99% of the world's car steering systems are made up of the same three or four components.

The
steering wheel, which connects to the steering system, which connects to the track rod, which
connects to the tie rods, which connect to the steering arms. The steering system can be one of
several design, but all the designs essentially move the track rod left-to-right across the car. The
tie rods connect to the ends of the track rod with ball and socket joints, and then to the ends of
the steering arms, also with ball and socket joints. The purpose of the tie rods is to allow
suspension movement as well as an element of adjustability in the steering geometry. The tie rod
lengths can normally be changed to achieve these different geometries.
Why wheels don’t point in the same direction?
In the simplest form of steering, both the front wheels always point in the same direction. We
turn the wheel, they both point the same way and around the corner we go. Except that by doing
this, you end up with tires scrubbing, loss of grip and a vehicle that 'crabs' around the corner.
Well, it's the same thing we need to take into consideration when looking at transmissions. When
a car goes around a corner, the outside wheels travel further than the inside wheels. In the case of
a transmission, it's why we need a differential, but in the case of steering, it's why we need the
front wheels to actually point in different directions. We can see the inside wheels travel around
a circle with a smaller radius (r2) than the outside wheels (r1). In order for that to happen without
causing undue stress to the front wheels and tires, they must point at slightly different angles to
the centerline of the car. The diagram to the left shows the same thing only zoomed in to show
the relative angles of the tires to the car. It's all to do with the geometry of circles. This
difference of angle is achieved with a relatively simple arrangement of steering components to
create a trapezoid geometry (a parallelogram with one of the parallel sides shorter than the
other). Once this is achieved, the wheels point at different angles as the steering geometry is
moved. Most vehicles now don't use 'pure' Ackermann steering geometry because it doesn't take
some of the dynamic and compliant effects of steering and suspension into account, but some
derivative of this is used in almost all steering systems.

Steering Ratio: -In steering system, the driver applies a small input force at the steering wheel,
which produces a larger output force at the wheels. This increase in force is due to the
mechanical advantage or steering ratio of the steering gear. Mechanical advantage is known as
the ratio of force at output to the force at input. Steering ratio is the number of degrees that the
steering wheel must turn so as to pivot the front wheels by one degree. Every vehicle has a
steering ratio inherent in the design. If it didn't we'd never be able to turn the wheels. Steering
ratio gives mechanical advantage to the driver, allowing you to turn the tires with the weight of
the whole car sitting on them, but more importantly, it means you don't have to turn the steering
wheel a ridiculous number of times to get the wheels to move. Steering ratio is the ratio of the
number of degrees turned at the steering wheel vs. the number of degrees the front wheels are
deflected. I.e.; if you turn the steering wheel 20° and the front wheels only turn 1° that gives a
steering ratio of 20:1. For most modern cars, the steering ratio is between 12:1 and 20:1. This,
coupled with the maximum angle of deflection of the wheels gives the lock-to-lock turns for the
steering wheel. For example, if a car has a steering ratio of 18:1 and the front wheels have a
maximum deflection of 25°, then at 25°, the steering wheel has turned 25°x18, which is 450°.
That's only to one side, so the entire steering goes from -25° to plus 25° giving a lock-to-lock
angle at the steering wheel of 900°, or 2.5 turns (900° / 360). This works the other way around
too of course. If you know the lock-to-lock turns and the steering ratio, you can figure out the
wheel deflection. For example if a car is advertised as having a 16:1 steering ratio and 3 turns
lock-to-lock, then the steering wheel can turn 1.5x360° (540°) each way. At a ratio of 16:1 that
means the front wheels deflect by 33.75° each way. For racing cars, the steering ratio is normally
much smaller than for passenger cars - i.e. closer to 1:1 - as the racing drivers need to get fuller
deflection into the steering as quickly as possible.

Turning circle: - The turning circle of a car is the diameter of the circle described by the outside
wheels when turning on full lock. There is no hard and fast formula to calculate the turning circle
but we can get close by using this:

Turning circle radius = (track/2) + (wheel base/sin(average steer angle))

The numbers required to calculate the turning circle explain why a classic black London taxi has
a tiny 8m turning circle to allow it to do U-turns in the narrow London streets. In this case, the
wheelbase and track aren't radically different to any other car, but the average steering angle is
huge. For comparison, a typical passenger car turning circle is normally between 11m and 13m
with SUV turning circles going out as much as 15m to 17m.

