190. cf. 28 1-9 3.
51 See I I I 3.2 n. 1 3 - 1 7 ; Aesch. Eum. 383; Paus. 1.28.6.
52 D. Kaufm ann-Buhler. R A C V I 9 8 5-10 52 (1966) s.v. Eusebeia, the word first
occurs in Theogn. 145 cf. 1 1 4 1 f.
53 Isocr. 7.30.
54 H. V os, Themis, Utrecht 1957. There is o-u-te-mi in M ycenaean, but the meaning is
disputed, Gérard-Rousseau 158 Γ. On the etymology Frisk I 660 f., Chantrainc
427 f.
55 J . van Hcrten, Threskeia, Eulabeia, Hiketes, Dissertation, Utrecht, 1934.
56 Plato. Leg. 821 a.
57 Od. 19 .3 3-4 3
58 Sec II 3 n. 2.
59 Sec n. 55.
60 Isocr. 15.282; therapeuein first in Hes. Erga 135.
61 Cassandra in Eur. Tro. 450, Ion in Eur. Ion lag ; 152; cf. Iph. Taur 1275, Socrates
on his ‘service’ to god, Plat. Apol. 23 c; see H.W. Plckct in Versnel 152-92.
454 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 7 3 - 7 7 V JJy
62 Plat. Leg. 7 15 c. A. Dihle, R A C 111 735-78 s.v. Demut.
63 X en . Oec.5.3.
64 Pind. Nem. 10.30; Parlh 2.4; F t. 75.2; a conscious paradox in Acsch. Ag. j8 2 f
65 Hes. Erga 336, quoted <*.g. by X en. Mem. 1.3 .3 , c^· Arist. E N 116 4 b 5 f.
66 Porph. Abst. 2 .1 5 = Parke and Wormell no. 241 (on the occasion when the tyran,
o f Sicily celebrated their victory, in 480 uc); variants ibid. nos. 239-40, 24.2
from Theophrastus, see J . Bernays, Theophraslos' Schuß über Frömmigkeit ¡R g l’
68 f.; W. Pötscher, Theophraslos P E R I E U S E B E IA S , «964, Fr. 7.47 ff.; Parke and
Wormell 110. 238 = Theopompus FG rH isl 1 1 5 F 344.
67 M enander Sam. 444.
68 H ipponax Fr. 32 (West).
69 Sec V 3 .1 n. 36.
70 Eur. Hipp. 82; 139 4-8.
71 Arist. M M 1208 b 30.
72 II. 1.3 8 1; T yrtaios Fr. 5.1 etc.; F. Dirlmeier, Theophilia-Philotheia’ , Philologus
9° (* 935 ) 37—77, 17 6 -9 3 — Ausgewählte Schriften, 1970. 8 5-10 9 .
73 Aesch. Prom. 1 1 ; 28; Aristoph. Pax 392.
74 On the envy o f the gods see III 4 η. 59.
75 M enclaos in II. 3.365, Achilles II. 2 2 .15 ; in the invocation of Cassandra
‘ M y A pollo’ means ‘ my destroyer’ , Acsch. Ag. to 8 i-6 .
76 Hymn. Dent. 2 16 f.; Pind. Pyth. 3.82.
77 Soph. Ajax 127 f., cf. El. 569.
78 J . R udhardt, ‘ L a definition du délit d'im piété d ’ après la législation attique\
,MH 17 (1960) 8 7 -10 5 : Le délit religieux dans la cité antique, Rome, 198 1.
79 Herakleides Péri eusebeias, Fr. 46 (W chrli).
80 Sec n. 19.
81 First in Aesch. Pers. 808.
82 See V II 2.
83 T hus diken nomizein Hdt. 4.10 6 ; Snell (sec n. 48) 32 f.; W. Fahr. Theous nomizetn,
1969.
84 X en . Mem. 1 .1 ,2 ; Plat. Apol. 26 b -28 a.
85 Sec V I I 3,2 n. 26.
86 T h is is how Oppenheim 182 characterized Babylonian religion
VI
M ysteries and Asceticism
1 M YSTERY SANCTUARIES
1 .1 General Considerations
1 R. Pettazzoni, 1 misten, 1924; O. K ern, Die griechischen Mysterien der klassischen Zeit,
1927, and R E X V I 12 0 9 -3 14 s.v. M ysterien; A. Loisy, Les mystères païens et le mystère
chrétien, 2nd edn, 1930; O .E . Briem, Les sociétés secrètes des mystères, 19 4 1; Die
Mysterien, Eranos-Jahrbuch n (1944): = The Mysteries, 1955; Nock II 7 9 1-8 20:
‘ Hellenistic M ysteries’ . D. Sabbatucci, Saggio sul misticismo greco, 1965; U . Bianchi,
Iconography o f Religions X V I I 3: The Greek Mysteries, 1976. See further on the
concept o f m ysteries C . Colpe in Mithraic Studies, ed. J . R . Hinnells, 1975, 379-84.
2 C . Zijderveld, Teleté, 1934. Mu-ja-me-no occurs in M ycenaean, the context is
unclear, G é rard -Rousseau 146 f.
3 N .M .H . van den Burg, Aporrheta, Dromena, Orgia, Dissertation, Utrecht, «939;
arrhetos telete on a fifth-century epigram from the Eleusinion in Athens,
R E. W ycherley, Athenian Agora II I, 1957, no. 226.
4 A. Henrichs. Z P E (1969) 230 f ; H N 269 f.; see V 2.2 n. 10; V I 1.4 n. 9 -10 .
5 H N 2 5 1; see V I 1.4 n. 3.
6 F. Speiser, ‘ Die eleusinischen M ysterien als primitive Initiation'. Zeitschr.f Ethnol.
60 (1928) 36 2-7 2; K . Prumrn, Zeitschr.f. kath. Theol. 57 (19 3 3 ) 8 9 -10 2 ; 254 -272;
Eliade, see V 3.4 n. 2: W .D. Berner, Initiationsriten in Mysterienreligionen, im
Gnostitzismus und im antiken Judentum. Dissertation, Göttingen, 1972.
