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Background
We know more and demand more of materials than ever before. Rather than
reacting to problems as they occur, more and more industries are choosing to be
proactive in failure prevention by testing materials properties beyond the normal
testing requirements. One such test that goes beyond traditional material property
analysis is the CTOD test, which is gaining popularity in the oil and gas industry.
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The CTOD Test Process
Please note that the following is a simplified version of the CTOD test process and
does not cover all aspects of the test, such as personalized testing specifications.
Unlike other destructive material tests, the CTOD test has multiple factors that
can affect the resultant value. Not only is the test temperature a variable, but
the specimen size can also affect the results, as well as the conditions in which
the result can be used. It is important to use the maximum thickness of specimen
possible when performing the test. As a general rule, if a material meets the TOD
test requirements at a given test size, then the results can be extrapolated to
apply to thinner sections, but not thicker.
For structural and pipe materials used in the oil and gas industries, the most
commonly used specimens are a rectangular three-point bend or a square three-
point bend. The rectangular three-point bend is preferable, except where there is
limited material or a surface notch needs to be evaluated.
As with other destructive material tests, the CTOD value can vary, depending on
the direction of the test. The various testing specifications have their own
nomenclature to describe the sample and notch direction in respect to the grain
flow or weld direction. This nomenclature is typically the same as that of a charpy
test.
The calculation of the final CTOD value is dependent on the depth of a pre-fatigue
crack from the surface of the specimen. As it is impractical to fatigue a crack from
the actual specimen surface, the specimen is machined to include a notch, which
will act as the initiation point of the fatigue crack and be included in the overall
length of the fatigue crack used for the calculation of the CTOD value.
Pre-Cracking
Fatiguing the sample requires a minimum and maximum fatigue load. If the loads
selected to induce the fatigue crack are too low, then the fatigue time may
become restrictive-or, at the extreme, a crack may not develop. If the loads are
too high, then a plastic zone may result which would affect the CTOD result-or,
again at the extreme, the sample may fracture prematurely. The national
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standards specify criteria to ensure a valid test sample, including: a minimum to
maximum load ratio of less than 0.1, a change in stress intensity relating to the
modulus of the material, and a maximum load based on the material tensile
properties, specimen size and span used.
[Where K is the stress intensity factor, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen
thickness, W the specimen width and a the crack length].
To initiate and grow a fatigue crack for a CTOD test, various methods can be
used.
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be needed to initiate the crack again.
c. Constant K - During the fatiguing of a CTOD sample, S, W and B will remain
constant. As such, the relationship between the crack length, load and stress
intensity can be utilized in the growth of a fatigue crack. From the equation it
can be seen that by keeping the change in stress intensity constant, the load
will drop proportionally as the crack length increases.
This method will result in an even load drop as the crack grows and will prevent
the crack arrest that can occur when method b is used.
Tracking the actual crack length can be done in a number of ways, such as:
a. Visual measurement can be made on the sample. Using this method, only the
crack length at the outer surface can be determined. To enhance the crack,
non-destructive testing techniques such as dye penetrant or magnetic
permeability work well.
b. The compliance technique depends on a 5th order polynomial in which the
coefficients are based on the specimen geometry and material properties.
Typically, a clip gage is attached to the sample at the machined opening and
electronically records the opening that is then related to the crack length. The
recorded length can then be used to automatically adjust the load, based on
the method decided for the crack growth, resulting in a smooth load drop.
c. The potential drop across the crack depends on ohm’s law: as a crack grows
the potential will increase. As with the compliance technique, this method can
be directly associated with the load control and hence give a smooth load
transition.
While performing the fatigue operation, it is important to remember that only the
outer surface can be measured and confirmed. The fatigue is propagating across a
plane inside the sample, and as such the length cannot be visually confirmed until
the test is complete and the sample fractured open. The compliance and potential
drop techniques can provide information about the internal situation of the fatigue
crack.
Stress Distributions
Variance in length across the fatigue crack front increases in materials in which an
even stress distribution is not present, i.e. in a weldment. In these cases, various
operations may be necessary to produce a linear crack front. Precompression of
the sides of the sample and reverse bending are two of the most common
techniques employed.
On completion of the fatigue operation, the visible crack front must be visually
examined to ensure compliance to the specification, e.g. within length tolerances
from the surface and between sides, straightness and the absence of any obvious
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surface bifurcations.
Figure 5. Examination of fracture surfaces can provide information about the type
of failure that has taken place.
Fracture
The rate of testing is determined by the change in the stress intensity factor
during the initial application of load. As was seen in the equation, the stress
intensity is dependent on the load and crack length. Since the crack length is not
measurable until the sample is fractured, it is not possible to confirm the actual
testing rate until completion of the test. An estimated crack length must be used
to determine the testing rate-with the actual test rate confirmed to be with in the
validation limits.
During the application of the load, a clip gage is used to measure the opening at
the mouth of the fatigue crack. This opening is plotted against the load applied.
Data Analysis
After the sample has been fractured, scientists perform various operations to
determine the CTOD type and value.
The fracture face must be examined in conjunction with the plot of the load vs.
the crack mouth opening. From this, the type of fracture can be determined.
a. m – in which the fracture face exhibits tearing and the final fracture occurs
under decreasing load
b. u – in which the fracture face exhibits tearing and the final fracture occurs
under increasing load
c. c – in which the fracture face does not exhibit tearing and the final fracture
occurs under increasing load
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Pop-in Failures
A 4th type of failure can occur which is known as a pop-in. In this situation,
either a load drop, a displacement increase, or both is observed, and the load
then recovers to exceed the initial condition. When a pop-in occurs, the material
has partially fractured; however, the remaining ligand is sufficient to withstand
the increase in load. It is often possible to see the cause of the pop-in on the
fracture face. The validity of the pop-in is evaluated based on the changes in load
and/or displacement. If deemed valid, the final calculation of the CTOD value is
based on the load and displacement at the pop-in occurrence.
The length of the fatigue fracture and any tearing (in the case of a u type
fracture only) should be measured. The fatigue crack length is used in the CTOD
calculation.
From the plot, the maximum load and the plastic component (Vp) of the crack
opening is determined for use in the CTOD calculation.
where δ is the CTOD, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen thickness, W the
specimen width, a the crack length, v the poison’s ratio, Vp the plastic component
corresponding to the load at the critical event, z is the clip gage height and σYS
is the yield at test temperature.
When the graphical data has been analyzed, the sample measured and examined,
and the CTOD value calculated, the validity of the result must also be evaluated.
As discussed above, some of the validity requirements of the CTOD test cannot
be determined until the test is completed. A value may be obtained, there may be
a minimum value of CTOD and/or type of fracture restrained, but, the test must
also be valid. It is possible to have a result with a sufficient value to meet the
specification requirement, but still have an invalid test. Similarly, your result may
be lower than required with an invalid test. In these cases, the result obtained
should not be used and the test should be repeated.
For more information on this source please visit Stork Materials Technology.
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