Steering System: -
The steering system can be categorized on different bases such as
(1) On the basis of Mechanism.
(2) On the basis of Transmission.

a) Pitman arms type steering b) Rack and pinion steering

(1) Pitman arms type: - Pitman arm mechanisms have a steering 'box' where the shaft from
the steering wheel comes in and a lever arm comes out - the pitman arm. This pitman arm
is linked to the track rod or center link, which is supported by idler arms. The tie rods
connect to the track rod. There are a large number of variations of the actual mechanical
linkage from direct-link where the pitman arm is connected directly to the track rod, to
compound linkages where it is connected to one end of the steering system or the track
rod via other rods. Most of the steering box mechanisms that drive the pitman arm have a
'dead spot' in the center of the steering where you can turn the steering wheel a slight
amount before the front wheels start to turn. This slack can normally be adjusted with a
screw mechanism but it can't ever be eliminated. The traditional advantage of these
systems is that they give bigger mechanical advantage and thus work well on heavier
 vehicles. With the advent of power steering, that has become a moot point and the
steering system design is now more to do with mechanical design, price and weight. The
following are the four basic types of steering box used in pitman arm systems.

(a) Worm and Sector: - In this type of steering box, the end of the shaft from the steering
wheel has a worm gear attached to it. It meshes directly with a sector gear (so called
because it's a section of a full gear wheel). When the steering wheel is turned, the shaft
turns the worm gear, and the sector gear pivots around its axis as its teeth are moved
along the worm gear. The sector gear is mounted on the cross shaft which passes through
the steering box and out the bottom where it is splined, and the pitman arm is attached to
the splines. When the sector gear turns, it turns the cross shaft, which turns the pitman
arm, giving the output motion that is fed into the mechanical linkage on the track rod.
The following diagram shows the active components that are present inside the worm and
sector steering box. The box itself is sealed and filled with grease.

(b) Worm and roller: - The worm and roller steering box is similar in design to the worm
and sector box. The difference here is that instead of having a sector gear that meshes
with the worm gear, there is a roller instead. The roller is mounted on a roller bearing
shaft and is held captive on the end of the cross shaft. As the worm gear turns, the roller
is forced to move along it but because it is held captive on the cross shaft, it twists the
cross shaft. Typically in these designs, the worm gear is actually an hourglass shape so
that it is wider at the ends. Without the hourglass shape, the roller might disengage from
it at the extents of its travel.

(c) Worm and Nut / Recirculating Ball: - This is by far the most common type of steering
box for pitman arm systems. In a recirculating ball steering box, the worm drive has
many more turns on it with a finer pitch. A box or nut is clamped over the worm drive
that contains dozens of ball bearings. These loop around the worm drive and then out into
a recirculating channel within the nut where they are fed back into the worm drive again.
 Hence recirculating. As the steering wheel is turned, the worm drive turns and forces the
ball bearings to press against the channel inside the nut. This forces the nut to move along
the worm drive. The nut itself has a couple of gear teeth cast into the outside of it and
these mesh with the teeth on a sector gear which is attached to the cross shaft just like in
the worm and sector mechanism. This system has much less free play or slack in it than
the other designs, hence why it's used the most. The example below shows a recirculating
ball mechanism with the nut shown in cutaway so you can see the ball bearings and the
recirculation channel.

(d) Cam and Lever: - Cam and lever steering boxes are very similar to worm and sector
steering boxes. The worm drive is known as a cam and has a much shallower pitch and
the sector gear is replaced with two studs that sit in the cam channels. As the worm gear
is turned, the studs slide along the cam channels which forces the cross shaft to rotate,
turning the pitman arm. One of the design features of this style is that it turns the cross
shaft 90° to the normal so it exits through the side of the steering box instead of the
bottom. This can result in a very compact design when necessary.