7 LS S 3 C 20; H N 253 f.
8 G G R 662; 674 f.; cf. V arro in Aug. Civ. 7.20.
9 See V 2.5; V 3.5 nn. 7 -10 ; 20.
10 Conjectures about drugs in Eleusis in K . Kerényi, Initiation, Numen Suppi. 10
(1965) 63 f.: E. Jü n g e r in Studies in Honor o f M . Eliade, 1969, 327-4 2; R .G . Wasson,
A. Hofmann and C .A .P. Ruck, The Road to Eleusis, 1978. T he continuing
discussions on Indian Som a, Iranian Haom a cannot be reviewed here; suflice it to
mention G . Dumézil, Le festin d'immortalité, 1924; on Haom a festivals in Persepolis
R.A . Bowm an, Aramaic Ritual Texts from Persepolis, 197° · an^ W. Hinz, Acta Iranica
4 ( *975 ) 37 ι_ ® 5 · O n the use o f opium Kerénvi (4) 3 5-9 ; C R A l (1976) 234 f.; 238 f.
11 Phallic Priapos ‘ is honoured in nearly all the teletai,' Diod. 4.6.4; H N 270 f.
12 A rist. Fr. 15; Gold tablet O F 32 f. = A 4, 3 Zuntz; Athenagoras 3 2 .1.
13 According to Colpe (see n. 1) this is the very definition o f mysteries.
14 Plut. Prof. virt. 81 e; Fr. 178; Proel. In Remp. II 10 8 .2 1-4 (ed. K ro ll); see
Richardson 306 f.
456 NOTES TO PA G ES 2 7 7 - 8 2 V j
15 Diod. 5.77.3.
16 Oknos and water carriers appeared on Polygnotos* picture o f H ades in Delnfi* '
Paus. 10 .2 9 .1; 3 «-9 -* * (about 450 b c ) ; both are also seen on the L c k y t ^ S B j
Palermo, Cook I I I PI. 36 (about 500 b c ) ; w ater carriers on an amphora
M unich, A B V 3 16 .7 , Cook II I 399 (about 540/30); Plat. Gorg. 493 b; G ra f ϊθ7
188-94; E. Keuls, The Haler Camen in Hadei, 1973, thinks the water carriers ani
initiates, not amyetoi.
17 Sec I i nn. 14 and 23-4.
1 Plut. Themist. 1 referring to Simonides Fr. 627 (Page); Plut. Fr. 24 = Hippol. Rf r
5.20.5; Paus. 4 .1.7 ; i . 3 1.4 . Toepfl'er 20 8-23; -Ί/*' 69 Γ; G G R 669.
2 Plut. Fr. 24. the paintings fit late archaic style, S. M ari natos, Platon 3 (19 5 ^
■228-42.
3 Plut. Fr. 24; Paus. 1.3 1.4 .
4 Paus. 1.3 1.4 . Nilsson G G R 669 thinks this manifold variety must bc ‘laic*.
5 Paus. 1.22 .7; 9 .27.2; 9 .3 0 .12 .
6 Paus. 4 .1.4 , cf. 4 .1 4 .1 ; 4 .15 7; 4 .16 .6 . T he Kaukones are a Pre-Greek tribe, Hdt.
4 .14 8; F. Kiechle, Historia 9 (i960) 26-38.
7 Paus. 4.20.4; 26.6 f.; 27.5; 33 .5 ; cf. L S C G 6 5 .12 .
8 Paus. 4 .1.7 f.
9 IG V 1 . 1 390 = S I G 736 = L S C G 65; GdH II 536-44; G G R 478; M . Guarducci.
‘ I culti di A n dan ia', S M SR 10 (1934) 174-204.
10 L S C G 65.67 f.; 14 f.
11 L S C G 6 5.33, 68, 24; see V 4 n. 5.
IS L S C G 6 5 .7 3 t f 39 · 75· 8 5 . 67.
13 L S C G 65.95, 3 1.
14 L S C G 6 5 .13 ; see IV 5.2. M essenians from Andania playing the role of Dioskuuroi:
Paus. 4 .2 7.1 f.. see II 6 n. 30; I I I 4 n. 33. Sec ToepfTcr 220 f.; Hem berg 33-6.
Pausanias writes ‘ Great Goddesses’ and seems to be thinking o f Demeter and her
daughter, 4.33.4.
1 5 S I G 7 35 ,
16 Hdt. 2 .17 1 .
17 Paus. 8 .3 8 .1; 8 .2 .1; findings from the sanctuary go back to the sixth century,
M .J o s t , B C H 99 (19 75) 339—64.
18 IG V 2 .5 14 = S I G 999 = L S C G 68, third century b c : Paus. 8.37; E. M eyer, R E
X I I I 9 6 7-10 0 4 ; G G R 479 Γ; Stiglitz 30-46; E. L evy and J . M arcadé, BC H
96 (1972) 9 6 7-10 0 4 ; M . Jo s t, B C H 99 (1975) 339-64. T h e group o f the gods by
Damophon, preserved in fragments (Paus. 8.37.3; see Ε Λ Α II 999 f·) was
generally datrd to the second ccntury b c , but a coin found beneath seemed to
indicate rather the second century ad, E. Levy, B C H 91 (1967) 5 18 -4 5 ; contra
B C H 96 (19 72) 986; 1003.
19 Paus 8.37.8; A E (19 12 ) 142-8.
20 A E (19 12 ) 155, 159; G G R PI. 3 1.2 ; See II 7 n. 46.
21 Paus. 8.37.6.
22 Sec I 4 n. 18; I I I 2.1 n. 16; I I I 3.2 n. 12; V 3.4 n. 12.
23 E ur. Fr. 472; U . v. Wilamowitz-ModlcndorfT, Berliner Klassikertexte V 2, 1907, 77*
R. C an tarella, Euripide, I Crelesi, 1964; Fauth, R E I X A 2226-30.
24 Boio in Anton. Lib. 19.
25 Porph. Vit. Pyth. 17.
26 Antim achos Fr, 67 (W yss); Steph. Byz. s.v. Paros.
y I 1.3 T H E K A B E IR O : A N D S A M O T H R A C E *57
αη Paus. 10.28.3.
jg G r a f 1 1 0 - 1 2 ; see V ! 1 .1 η. ι6.
2Q On thc term hieras and hiera in M essenian and Laconian tomb inscriptions, see V 4
n. 5·
1 .3 The K abeiroi and Samothrace
i See V I 1.2 n. 6.
.2 Full treatment by Hem berg (1950 ), which outdates K ern, R E X 1399-450.
3 Hdt. 6 .13 6 ; K . Kinzl, Miltiades-Forschungen, Dissertation, V ien n a. «968. 56-80,
12 1-4 4 .
