CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Hydro power is one of the oldest sources of energy used by human civilization. It
has been used hundreds of years ago to turn waterwheels for different purposes such as
grinding grains, sawing logs and manufacturing cloths. Large scale hydroelectric power
plants have been being used for generating electricity worldwide from the last century.
There are many types of hydropower plant such as dam-reservoir base power plant, ocean
tidal power plant, wave power plant and others. In this paper the use and possibility of
micro water current turbine is discussed. This type of power production uses the flow of a
stream to generate electricity.
Nowadays, small hydro is one of the most valuable answers to the question of how to
isolated rural communities the benefits of electrification and the progress associated with
it, as well as to improve the quality of life. The hydroelectric power plant utilises a natural
or artificial fall of a river. The water flow energy is used to turn the wheel of a turbine and
returns again to the river. This type of electricity production does not consume water, thus
it is usually considered a renewable energy source. The flow will continue to fall
downhill and the water will continue to be available as a resource for men and
environment needs, thanks to the natural hydrologic cycle.
Hydropower represents use of water resources towards inflation free energy due to
absence of fuel cost with mature technology characterized by highest prime moving
efficiency and spectacular operational flexibility. Out of the total power generation installed
capacity of 1,34,942 MW (July, 2007) in the country, hydropower contributes about 33,711
MW. Out of total Installed Capacity of Renewable Energy Sources, Small Hydropower
contributes to about 2000 MW

Keywords
Hydropower, Potential, Turbine, Installed capacity, Incentives, small hydropower
schemes, powerhouse.

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1.1 HISTORY OF SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS
At the time of independence in the year 1947 only 1362 MW of electricity was
produced in India. India paid considerable attention to the generation of power as a result
of which the installed capacity of power generation has presently grown to 164,509 MW
of which Hydro is 37086 MW (25%), Thermal is 106,433 MW (65%), Nuclear is 4560
MW (2.9%) and Renewable energy sources 16429 MW (7.7%) (Fig 1). The share of
small scale hydropower (SHP) is 2,820 MW.
The access to electricity is low in the rural areas. Out of about 608,000 villages
only 85% of the villages are electrified and only 85 % of the irrigation pump sets are
energized. However, only about half of the rural households have electricity connections.
Even those who have the electric connections have low. load. Consumption of electricity
per person was only 733 kWh during the year 2008-09 and is expected to grow to 1000
kWh by the year 2011-12. On the whole, India face shortage of electricity of 12% in peak
demand and 11% overall shortage.
India has to harness every available source of power generation and in this context
Hydropower has acquired priority and Small Hydropower has a special place. The total
hydroelectric power potential in the country is assessed at about 150,000 MW, equivalent
to 84,000 MW at 60% load factor. The potential of small hydro power projects is
estimated at about 15,384 MW with 5718 potential identified sites. Water is the state
government subject and hence hydropower development is the responsibility of state
governments. Central government advises on the hydropower matter and play role for
overall river basin planning and arbitrator.

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1.2 SMALL HYDRO POWER PLANTS
There is no definition of small hydro plant but this mazy generally be taken as
power plant having output up to 500 KW. Some associate the concept of small hydro with
low head say up to 15 m. The stations up to of 1000 KW are called micro and upto 5000
KW as mini hydro plant.

1.2.1 TYPES OF SMALL HYDRO POWER PLANTS

As per central electricity and bureau of Indian standards the SHP stations are
classified as follows
 Depending on Capacity :
Size Unit size Installation

Micro Up to 100 KW 100 KW

Mini 101 to 1000 KW 2,000KW

Small 1001 to 6000 KW 15,000KW

Large 30,000 KW above 100,000 kW

 Micro
Micro hydropower plants have the capacity to produce 100
kilowatts (kW) or less. Micro-hydro facilities typically use a run-of-the-
river system.
 Mini
Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW Either stand alone schemes or
more often feeding into the grid
 Small
Small hydropower facilities can produce 100 – 30,000 kilowatts
(kW) of electricity. Small hydropower facilities may involve a small
1dam, or be a diversion of the main stream.
 Large
A large hydropower facility has the capacity to produce more than
30,000 kilowatts (kW) of electricity. The majority of hydropower
systems in the U.S. fit in this category. Large hydropower systems
typically require a dam.

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Depending on head
Low head Less than 30 m
Medium head Between 30 to 75 m
High head above 75 m

Fig 1.1 Types of hydroelectric heads

On the basis of head available small hydel schemes (mini, micro, and small)
may be further categories as
a) Independent scheme.
b) Sub ordinate scheme.
a) Independent scheme.
Independent schemes are those schemes where a stream flow is captured
regulated and developed for the principle objective of power generation only, in
these schemes high head schemes and medium head schemes are considered but
medium head schemes are successful. The low head schemes are not found
economical for using as independent generation. These schemes are successful in
Himalayan territories states like, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland
and Manipur etc.
b) Sub-ordinates schemes
The sub-ordinates schemes are those where the principle objective is other
than power generation. The region in which there is extensive network of irrigation
canals and water stored in the form of reservoir are used for subordinate scheme
where primary aim is irrigation or drinking water and secondary aim is power
generation. The feasible site for sub-ordinates schemes is indogagetic plans (canals)
and peninsular.

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1.2.2 System components required for Small Hydropower plant
System can be divided in three major parts as Civil works, Electro-
Mechanical components and Distribution system. Civil work may include
construction work required for weir, intake, desalting tank, forebay, conveyance
line or headrace, penstock, tailrace, powerhouse, substation etc, Electro-Mechanical
components includes turbines, generator and governor or control system and
transmission/distribution system.