(2) Rack and pinion steering: - This is by far the most common type of steering you'll find
in any car today due to its relative simplicity and low cost. Rack and pinion systems give
a much better feel for the driver, and there isn't the slop or slack associated with steering
box pitman arm type systems. The downside is that unlike those systems, rack and pinion
designs have no adjustability in them, so once they wear beyond a certain mechanical
tolerance, they need replacing completely. This is rare though.
In a rack and pinion system, the track rod is replaced with the steering rack which is a
long, toothed bar with the tie rods attached to each end. On the end of the steering shaft
there is a simple pinion gear that meshes with the rack. When you turn the steering wheel,
the pinion gear turns, and moves the rack from left to right. Changing the size of the
pinion gear alters the steering ratio. It really is that simple. The diagrams here show an
example rack and pinion system (left) as well as a close-up cutaway of the steering rack
itself (right).
Vehicle dynamics and steering – How it can go wrong
Generally speaking, when you turn the steering wheel in your car, you typically expect it to go
where you're pointing it. At slow speed, this will almost always be the case but once you get
some momentum behind you, you are at the mercy of the chassis and suspension designers. In
racing, the aerodynamic wings, air splitters and under trays help to maintain an even balance of
the vehicle in corners along with the position of the weight in the vehicle and the suspension
setup. The two most common problems you'll run into are understeer and over steer.

Under steer: - Understeer is so called because the car steers less than you want it to. Understeer
can be brought on by all manner of chassis, suspension and speed issues but essentially it means
that the car is losing grip on the front wheels. Typically it happens as you brake and the weight is
transferred to the front of the car. At this point the mechanical grip of the front tires can simply
be overpowered and they start to lose grip (for example on a wet or greasy road surface). The
end result is that the car will start to take the corner very wide. In racing, that normally involves
going off the outside of the corner into a catch area or on to the grass. In normal you-and-me
driving, it means crashing at the outside of the corner. Getting out of understeer can involve
letting off the throttle in front-wheel-drive vehicles (to try to give the tires chance to grip) or
getting on the throttle in rear-wheel-drive vehicles (to try to bring the back end around). It's a
complex topic more suited to racing driving forums but suffice to say that if you're trying to get
out of understeer and you cock it up, you get.....

Over steer: - The bright ones amongst you will probably already have guessed that over steer is
the opposite of understeer. With over steer, the car goes where it's pointed far too efficiently and
you end up diving into the corner much more quickly than you had expected. Over steer is
brought on by the car losing grip on the rear wheels as the weight is transferred off them under
braking, resulting in the rear kicking out in the corner. Without counter-steering (see below) the
end result in racing is that the car will spin and end up going off the inside of the corner
backwards. In normal you-and-me driving, it means spinning the car and ending up pointing
back the way you came.
Counter steer: - Counter-steering is what you need to do when you start to experience over
steer. If you get into a situation where the back end of the car loses grip and starts to swing out,
steering opposite to the direction of the corner can often 'catch' the over steer by directing the
nose of the car out of the corner. In drift racing and demonstration driving, it's how the drivers
are able to smoke the rear tires and power-slide around a corner. They will use a combination of
throttle, weight transfer and handbrake to induce over steer into a corner, then flick the steering
the opposite direction, honk on the accelerator and try to hold a slide all the way around the
corner. It's also a widely-used technique in rally racing. Tiff Need-ell, a racing driver who also
works on some UK motoring programs - is an absolute master at counter-steer power sliding.

Purpose of steering system

Steering is a collection of components, linkages etc. which allow a vessel (ship, boat) or vehicle
(car) to follow the desired direction. Rail (Train) is an exception case. The travel of a vehicle is
controlled by the steering system, which comprises of linkages that connect steering wheel to the
wheels and tires. The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired
directions. This is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. There are
two Types of steering system
(1) Manual steering system (2) Power steering System
In manual steering system, the only source of energy is the force applied by the driver. In power
steering system, hydraulic pump or electric motor is used to assist the effort of the driver, to
control movement of the vehicle. Modern vehicles, especially heavy vehicles, have power
steering systems to control the vehicle with ease. The fundamental system of operation is the
same in manual and power steering systems. As the steering wheel is turned by the driver, the
movement is carried to the steering gear, which changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel
into straight or linear motion. The linear motion is transmitted through steering linkages or tie
rods, attached to the knuckle arms or steering arms. The steering knuckles, then pivot inward or
outward on ball joints, which moves the wheels and tires to the left or right, as desired by the
driver.
Parts of Manual steering system: - The manual steering system consists of the steering wheel
and steering shaft that transmit the effort of the driver to the steering gear. The steering gear
increases the mechanical advantage, while changing the rotary motion of the steering wheel to
linear motion. Tie rod ends connect balls with steering arms, which fit into ball sockets
Parts of Power steering system: - Power steering systems are basically a manual steering
system with a power boosted. Some automotive power steering systems are operated
hydraulically with a pump that supplies high pressure fluid, when the driver turns the steering
wheel. Pressurized fluid causes the piston to move and provide most of the steering effort. This
provides most of the required steering effort. Some cars also have electric power steering in
which an electric motor provides the additional power.