4 Hem berg 160 -70 ; ASA tene 30-2 ( 19 52-54) 3 37 -4 0 ; D. Levi, ‘ II Cabirio di Lemno'
Charisterion A .K . Orlandos I I I , Athens 1966, 1 10 - 3 2 ; K Kerenyi Symb. Oslo.
41 (1966) 26-8; CQ 20 ( 1970) 9 f.
5 See I I I 2 . 1 1 .
6 Akousilaos FC rH isI 2 F 20: Pherekydes FGrHist 3 F 48; cf. Hdt. 3.37.
η Acsch. Fr. 45 (M ette).
8 See I I I 2 . 1 1 η. 19.
9 M yrsilos FGrH ist 477 F 8.
10 S. Follet. RPh 48 (1974) 32-4 .
11 P. Wolters and G . Bruns, Das Kabirenheiligtum bei Theben I, 1940; II; W. Heyder,
Die Bauwerke, 1978; I I I : U . H eim berg, Die Keramik des Kabirions, 1982;
V : B. Schm altz, Terrakotten aus dem Kabirenheiligtum bei Theben, 1974; G . Bruns in;
Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittelmeergebiet und im vorderen Orient, 1959, 237-4 8;
Hem berg 184-205.
12 Paus. 9-25.5-9; ‘ Pelarge’ as founder of the mysteries recalls the ‘ Pelargoi’ o f
Lem nos, M yrsilos FGrH ist 477 F q.
13 G G R PI. 4 ^ .1.
14 Sec V I 1.2 n. 14.
15 AA (196 7) 2 7 1. Perhaps thamakes w as a designation for the companion or brother
in initiation; inscription in AA (1964) 242.
16 G . van Hoorn, Chocs and Anthesteña. 19 5 1. 52.
17 See II 7 nn. 6 1- 7 ; V 2.4 n. 1 1 ; V 2.5 nn. 33-4.
18 G G R PI. 4 8 .1; O . K ern, Hermes 25 (1890) 7; H N 246 f.
19 P M G 985.
20 I G V I I 2428.
2 1 AA (196 7) 245 f.
22 Paus. 9 .25.5.
23 Sem itic kabir great has been compared ever since Scaliger; but nothing else points
to Sem itic connections, see PR I 848; Hem berg 3 18 -2 0 . Hittite habiri, some kind of
looters, outlaw s, sometimes with divine status, was compared by A .H . Saycc ,J H S
45 ( ! 92 5) *63. but U garitic establishes c as the beginning o f this word which
could hardly become K in Greek. Hem berg 320 f. - G . Dossin, NClio 5 (1953)
199-202 thinks o f Sum erian kabar copper. C f. Kabamoi at Paros, see V 2.5 n. 5 1.
24 K . Lehm ann (ed.), Samothrace I - V , 19 5 8 -8 1; O. Rubcnsohn,Die
heiligtiimer von Eleusis und Samothrake. 1892; Hem berg 4 9 - 1 3 1 , 3 0 3 - 17 ; G G R 670;
K . K erenyi in Geist und Werk, 1958, 12 5 -3 8 ; S .G . Cole, Thtoi Megaloi: The Cult o f the
Great Gods ai Samothrace. 1984. T h e most important sources are collected in Schol.
Apoll. Rh. 1.9 16 , cf. Ja c o b y on FGrHist 54 6 .1; lists o f initiates in I G X I I
8 .17 3 - 2 2 3 , cf. p. 38-4 0 ; S /G 10 52-54 : Samothrace II 1.7 4 - 1 16 ; Bulletin e'pigraphique.
(1966) no. 342.
25 Diod. 5.47.3; non-Greek graffiti in Samothrace II 2 .8 -19 , 45-64.
4 58 N O TES TO P A G E S 2 8 2 - 7 Y ] (
26 Hdt. 2 .5 1. cf. Aristoph. Pax 277 f ; on Diagoras see V II 2 n. 36.
27 Lippold 360.
28 Hemberg 1 1-2-5, w ^ ° refers to M esopotamian temples ( 128 n. 3). For the dat
the Anaktomn, previously attributed to thr fifth century, see Cole Thtoi to Cf01
(see n. 24), 12 f. g<U(ft
29 Samothrace II 1 .1 18 - 2 0 no. 63 = LSS 75 a; Hemberg 1 12.
30 A .D . Nock, A JA 45 ( 1941 ) 5 7 7 -8 1; Hemberg 112 .
3 1 Called ‘Témenos* by the excavators; cf. Lykosoura, see V I 1.2 n. 19.
32 Samothrace I I I : The Hiernn, 1960. The inscription: Samothrace II 1 . 1 1 7 f n o c_
LSS 75.
3 3 Hemberg 126 -8.
34 Plut. Lac. apophth. 2 17 d; 229 d; 236 dl cf. the story o f Rhampsinitos in Hdt
2 .12 1 e 2.
35 Schol. Apoll. Rh. 1.9 16 b. see V 3.5 n. 39.
36 L ucr. 6 .1044; Plin. Nat. Hist. 33.23; Isidorus Elym. 19.32.5; EtymologicumMagnum
573 · *9 ‘Magnetis'; see also T ac. Germ. 31 on the elite warriors o f the Chatti.
37 Rain and caduceus on Sam othracian coins. Head 263, Hemberg 102.
38 V al. Flacc. Arg 3.440 f.
39 Hdt. 2 .5 1; Stesimbrotos FG rH isl 107 F 20; M naseas Schol. Apoll. Rh. 1.9 16 b*
contradicted by Demetrios of Skepsis, Strab. 10.472; Hemberg 7 3 -8 1.
40 M naseas Schol. Apoll. Rh. 1.9 16 b. Hsch. kerses; gamos and kersai: gamein have
been compared. Artem idorus in Strab. 4 .19 8 mentions ‘ Demeter and K orr'
Hemberg 88. starting from the pattern ‘ Dioscoures au service d'une déesse’ (see
IV 5.2 n. 4), arbitrarily postulates that Axieros must be male; the gods a re
separate from and prior to the ‘ M ännerbund’ as reflected in the Korybantoi,
Dioskouroi, etc. (see n. 58). T he busts of the tomb of the Haterii (Rome, Vatican)
are thought to represent the three Sam othracian gods7 with the caduceus added
for Kadm ilos: U . Bianchi, The Greek Mysteries, 197b, 30 f., Fig. 58; perhaps copied
from a pediment in Sam othrace.
