International INNER, OUTER, AND

English EXPANDING CIRCLES

 Kachru’s Circles Model

Melchers, G. & Shaw, P. (2011) p. 8

 Inner Circle: English as a First
Language (ENL)

u First or native language:

uMother-tongue

u Used as models for EFL teaching

uSpecially GA and GB
 Outer Circle: English as a Second
Language (ESL)

u The British Empire

u Indian subcontinent
u Asia-pacific
u Africa

u Second Language: a.k.a. New Englishes

u Business, government, teaching
u Differs from inner-circle varieties, characteristic of local speakers
u Means of communication within the country
 Expanding Circle: English as Lingua
Franca (ELF)

u Lingua franca: common language

u Globalization, technology and migration
u English is not spoken as a native language
u Used to communicate with foreigners
u Contact language
u Trade Language
u Auxiliary language
English as a TEACHING ENGLISH:

Lingua Franca INTERLEGIBILITY AND TARGETS

Language Teaching: Targets

u Target: pronunciation learners aim at

u The three Is of language targets
u Intelligibility
u Being understood
u Image
u Self-image related to proficiency
u Identity
u National identity as conveyed though an accent
Image and Identity
 Intelligibility

u Scalar continuum: More easily vs. less easily understood

u Intra-national intelligibility: Restricted
u Speakers of own and similar communities
u Interference

u International intelligibility: Comfortable

u Understood in worldwide contexts
u Little or no effort on the part of the listener
u Some local features form the speaker’s L1
 Language Teaching: Targets

u Accent addition: Increase the repertoire of accents

u Categories:
u Major world accents
u Advantages: Well-documented
u Disadvantages: ignores students’ attitudes towards the accent
u Model speakers: Particular individuals
u Disadvantages: less-documented
u Advantages: motivation
 Jenkins’ Lingua Franca Core (LFC)

u A.k.a. death to the native speaker!

u EIL: intelligibility among non-native speakers
u Vs. Gimson’s minimum general intelligibility
u Native speaker/listener as parameter
u Premises
u Intelligibility

u NNS outnumber NS: focus on NNS-NNS interaction

u No need for reference accent
u Focus on communication breakdowns on the basis of observed data
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Contoids: Plosives
u Unstressed intervocalic /t/ as alveolar, not flap [ɾ]
u Aspiration of word-initial voiceless consonants /p, t, k/
u Dental and retroflex /t, d/ allowed
u Pre-fortis shortening of vowels/nasals/laterals maintained
u Vowels are longer before voiced consonants
u Use of /ə/ instead of lateral and nasal plosion is allowed
u [mɪdəɫ] instead of [mɪdɫ̩]
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Contoids: fricatives
u Most substitutions of /θ, ð/ for [t, d, s, z, f, v] are allowed
u Allow conflation of / ð, θ/, /ʃ, ʒ/, /f, v/ and /s, z/
u /s, z/ can be retroflex
u /θ, ð/ can be dental /t̪ , d̪ /
u /h/ is expendable
u Zero, uvular and velar realizations are acceptable
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Contoids: Affricates
u/tʃ, dʒ/ different from /tr, dr/
uPalatal /tç, dʝ/ acceptable
u Contoids: Nasals
u /n/ can be dental or retroflex
u /g/ after /ŋ/ allowed (present in spelling)
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Contoids: approximants
u Rhoticity is encouraged, retroflex [ɻ] preferred
u Any realization of /l/ is possible
u [ɫ] and vocalic /l/ (e.g. kill [kɪʊ])
u /l/ vs. /ɹ/ distinction maintained
u Contrast of /w/ and /v/
u Avoid substitution of /w/ for [ʋ] (labiodental approximant)
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Contoids: clusters
u Word-initial cluster cannot be reduced
uThough /s/ + C and C + /l, r, w, j/ will often be simplified
uIntrusion of medial vowel is preferred
u e.g.: sport [səpɔːt] instead of [espɔːt] or [pɔːt]
u Word-medial,
-final clusters only reduced according to rules
of connected speech of standard varieties
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Vocoids:
u Vowel quantity maintained
u Regional vowel qualities are acceptable
u E.g.: /ɪ, iː/ can become /i, iː/; /ɔː, əʊ/ become /oː/, etc.
u Two diphthongs: /aɪ, aʊ/
u /ɜː/ maintained (according to Jenkins)
u Cruttenden says it’s lost because of post-vocalic /ɹ/
 LFC: Priorities and Tolerances

u Prosody:
u Weak syllables are expendable
ui.e.: /ə/ can disappear
u Correct nucleus placement, Accurate division of
intonation units
u No insistence on intonation patterns
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u “Amalgam” of NS Englishes
u Especially GA and GB
u For L2 users of English
u Transferof characteristics of local L1 which do not interfere
with high-functional load contrasts
u Easily intelligible by NS rather than sounding like a NS
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u Contoids: Plosives
u Aspiration of word-initial voiceless consonants /p, t, k/
u Dental and retroflex /t, d/ allowed
u /k, g/ can be palatal
u Unstressed intervocalic /t/ as alveolar, flap [ɾ] should be
avoided
u Use of /ə/ instead of lateral and nasal plosion is allowed
uE.g.: little /lɪtəɫ/ instead of /lɪtˡɫ̩/
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u Contoids: Fricatives
u Place of articulation maintained
u /f, v/ and /s, z/ contrasts maintained
u Allow conflation of / ð, θ/ /ʃ, ʒ/
u /h/ required, allow velar/uvular replacements
u h-dropping still stigmatized
u Contoids: affricates
u /tʃ, dʒ/ different from /tr, dr/
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u Contoids: approximants
u Allow any variety of /l/
u [ɫ] and vocalic in post-vocalic position /l/
u Allow rhoticity and [ɾ] acceptable
u Discourage /w/ as [ʋ]
u Contoids: nasals
u /n/ can be dental or retroflex
u Allow insertion of /g/ after /ŋ/
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u Contoids: Clusters
u Word-initial cluster cannot be reduced
uC + /t, d/ + C (like in past tense –ed) can lose /t, d/
u Word-medial, -final clusters only reduced according to
rules of connected speech of standard varieties
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u Total contoids: 24 or 22
u Vocoids: from 20 to 14 or 15
u Short vowels: /ɪ, e, a , ʊ, ə/

u Long vowels: /iː, eː, ɑː, ɔː, oː, uː/

u Diphthongs: /aɪ, aʊ, (ɔɪ)/
 Amalgam English: Priorities and
Tolerances

u Prosody
u Use of weak forms and syllabic consonants
u Correct nucleus placement
u Correct use of intonation patterns
u Accurate division of intonation units