Working of steering: -
. One of the fundamental concepts is caster angle, each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead
of the wheel; this makes the steering tend to be self-centering towards the direction of travel The
steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conforms to a variation of
Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually
travelling a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for
driving in a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the vertical
plane also influences steering dynamics has do the tires.

Rack and Pinion Mechanism: -

Basic Component
1. Steering wheel
2. Steering column
3. Rack and pinion
4. Tie rod
5. Kingpin
Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on cars, small
trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gearset is enclosed
in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod,
connects to each end of the rack. The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn
the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects
to the steering arm on the spindle. The rack-and-pinion gearset does two things:
 It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion needed to
turn the wheels.
 It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.
On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to make the
wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right).
Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks. The lower
ratio gives the steering a quicker response. Lighter, sportier cars have lower to turn the steering.
These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio, the effort required to turn the
steering wheel is not excessive. Some cars have variable-ratio steering, which uses a rack-and-
pinion gear set that has a different tooth pitch (number of teeth per inch) in the center than it has
on the outside. This makes the car respond quickly when starting a turn (the rack is near the
center), and also reduces effort near the wheel's turning limits.
Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel atom sports car chassis. For most high
volume production, this is usually mounted on the other side of this panel Steering box of a
motor vehicle, the traditional (non-assisted), you may notice that the system allows you to adjust
the braking and steering systems, you can also see the attachment system to the frame. Many
modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steering wheel turns the pinion
gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting
circular motion into linear motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side motion). This
motion applies steering torque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously used king’s
pin of the stub axle of the steered wheels via tie rods and a short lever arm called the steering
arm. The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback and direct
steering "feel". A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop
lash the only cure is replacement.
Power Rack and pinion:-

When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly different design.
Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is connected to the
rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston. Supplying higher-pressure fluid
to one side of the piston forces the piston to move, which in turn moves the rack, providing the
power assist.
Recirculating ball steering:-

Older designs often use the recirculating mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility
vehicles. This is a variation on the older worm and sector design; the steering column turns a
large screw (the “worm gear") which meshes with a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its
axis as the worm gear is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the Pitman arm
which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recirculating ball
version of this apparatus reduces the considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between
the teeth of the worm and those of the screw; at either end of the apparatus the balls exit from
between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box which connects them with the other end
of the apparatus, thus they are "recirculated".
The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical advantage,
so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally limited
to smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of power steering however, this
is no longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on newer
cars. The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center, where a
minute turn of the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus; this is
easily adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be
entirely eliminated because it will create excessive internal forces at other positions and the
mechanism will wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles,
where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and
mechanical advantage.
Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys
and go carts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bell crank (also commonly known as
a pitman arm attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of
cable-operated steering linkages (e.g. the capstan and bowstring mechanism) is also found on
some home-built vehicles such as soap box cars and recumbent tricycle
POWER STEERING:-
Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of the power to assist in
swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become heavier
and switched to front wheel drive particularly using negative offset geometry, along with
increases in tire width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering axis
has increased, often to the point where major physical exertion would be needed were it not for
power assistance. To alleviate this auto makers have developer power steering systems: or more
correctly power-assisted steering—on road going vehicles there has to be a mechanical linkage
as a failsafe. There are two types of power steering systems; hydraulic and electric/electronic. A
hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible. A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses
hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering
wheel. Electric power steering (EPS) is more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since
the electric power steering motor only needs to provide assistance when the steering wheel is
turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly. In EPS, the amount of assistance is
easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver preference. An added benefit is the
elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering
fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not lost when the engine fails or stalls, whereas
hydraulic assistance stops working if the engine stops, making the steering doubly heavy as the
driver must now turn not only the very heavy steering—without any help—but also the power-
assistance system itself.
There are a couple of key components in power steering in addition to the rack-and-pinion or
recirculating-ball mechanism.
Pump
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump. This pump is driven by
the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It contains a set of retractable vanes that spin inside an oval
chamber. As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure and
force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump depends on
the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide adequate flow when the engine is
idling. As a result, the pump moves much more fluid than necessary when the engine is running
at faster speeds. The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does
not get too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.