41 V a n o in M acr. Sat, 3.4.8; A ug. Civ. 7.23, 28; Cf. Serv. Aen. 3 .1 2 . 264; 8.679; Prob.
Eel. 6 .3 1: but in V arro De Lingua Latina 5.58 ‘Caelum et Terra* are claimed to be
the gods o f Sam othrace: see Hemberg 9 1; K . Kerényi in Studi Funaioli, 1 955»
157-6 2.
42 Hemberg 82, 6q, 84 f.; Lycophr. 77; Schol. Nie. T her. 462.
43 Akousilaos FG rH isl 2 F 20; Callim . Fr. 199. 723; M naseas, see n. 39; inscription
from Im bros IG X I I 8.74.
44 V arro De Lingua ¡Atina 5.58; the Naassene in Hippnl. Ref. 5.8.9 f.; alluded to in
H dt. 2.51.4 .
45 Cic. Nat D. 3.56, alluded to in Hdt. 2.51 and Callim . Fr. 199, cf. Serv. auct. Am.
4.577, «.297. Hemberg 93 is wrong to make ithyphallic Hermes the bridegroom of
the sacred m arriage; figures of this kind remain outdoors, as satyrs in the retinue
o f Dionysos and Ariadne. Phallic votive figurines: Hemberg 56.
46 T his is now already attested for Hesiod's Catalogue.t, Fr. 177; cf. ‘ Ark tinos' /liu
Persis Fr. i (Allen) = Domitios FGrH isl 433 F 10 = Dion. Hai. Ant. I.68Î-
Hell an ikos FG rH isl 4 F 23; P R I 854-6; Hemberg 3 1 2 - 1 5 .
47 Ephoros FG rH isl 70 F 120; Hemberg 9 1.
48 Iasion Hes. Theog. 9Ó9-71; Od. 5 .12 5 ; transferred to Sam othrace in Hes. Fr. >77!
rationalized in Hellanikos FGrH isl 4 F 23; cf. Scym nus 684 f.; Diod. 6.47-9;
Hai. Ant. 1.6 1 , cf. Aphrodite and Anchises; Hemberg 89. For a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o»
Aetion see P.W . Lehmann, The Pedimenlal Sculptures o f the Hieran in Samolhraci,
49 Serv. Aen, 3 .16 7 , cf. Clem. Prolr, 2 .19 on Korybantoi and Kabeiroi, and the story
o f Rham psinitos (see n. 34); N. Stroseizki, ‘ Kain und Romulus als Stadtgründer
vi 1.4 EL EU SIS 459
Forschungen und Fortschrittt 29 (1955) 184-Ô. T exts from ehe Imperial age have
'A d im n a' worshipped in the Sam othracian mysteries, interpreted as the first man
and identified with Attis: the Naassenian in Hippol. R tf. 5.8.9; Attis hymn ibid.
5.9.8; T h . Wolbergs, Gritchischt religiose Gedichte dt τ ersten nachchristlichenJahrhunderte,
197 t, 8, 70 f.; the name is explained as Phrygian, meaning the beloved one, Hsch.
adamne\n\ cf. W. Fauth, Indogermanische Forschungen 82 (1977) 80 f.; for Adam na at
Ebla see V . H aas, Ugarit-Forschungen 13 (198 1 ) to2. Is this name a survival of the
pre-Greek nucleus o f Sam othracian mythology?
Flood: Lycophr. 69-85; Plat. Leg. 682 b; 702 a; Schol. T //. 20 .219 ; M eter: Diod.
5.4 9; cf. Ephoros FGrHist 70 F 104.
ti Hellanikos FGrHist 4 F 23 (the manuscripts have Polyarche, corr. Wilamowitz).
52 See V I I 2 n. 36.
53 Apoll. Rh. 1 .9 15 - 2 1; Val. Flacc. Arg. 2.432-42.
34 Hemberg 3 16 f.; Latte (2) 407 f.
35 Hemberg 127.
56 Kadm ilos-H asam ili: Hem berg 129; 3 16 f.
57 See I V 5.2 η. 4; ‘ Dioscuri’ at Sam othrace: Nigidius Fr. 91 (Swoboda).
58 Hemberg 303-0 5; ‘ K yrban tes’ Pherekydes FGrHist 3 F 48; ‘ Daktyloi’ Ephoros
FGrHist 70 F 104.
59 Identified with ‘Salii’ by Kritolaos FGrHist 823 F t; Scrv. auct. Aen. 8.285, ‘Saos1
son o f Hermes and Rhene (whose name recalls the ram): Schol. Apoll. Rh.
1.9 16 b. on Arist. Fr. 579 (Rose).
bo T his is the native name o f Elektra according to Hellanikos FGrHist 4 F 23.
1.4 Eleusis
2 .1 Bacchic Mysteries
3 B IO S
V ¡ »
1
1 See V 4 n. 8.
2 Schol. Aristoph. Pax 278; S I G 1052 f ; ser V I 1.3 n. 34.
3 F.ur. Fr. 472; see V I t.2 n. 23.
4 F.ur. Bacch. 74, 139.
5 Aristoph. Ran. 455.
6 Xenocrates Fr. 98 (Hcinzc) in Porph. Abu. 4.22.
7 Plat. Leg. 782 c; Eur. Hipp. 952; J . Haussleiter, Der Vegetarismus in der Antike, 1935
7 9 -< (6
8 Plut. Q. com. 635 e: M acr. Sat. 7.16.8.
9 OF 291 .
10 Drunkenness is Dionysos’ revenge for his ‘sufferings', Plat. Leg. 672 b.
i i A risl. Probl. ined. 3.43 (Bussem aker); Iambi. Vit. Pyth. 154; Ath. 656 b.
12 M art. C ap. 2.140; P. Boyancé, M E F R 52 (1935) 9 5 - 11 2 .
13 Both O rpheus and Hippolytos are represented as misogynists.
14 Plat. Crat. 400 c.
15 Plat. Phd. 62 b, with the commentary o f Xenocrates, see V I 2.3 n. 18.
16 Arist. Fr. 60.
17 Plat. Phd. 62 b; J .C .G . Strachan, CQ 20 (1970) 216 -20 .
18 Plut. Lac. apophth. 224 c; Plat. Resp. 364 b.
19 F. Boehm. De symbolis Pythagoreis, Dissertation. Berlin. 1905; Haussleiter (seen. 7)
9 7 -15 7 ; I. & S 166-92.
20 L & S 180-2.
21 See V I 2.2 n. n .
22 lam bl. Vit. Pyth. 50, 132.