Rotary Valve
A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the steering
wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force (such as when driving
in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The device that senses the force on the
steering wheel is called the rotary valve. The key to the rotary valve is a torsion bar. The torsion
bar is a thin rod of metal that twists when torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected
to the steering wheel, and the bottom of the bar is connected to the pinion or worm gear (which
turns the wheels), so the amount of torque in the torsion bar is equal to the amount of torque the
driver is using to turn the wheels. The more torque the driver uses to turn the wheels, the more
the bar twists. The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve assembly. It
also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the torsion bar connects to the outer
part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the steering gear, connecting to
either the pinion gear or the worm gear depending on which type of steering the car has. As the
bar twists, it rotates the inside of the spool valve relative to the outside. Since the inner part of
the spool valve is also connected to the steering shaft (and therefore to the steering wheel), the
amount of rotation between the inner and outer parts of the spool valve depends on how much
torque the driver applies to the steering wheel. When the steering wheel is not being turned, both
hydraulic lines provide the same amount of pressure to the steering gear. But if the spool valve is
turned one way or the other, ports open up to provide high-pressure fluid to the appropriate line.
Since the power-steering pump on most cars today runs constantly, pumping fluid all the time,
it wastes horsepower. This wasted power translates into wasted fuel. You can expect to see
several innovations that will improve fuel economy. One of the coolest ideas on the drawing
board is the "steer-by-wire" or "drive-by-wire" system. These systems would completely
eliminate the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering, replacing it
with a purely electronic control system. Essentially, the steering wheel would work like the one
you can buy for your home computer to play games. It would contain sensors that tell the car
what the driver is doing with the wheel, and have some motors in it to provide the driver with
feedback on what the car is doing. The output of these sensors would be used to control a
motorized steering system. This would free up space in the engine compartment by eliminating
the steering shaft. It would also reduce vibration inside the car. General Motors has introduced
a concept car, the Hy-wire that features this type of driving system. One of the most exciting
things about the drive-by-wire system in the GM Hy-wire is that you can fine-tune vehicle
handling without changing anything in the car's mechanical components -- all it takes to adjust
the steering is some new computer software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles, you will most
likely be able to configure the controls exactly to your liking by pressing a few buttons, just like
you might adjust the seat position in a car today. It would also be possible in this sort of system
to store distinct control preferences for each driver in the family. In the past fifty years, car
steering systems haven't changed much. But in the next decade, we'll see advances in car
steering that will result in more efficient cars and a more comfortable ride.
Two types of power steering are found.
(1) Progressive power steering (PPS)
(2) Standard Power Steering (SPS)
Both these types have a recirculating ball system and rotary type hydraulic control valve.
Progressive Power Steering(PPS):-
Power steering is one type of hydraulic device for utilizing engine power to reduce steering effort.
Consequently, the engine is used to drive a pump to develop fluid pressure, and this pressure acts on a
piston within the gear box so that the piston assists the sector shaft effort. The amount of this
assistance depends on the extent of pressure act–ing on the piston. Therefore, if more steering force is
required, the pressure must be raised. The variation in the fluid pressure is accomplished by a control
valve which is linked to the intermediate shaft and the steering main shaft. Vehicle speed is detected by
a speed sensor and fluid pressure acting on the piston is varied accordingly. When the vehicle is
stopped or when moving at low speed, fluid pressure is increased to lighten the force required for
steering. At high speed, pressure is reduced to lessen the amount of assist and provide appropriate
steering wheel response. When the steering main shaft is turned in either direction, the control valve
also moves, closing one of the fluid passages. The other passage then opens wider, causing a change in
fluid flow volume and, at the same time, pressure is created. Consequently, a pressure difference
occurs between both sides of the piston and the piston moves in the direction of the lower pressure so
that the fluid in the cylinder is forced back to the pump through the control valve. Fluid from the pump
is sent to the control valve. If the control valve is in the neutral position, all the fluid will flow through
the control valve into the relief port and back to the pump. At this time, hardly any pressure is created
and because the pressure on the power piston is equal on both sides, the piston will not move in either
direction.
Standard Power steering (SPS):-
Four wheel steering mechanism: -
There are various type of four wheel steering such as:
(1) Active four wheel steering
(2) Crab steering

Four-wheel steering (or all-wheel steering) is a system employed by some vehicles to improve
steering response, increase vehicle stability while maneuvering at high speed, or to decrease
turning ration at low speed.