23 Arist. An. 404 a 16; Fr. 193.
24 lam bl. Vit. Pyth. 85; his source is Aristotle.
25 lam bl. Vit. Pyth. 9 6-10 0. probably following Aristoxenus; but Iam blichus is
writing with an eye to Christianity and may have retouched the picture.
26 Dodds 135-7 8 .
27 L & S 14 7 -6 1.
28 M. Détienne, ‘ La cuisine de Pythagore’ , Arch, de Sodol. des Rel. 29 (1970) 14 1-6 2 ;
cf. Détienne (2) 16 3 -2 17 .
29 ‘A human soul does not enter animals which may be sacrificed,' Iambi. Vit. Pyth.
85; or, alternatively: to be killed in sacrifice is justly ordained execution as
atonement for a crime committed in an earlier existence, Porph. in Stob. 1. 49 -59 ·
cf. Plat. Leg. 870 e; L & S 182.
30 This is thc only form of ofTering acknowledged in the late collection o f Orphic
Hymns.
31 L & S 117 .
32 L & S 293.
33 L & S 202-4.
34 Jo s . Ant. Iud. 15.10 .4 .
VII
Philosophical Religion
I TH F. N E W F O U N D A T IO N ! B E IN G AND THE D IV IN E
1 Greek philosophy proper cannot be even remotely treated in this book. Standard
works are. first of all. E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen in ihrer geschichtlichen
Entwicklung, I, 7th edn. 1923; II 1 (Plato), 5th edn. 19*22. II 2 (Aristotle) 4th edn,
19 2 1; W .K .C . Guthrie. History o j Greek Philosophy I - V I , 19 6 2-8 1. Philosophical
theology: E. Caird. The Evolution o f Theology in the Greek Philosophers, 1903;
O. G ilbert, Griechische Religionsphilosophie, 1 9 1 1 ; R .K . Hack, God in Greek Philosophy
to the time o f Socrates, 1931 : N. A . Wolfson, Religious Philosophy, 19 7 1; W. Weischedel,
Der Gott der Philosophen I. 19 7 1; D. Babul, La religion des philosophes grecs, 1974; for
the Presocratics, see Ja e g e r (1947).
2 T he word first occurs in Plat. Resp. 379 a; but ‘speaking about gods’ already in
Xenophanes B 3 ^ Empedocles B 13 1 ; Ja e g e r 9 -18 : V . Goldschm idt. R E G
63 (* 95o) 20-42.
3 I f the indication of Anaxim andros’ age in 547/6. Apollodorus FGrHist 244 F
29 = VS 12 A 1.2 , means that he completed his book in this year.
4 See V 3.2 n. 8.
5 Hdt. 1 .1 3 1 .
6 Hermes 88 (i960) 159-77.
7 Γ5 12; Ch. H. Kahn, Anaximander and the Origins o f Greek Cosmology, 1960;
C .J. Classen, R E Suppl. X I I 30-69; D. Babut, R E G 85 (1972) 1-3 2 .
8 VS 12 A 15.
9 B 1 = Sim pl. Phys. 2 4 .14 -2 1, from Theophrastus.
to VS 13 : C .J. Classen. R E Suppl. X I I 6 9 -7 1.
π Γ5 13 A 7 and Philodemus in H. Diels. Doxographi Graeci, 1879, 531 f.; A 10 is
doubtful.
12 KS' 2 1; K . v. Fritz, R E I X A 15 4 1-6 2 ; P. Decharme, Ad critique des traditions
religieuses chez la gnes, 1904.
13 B 23; cf. E. Hornung, Der Eine und die Vielen: aegyptische GottesiOrstellungen, 2nd edn.
*973
14 B 26; Jae g er 275.
15 B 2.
16 B 24-5.
17 A 30 = Arist. Met. 986 b 20.
18 See V' 3 .1 n. 5.
19 B 15 - 16 .
20 B 1.22.
466 N O TES TO P A G E S 3O 9 - 17 VU 3
21 PS 2 a; editio m aior wich commentary by M . M arcovich 1967; R E Supp£
X 246-320; Ch. H Kahn, The Art and Thought o f Heraclitus, 197g.
22 B 5 = 86 M arcovich.
23 B 15 = 50 M ., cf. A. Lesley, Gesammelte Schriften, 1966, 4 6 1-7.
24 R 59 = 32 M
25 B i = i M.
26 B 30 = 51 M.
27 B 12 —40 M.
28 B 67 = 77 M.
29 B 1 14 = 23 M.
30 B 41 = 8 5 M.
31 B 64 = 79 M.
32 B 32 = 84 M.
33 FS 28; the bibliography is vast; it is enough to mention K . Reinhardt, Parmenides
und die Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie, 1916, and A. Mourelatos, The Route o f
Parmenides, 1970.
34 B 8.43.
35 B 12; Sim pl. Phvs. 39.20.
36 B 13.
37 Phronesis 14 (1969) 1-30 .
38 Diog. Laert. 9.6.
39 FS η A 22. cf. Heraclitus in Arist. Part, an 6 4 5 3 2 1 , Hippocr. Aforé, sacr. i8
(V I 394 Littré) and Aer. 22 (II 76-8 Littré).
40 The problem lirst appears in Acsch. Ag. 36g f.
2 THE c r is is : s o p h i s ts a n d a t h e i s t s
1 H. Raeder, Was ist ein Sophistf 1918; 'Platon und die Sophisten’ . Wedded, Danskt
Vid. Selsk. 193g; Burkert, Hermes 88 í 19G0) 174 f.; Guthrie (2) II I 27—34. The word
is older than the ‘sophistic1 movement; Pindar includes himself among sophistai,
Isthm. 5.28.
2 PS 80; K. v. Fritz, R E X X I I I 9 0 8 -21; G . Vlastos, Plato Protagoras, 1956,
Introduction; see, in general, W. Nestle, Vom Mythos zum Logos, 1940 (2nd edn,
1942); Guthrie (2) I I I .
3 Plat. Prot. 3 18 c.
4 T he special meaning o f mythos, contrasted with logos, first appears in Pind.
01 . 1.29; cf. Nem. 7.23, 8.33, then in Eur. llipp. 197, Diogenes o f Apollonia
V S 64 À 11
5 A 20; B 6 a.
6 Herakleides Fr. 150 (YVchrli) = Diog. Laerl. g.50.
7 A 21.
8 Aristophanes in the Clouds, sec K .J. Dover, Aristophanes' Clouds, 1968. Ivii f.
9 F. Heinimann, Nomos und Physis, 1945. M. Ostwald, Nomos and the Beginning of
Athenian Democracy, 1969.
10 Diog. Lacrt. 2.6 = V S 60 A 1.
1 1 Pind. Fr 169; M . Gigante, Nomos Basileus, 1956.
12 Eur. Hec. 798 f ; cf. Plat. Leg. 889 e; see V 4 n. 83.
13 B 4; it is a mystery what else he could have written to (ill a book on gods after this
beginning. See C.YV. M üller, ‘ Protagoras über die Götter1 Hermes 95 (1967)
*40-59·
V II 2 T H E c r i s i s : SO P H IST S A N D A T H E IS T S 467
14 K .v . Fritz, R E X X I I I 9 0 9 -11; there are conflicting testimonies on the trial and
the burning o f the books (Diog. Laert. 9.52, 54, A 3), and Flat. Meno 91 e = A 8
seems to be incompatible with all o f them. See also VV Speyer, ‘ Biichervcrnich·
tung’ Jahrb. / . Antike und Christentum 13 (1970) 12 3-5 2 , especially 129.
15 B '·
,6 Hdi. 2.3.2.
,7 2.53 sounds like a quotation from Protagoras B 4.
18 Com pare Hdt. 1 .1 3 1 with 1.60.3 and 7.129.
19 84 B 5 and Pap. Here. 1438 Fr. 19. A . Henrichs. H SC P 79 (1975) 107-23.
20 VS 68 A 75 (cf. Henrichs 96-106) and B 30; as Wilamowiiz saw, the correct text
is to be found in Clem. Protr. 68 D. M cGibbon, 'T h e religious thought of
Democritus’ Hermes 93 (1965) 385-97; H Eisenbergcr, 'Demokrits Vorstellung
vom Sein und Wirken der Götter’ RhM 1 1 3 (1970) 14 1-5 8 .
2« A 77. 137; B 166.
22 FS 88 B 25; see V 3.1 n. 13; A. Dihle. Hermes 105 (1977) 28-42 advocates the
authorship of Euripides, but overlooks thc testimony o f Epicurus 27.2.8
(Arrighetti); see also D. Sutton C Q 3 1 (19 8 1) 33-8.
23 A .B. Drachm ann, Atheism in Pagan Antiquity. 1922; Rcverdin 20 8-4 1; Ley,
Geschichte der Aufklärung und des Atheismus I, 1966; P.A. M cijcr in Versncl 2 1 6 - 3 1.
24 Od. 24.351 f.
25 Acsch. PeTs. 497 f.
26 Thuc. 2.53.4, 52-3·
27 Plat. Ltg. 948 c.
*8 X en. Mem. 1.4.2; Plat. Leg. 908 c.
29 Hippocr. Virg. V I I I 468 Littré.
30 Aristoph. Thesm. 448-52.
31 Lys. Fr. 143 (Baitcr-Sauppe) = Ath. 551 e.
32 D. M acdowell, Andtfcides on the Mysteries, 1962.
33 Aristoph. Nub. 247, 380. 828. Earlier Kratinos had launched an attack against the
natural philosopher Hippon, suggesting he was atheos, Fr. 155, C A F I 61 = W
33 A 2.
34 Eur. F t. 286.
35 F. Jaco b y . Diagoras ho atheos. Abh. Berlin 1959; Diagoras Melius, Theodorus Cyrenaeus,
ed. M . Winiarczyk, 198 1. M. Winiarczyk, Eos 67 ( 1979) 1 9 1 - 2 13 ,6 8 ( 19 8 0 ) 5 1 - 7 5
thinks Diagoras’ atheism is a later construct, but does not do justice to the
testimony o f Epicurus (n. 22). Ja c o b y would date the trial about 430 b c .
L . W oodbury, Phoenix 19 (1965) 17 8 -2 11 defends thc traditional date r.4 15 b c .
36 Diog. Laert. 6.59; Cic. Nat. D. 3.89.
37 K rateros FGrHist 342 F 16; Mclanthios FGrHist 326 F 2-4.
38 Sec V 4 η. 78.
39 Plut. Pend. 32; Diod. 12.39.2; the chronology of Anaxagoras is controversial;
J . M ansfeld, in a detailed reconsideration of the evidence, dates Diopeithcs*
decrcc 438/7, Mnemosyne 33 (1980) 17 -9 5. especially 80.
40 Eur. Fr. 9 13 .
41 Sec n. 32.
42 Diog. Laert. 2.40; Plat. Apol. 24 b; Xen. Mem. 1 .1 . 1 ; A .E. T aylor. Socrates. 1933,
8 9 -129 ; Guthrie (2) III 380-5.
43 Sec V 3,3 n. 28.
44 Eur. Bacch. 395; insaniens sapientia Horace Carm. 1.34.2.
468 N O TES TO PA G ES 3 I 7 -2 6
ν'Π 3 ·Ι
3 TH E D E L I V E R A N C E : C O S M IC R E L I G IO N A N D M E T A P H Y S IC S
3 .1 Pre-Socratic Outlines
1 ‘Theaitetos1, ‘ Sophistes’ , ‘ Parm enides’ are central in this respect; see V lastos (see
V II 3.2 n. 1) and E. Wyller, Der spate Platon. 1970.
2 W. Schadewaldt, ‘ Das Weltmodell der Griechen’ in: Hellas und Hesperien I, 2nd
edn, 19 7 0 , 6 o i - 2 5 ; J . M ittelstrass. Die Rettung der Phänomene, 19 6 2; F. l.asscrre, Die
Fragmente des Eudoxos van Knidos. 1966; L & S 3 2 2 - 3 7 . M ain testimony: Eudemos
Fr. 148 (W ehrli).
3 O . Neugebauer, /1 History o f Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, 1975.
4 F. Cum oni, ‘ Les noms des planètes et l’ astrolàtrie chez les grecs’ , A C l 4 (1935)
5-4 3 ; L & S 300 f.
5 Plat. Leg. 821 e.
6 Phd. g7 b-gg c = V S 59 A 47.
470 NOTES TO PAGES 3 2 6 - 3 4 V II 3 ^
7 Leg. 890 d.
8 Phdr. 245 c-c. Leg. 894 b-896 d
9 Leg. 967 a-c.
10 Epin. 984 a, 988 a, cf. Leg. 821 d.
11 F .M . Cornford, Plato's Cosmology, 1937.
12 C .M .A . van den Oudenrijn, Demiourgos, Dissertation, Utrecht 19 5 1; C J . Classen
C & M 23 (1962) 1-22.