(1) Active four wheel steering

In an active four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the same time when the driver
steers. In most active four-wheel steering systems, the rear wheels are steered by a computer and
actuators. The rear wheels generally cannot turn as far as the front wheels. There can be controls
to switch off the rear steer and options to steer only the rear wheel independent of the front
wheels. At low speed (e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite of the front wheels, reducing
the turning radius by up to twenty-five percent, sometimes critical for large trucks or tractors
and vehicles with trailers, while at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike
(electronically controlled), so that the vehicle may change position with less yaw enhancing
straight-line stability. The "Snaking effect" experienced during motorway drives while towing a
travel tailor is thus largely nullified. Four-wheel steering found its most widespread use in
monster truck where maneuverability in small arenas is critical, and it is also popular in large
farm vehicles and trucks Some of the modern European Intercity buses also utilize four-wheel
steering to assist maneuverability in bus terminals, and also to improve road stability.
 Audi Q7 (all – wheel steering , on second generation from 2015)
 Acura RLX (P-AWS)
 Acura TLX (P-AWS), front drive models
 BMW 850CSi (only Euro spec models)
 BMW 7-Series (2009 onward, part of sport package)
 BMW 5-Series (2011 onward, Integral Active Steering option)
 Chevrolet Silverado (2002-2005, high and low speed)
 Efini MS-9 (high and low speed)
 GMC Sierra (2002-2005, high and low speed)
 GMC Sierra Denali (2002-2004, high and low speed)
 Honda Prelude (mechanical from 1987-1991, computerized 1992-2001, H&L speed)
 Honda Accord (1991, high and low speed, mechanical)
 Honda Ascot Innova (1992 high and low speed, computerized from 1992-1996)
  Infiniti FX50 AWD (option on sport package, 2008-present, H&L speed, fully electronic)
 Infiniti G35 Sedan (option on sport models, 2007-present, high speed only)
 Infiniti G35 Coupe (option on sport models, 2006-present, high speed only)
 Infiniti J30t (touring package, 1993-1994)
 Infiniti M35 (option on sport models, 2006- Present, high speed only)
 Infiniti M45 (option on sport models, 2006- Present, high speed only)
 Infiniti Q45t (1989-1994, high speed only)
 Lexus GS (2013 onwards, if equipped with optional Lexus Dynamic Handling )
 Mazda 929 (1992-1995, computerized, high and low speed)
 Mazda 626 (1988, high and low speed)
 Mazda MX-6 (1989-1997, high and low speed)
 Mazda RX-7 (optional, computerized, high and low speed)
 Mazda Xedos 9 (1996-2003, optional, computerized, H&L speed)
 Mazda Eunos 800 (1996-2003, optional, computerized, H&L speed)
 Mercedes Benz Vito (London Taxi variant)
 Mitsubishi Galant (high speed only)
 Mitsubishi Sigma (high speed only)
 Mitsubishi GTO (Mechanical, high speed only)
 Nissan Cefiro (A31, high speed only)
 Nissan 180SX (HICAS option)
 Nissan 240SX (high speed only)
 Nissan Silvia (high speed only)
 Nissan 300ZX (high speed only)
 Nissan Laurel (high speed only)
 Nissan Fuga (high speed only)
 Nissan Silvia (high speed only)
 Nissan Skyline (1986, high speed only)
 Nissan Skyline GT-R (high and low speed)
 Porsche 991 GT3 (high and low speed)
 Porsche 991 Turbo (2014 onwards, high and low speed)
 Renault Laguna (2007-present)
 Subaru Alcyone SVX (1991-1996, high speed only)
 Toyota Aristo (1997, high and low speed)
 Toyota Camry JDM (1988-1999, optional)
 Toyota Carina ED
 Toyota Celica
 Toyota Soarer
 Porsche 911 Turbo

(2) Crab Steering: -

Crab steering is a special type of active four-wheel steering. It operates by steering all wheels in
the same direction and at the same angle. Crab steering is used when the vehicle needs to
proceed in a straight line but under an angle (i.e. when moving loads with a reach truck, or
during filming with a camera dolly), or when the rear wheels may not follow the front wheel
tracks (i.e. to reduce soil compaction when using rolling farm equipment).