13 Tim. 34 a.
14 28 e, 30 c, 37 c, 39 e.
15 28 c; A .J. Festugicrc. La révélation d'Hermès Trismegiste IV : le dieu inconnu et la Gnou
1954. See V II 3.2 n. 23.
16 30 ab.
17 34 b -36 d.
18 42 d.
19 38 bc.
20 49 a-52 c; H Happ, Hyle, 1971.
21 34 a. 68 c, 92 c, Leg. 821 a.
22 Arist. Cael. 279 b 32; Spcusippos Fr. 54 (Lang); Xenocrates Fr. 33, 54 (Hcinze).
23 39 e. 40 a.
24 40 d.
25 41 a.
26 40 c.
27 4n d.
28 90 a.
29 Sec III 3.5 n. 15.
30 90 a.
3 1 42 b.
32 Leg. 896 a. 906 a. cf. Polit. 270 a.
33 Sec V II 2 n. 13.
34 A .J. Festugière. La révélation d ’/Iermes Trismégiste II: le dieu cosmique, 1949.
35 Sec V II 3 .1 n. 23.
36 A. Bouché-Lcclcrq, L ’astrologie grecque, 1899; ^ Cumont, Astrology and Religion
among the Greeks and Romans, 19 12 ; F. Boll, C. Bezold and VV. Gundel, Stemglaube
und Stemdeutung, 4th edn, 19 3 1; GG R II. 2nd edn, 268-81.
B crg q u ist, B ., The Archaic Greek Témenos: a study o f structure and function, L u n d .
'9 6 7
B legen, C.VV. and R aw so n , M ., The Palace o f Nestor at Pylos in Western Messenia
/-/ //, P rin ceto n , 19 6 6 -7 3
B o ard m a n , J . , The Cretan Collection in Oxford, O xfo rd , 19 6 1
B ra n ig a n , Κ ., ( I ) The Tombs o f Mesara: a study offunerary architecture and ritual in
southern Crete, 2 8 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 b c , L o n d o n , 1970
------ (2) The Foundations o f Palatial Crete, Lon do n , 19 70
B rclich , A ., Paides e Parthenoi, R o m e, 1969
B re m m e r, J . , The Early Greek Concept o f the Soul, P rin ceto n , 19 8 3
B r u m fie ld . A .C ., The Attic Festivals o f Demeter and their Relation to the A gricul
tural Year, N ew Y o rk , 19 8 1
B u ch h o lz, H .G . and K a ra g e o rg h is , V ., Altägäis und Allkypros, T ü b in g e n , 19 7 1
B u rkcrt, W . see below
R e n fre w , C ., The Emergence o f Civilisation: the Cyclades and the Aegean in the third
millennium b c , L o n d o n . 19 72
R c v c rd in , O ., La religion de la Cité Platonicienne , P a ris, 19 4 5
R ic h a rd s o n . N . J . , The Homeric Hymn to Demeter, O x fo rd . 19 7 4
R in g g rc n , H ., Israelitische Religion , S tu ttg a rt, 19 6 3
R isc h , E ., Wortbildung der Homerischen Sprache, B erlin , 2 n d ed n, 19 7 4
R o h d e , E ., Psyche: Seelencult und Unsterblichkeitsglaube der Griechen , F re ib u rg ,
18 9 4 , 2n d ed n , 189 8
R o u se , W .H .D ., Greek Votive Offerings, C a m b rid g e , 190 2
R o u x , G ., D elphi: Orakel und Kultstdtten, M u n ich , 19 7 1
R u d h a rd t. J . , Notions fondamentales de la pensée religieuse et actes constitutifs du culte
dans la Grèce classique, G e n e v a , 19 58
R u tk o w sk i, B ., ( 1 ) Cultplaces m the Aegaean World, W ro c la w , 19 7 2
------ (2) Fruhgriechische Kultdarslellungen ( M D A I /Athens] B eih eft 8 ), B erlin ,
19 81
U s e n e r , H ., GöU em am en, Versuch einer Lehre von der religiösen B e g n fjsb ild u n r
B o n n , 18 9 5 . 3 r d e d n . F r a n k fu r t, 19 4 8
Z u n tz , G . , Persephone, O x fo rd , 1 9 7 1
Linear B, «6, 20, 22, 36, 4 1, 48, 50, 5 1, M ycen ae, 19, 34, 35, 36, 40, 4 1, 42, 43,
»36. >39? '4 4 . *49’ >62, 17 7 . 227, 44 < 50» »04 . 1 3 1
241 cult centre of, 32
lion, and H eracles, 209, 2 1 1 shaft graves of, 2 1 , 32, 33
logic, foundations of, 3 12 shield deity of, 140
Lord o f the Deep, see, Poseidon M ycenaean gods, 4 3-6 , 88, 89
love, goddess of, 15 2 -6 M yrrh M aiden, the, 177
Lykosoura, 27 m ysteries, 1, 7, 7 1 , 96, 99, 166, 268,
276 -8 , 285-90, 292, 296, 304, 3 16 ,
m adness, 8 1, 1 1 0 - i t , 16 2 -5 324. 337
m aenads. 165. 166, 17 3, 290 sexuality in, 277
m agic, 55 myths, and rituals, 2-4 , 8-9
m arriage, 78
divine, 13 2 - 4 names
ritual connected with, 259 o f Greek gods, 182
sacred, 108-9 o f months, 2 2 5 -7 , 2 3 1. 237
M ars. 170 nature deities, 17 4 -6
masks Naxos, A riadne on, 164
o f ancestors, 101 Nemesis, 185
anim al, 65, 103 Neolithic A ge, 1 0 - 1 5
o f Dionysos, 16 6 -7 , 238, 240 Nereides, 172
god, 186 Nestor, 44, 136
Neolithic, 13 , 103 ring of, 23
M aster o f the A nim als, 42, 124, 172 new year, see, year
m athem atics, 3 2 2 -3 , 326, 328, 330, 3 3 1 Nike, 284
m eal, sacrificial, 57, 58, 64 nym phs, o f A rtem is, 1 5 0 - 1 , 17 3
men, hostility to at Thesm ophoria, 24 4 -5
mental illness, see, madness oath
M ercu ry, see, Hermes institution o f the, 250 -4
M eter, 17 7 -9 , 245, 283, 285 sacrifice, 250 -4
M etis, 142, 185 O ccanides, 17 3
M inoan civilization, 20 -39 Océanos, 174
religion of, 2 2 -4 3 O dysseus, 60, 6 6 ,6 9 ,7 1,8 8 ,9 7 , 12 2 , 137,
M inos, 25, 64 14 0 -2 , 157, 197
M inotaur, the, 23, 37, 64 journ ey to H ades. 1 14 , 139
M inyas, daughters of, 16 4 -5 Odyssey, the, 39, 44. 50, 63, 66, 73, 88,
M istress o f the A nim als, 42. 124, 149, 1 14 , 1 2 1 , 12 2 , 129, 13 7 , 142, 150,
154 . »72 *52 . 15 3. 1 57 » >58 . ,6 8 > * 75» »95 ·
M istress o f the Dead, 159 19 6 -7 , 198, 204, 2 10 , 2 1 3 , 220, 247,
M istress o f the H orses, 44 249 . 272, 3*5
M istress o f the U nderworld. 42 O edipus, 84
months, names of, 2 2 5 -7 , 2 3 1, 237 oil, for libations, 70-2
m orality, religious, 24 7-50 olive tree, the, 141
M other Goddess, 1 1 - 1 2 , 4 1, 90, 278 O lym pia, 129, 13 3 , 1 4 1 , 158, 267
M other o f the M ountain, 178 agon of. 257
M other o f the Sanctuary, 172 festival at, 107
mountain, goddess of, 28 gam es at, 106
m ourners, purification of, 79-80 H era ’s temple at, 13 1
m urder, purification after, 77, 78, 80 seers at, 1 12
M uses, the, 146, 17 3 -4 Zeus altar at, 87, 12 4 -5
m usic, 224, 336 O lym pus, 126 , 136, 145, 146, 148
490 IN D E X
omens, 1 13 phalloi
O nom acritu 5, 1 1 7 - 1 8 al festivals, 244, 257, 259, 265, 292
oracles, 1 1 4 - 1 8 and Herm es. 244, 257, 259, 265, 292
o f Apoilo, 144 in processions, 10 4 -5 , *5*» 290, 298
o f (he Dead, 114 Pharmakos, 82-4
Delphi, 1 14 , 176, 257, 3 17 Pheidias, 125, 143
Orestes, 59. 7a. 77. 8 1. 148. ao6, 238, philosophy, rise of, 3 0 5 -37
2 4 1. 250 piglet, sacrifice o f a. 63, 80, 2 4 2 -5,
O rpheus, 1 1 7 , 1 3 1 , 158, 279, 294, 286
29 6 -3 0 1, 303, 3 2 0 -1 pigs, as sacrifices, 13 , 55
books of, 4 Pillar Cult, 39
O rphism , i, ¿96-7, 3 0 1 - 3 , 322 Pindar, ioo, 102, 10 3, 12 3, 178, 186, 187,
O siris, 3, 12 208, 235, 246, 264, 289, 293, 298,
outcasts, see, scapegoat ritual 299 · 3° ° · 3 l 3
O vid, 90 Plaiaea, 17. 27, 135
ox, sacrifice of, 5 1, 55, 56, 230 -1 battle of, 61
Plato, 77, 8 1, 118 . 18 1, 199, 216 , 253,
Paean. 43, 44, 74, 102, 120, 145 254, 256, 260, 262, 273, 275, 292,
pairs, o f gods, 2 19 - 2 1 294, 296, 297-9, 3 0 1, 302, 306, 307,
Palace Period. Cretan, 20 -2, 23, 25, 40, 3 « ». 3 * 5» 3 * 7 » 3 2 1- 9 . 33 »
4 1 » 52 Law s of, 254, 3 3 2 -7
second, 26-7 Pliny, 94
Palaemon, cult of. 137 , 208 Plutarch, 5, 6, 278, 295
Palladion, the, 9 1, 140 Plutos, 108, 287, 288, 337
Pallas Athena, 139 -4 3 Plynteria, ihe, 79
see also, Athena polis, theology of, 246-7, 3 3 1, 3 3 3 -7
Pan, 65, 67, n o , 17 2 , 17 3 , 259, 280 Polydeuces, see, Dioskouroi
Panathenaia, 6 1. 106, 14 1, 226, 228, polytheism, 2 16 -7 5
2 3 2 -3 . 257 » 258 pompe, see, processions
agon at, 2 3 2 -3 Poseidon, 17 , 42, 46, 64, 65, 83, 88, 89,
Pandora, 1 7 1 , 180 96, 98, 124, 130 , 136 -9 , 1 4 1 , 146,
Pandrosos, 50, 85, 229, 233 148, 16 1, 178, 187, 1 88, 220, 2 2 1,
Paphos, 15 3 222, 233, 2 5 I , 287, 3 14
Paris, judgem ent of, 15 3 -4 and Athena, 221
Parmenides, 3 10 , 3 19 , 3 2 2 -3 bull sacrifices for, 138, 265
Parthenon, the. 92, 100, 139, 143, 22! and Demeter, 218
Frieze, 124, 125, 13 2 , 232, 258 the earthshaker,. 13 7 -8
pathways, goddess of, 17 1 and Erechtheus, 120, 136, 184, 203
Patroclus, 62, 106, 196. 197, 273 festival of, 103
funeral of, 19 2 -3 Hippios, 139
Pausanias, 5, 6, 62, 1 1 5 , 235, 236, 280, M ycenaean, 4 3-6 , 136
281 Petraios, 138
peak sanctuaries, 26-8 , 40 sanctuaries of, 257
Pegasus, 138 o f Troizen, 67
Pentheus, 165 pots, day o f the, 237, 240
perjury. 252 -3 pottery, 10, 1 1 , 25
Persephone, 42, 43, 128, 159-60, 17 1, M inyan, 16, 23
! 73· * 77» 196, 200, 222, 2 5 1 , 258, poultry, sacrifice of, 55
272, 283-4, 286. 294, 295, 297 Praxidikai, 104
Perseus. 138, 141 prayer, 7 3 -5 , 95
Phaisios, M inoan, 20. 2 1 , 25, ag, 42 Pre-Socratics, the, 306, 309, 3 1 7 - 2 1 , 32a
IN D E X 491
C over illustration: detail from an Attic vase. 450 B.C., sh o w in g a victory sac
rifice (The M ansell C ollection).