Fig 1.2 System components of Small Hydropower plant

 Weir
The function of a weir is to obstruct water flow and raise the water
level significantly and sometimes to allow water storage.
 Intake
It diverts water from a river or a pond and delivers it to a canal,
penstock or storage basin.
 Headrace
It conveys the water from the intake to the forebay. A typical headrace
is made of pipes of good quality materials.

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 Forebay
It is like a pond at the top of the penstock, which serves as a final
settling basin for suspended matters in the water. It also provides
submergence for the penstock inlet and accommodates overflow and trash
rack arrangements.

 Penstock
Penstock is a pipe that conveys water under pressure from the forebay
to the turbine.
 Powerhouse
The powerhouse provides shelter to the electromechanical equipment
(turbine, generator, controls and panels). It may have sufficient space for
dismantling the equipments for maintenance and repair.
 Turbines
These are used to convert kinetic energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy and transfer this energy to generators.
 Generators
These converts Mechanical energy input from turbines to electrical energy
output.
 Control Systems
These are required to monitor and regulate the power produced from the
generators in powerhouse. Mode of operation of Small Hydropower plant can
be distinguished from the point of view of water flow in three Schemes.
a) Run-of –the- river schemes
b) Canal fall based scheme
c) Dam-toe based scheme

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a) Run-of –the- river scheme

Fig 1.3 Typical Arrangement of Small Hydro Power Station

These schemes are normally on hill streams comprising diversion structures
(small Dam /weir). Water conductors, which may be an open channel, cut and cover
ducts, Conduits, steel pipe, tunnel, depending on site conditions desalting tank, fore
bay, penstock, powerhouse and tailrace are developed for these systems. Such schemes
have limitations of flows as small hilly streams are generally not perennial and those
streams that are no perennial have very wide flow variations throughout the year,
substantial storage cannot be economically developed as a result of which availability
of power during lean months may be relatively very small or even nil.

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b) Canal fall based scheme

Fig 1.4 Typical Arrangement Of Canal Fall Small Hydro Power Station
These schemes utilize the water fall on irrigation canal to generate power. They
are generally on existing or proposed irrigation channels, when discharges are
relatively high and head available for power generation varies in the range of 3 to 8
meters. In the case of existing falls in old canals, the powerhouse is located in the
bypass channel, which takes off from the main irrigation canal constructed adjacent to
the fall structure in upstream. The discharge from the powerhouse is fed back to the
irrigation canal downstream. In case of new irrigation canal, the powerhouse could be
located adjacent to the fall structure by suitable widening of the canal at the fall
structure. The irrigation canals have generally a number of fall structures along its
lengths in order to achieve the desired levels of the command area where its flow are to
be diverted for irrigation. These falls could at sometimes be at close intervals, in such
cases it might be economical to combine two or three falls and provide a single
powerhouse totalize the combined head.

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c) Dam-toe based scheme

Fig 1.5 Typical Arrangement Of Dam Toe Small Hydro Power Station
This scheme utilizes the head of an existing dam or barrage located in the dam.
These schemes would involve a water conductor system, comprising a channel or
tunnel made through the abutment, powerhouse and tailrace. The water from the
reservoir behind the dam can be drawn through the existing irrigation vents or by a
separate intake. The choice regarding either a channel or tunnel for the water conductor
would depend on topographical and geotechnical.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The mechanical power of falling water is an age old tool. It was used by the
Greeks to turn water wheels for grinding wheat into flour, more than 2,000 years ago. The
availability of cheap slave and animal labor, however, restricted its widespread
application until about the 12th century. During the Middle Ages, large wooden
waterwheels were developed with a maximum power output of about 50 hp.
Wilson, E.M. [1] (2000) Modern large-scale water-power owes its development
to the British civil engineer who first built large water wheels out of cast iron. Water-
power played an important part in the Industrial Revolution. It gave impetus to the growth
of the textile, leather, and machine-shop industries. Although the steam engine had
already been developed, coal was scarce and wood unsatisfactory as a fuel. Water-power
helped to develop early industrial cities in Europe and the United States until the opening
of the canals provided cheap coal by the middle of the 19thcentury.Dams and canals were
necessary for the installation of successive waterwheels when the drop was greater than 5
m (16 ft). Large storage-dam construction, however, was not feasible, and low water
flows during summer and autumn, coupled with icing during the winter, led to the
replacement of nearly all waterwheels by steam when coal became readily available.
The earliest hydroelectric plant was constructed in 1880 in Crag side, Northumberland,
England. The rebirth of water-power came with the development of the electric generator,
further improvement of the hydraulic turbine, and the growing demand for electricity by
the turn of the 20th century. In the year 1920 hydroelectric plants already accounted for 40
per cent of the electric power produced in the United States.

Punys, P.; Dumbrauskas,[2] (2010), The basic principle of operation of most

major installations has remained the same since then. Plants depend on a large water-
storage reservoir upstream of a dam where water flow can be controlled and a nearly
constant water level can be assured. Water flows through conduits, called penstocks,
Okinawa Seawater Pumped Storage Power Plant which are controlled by valves or
turbine gates to adjust the flow rate in line with the power demand. The water then enters
the turbines and leaves them through the so-called tailrace. The power generators are
mounted directly above the turbines on vertical shafts. The design of turbines depends on
the available head of water, with so-called Francis turbines used for high heads and
propeller-turbines used for low heads.

10
 Carroll, G.; Rieves, K [3] (2004) In contrast to storage-type plants, which depend
on the impounding of large amounts of water, a few examples exist where both the water
drop and the steady flow rate are high enough to permit so-called run-of-the-river
installations; one such is the joint US-Canadian Niagara Falls power project. In the
1700's, Americans recognized the advantages of mechanical hydropower and used it
extensively for milling and pumping. By the early 1900's, hydroelectric power accounted
for more than 40 percent of the United States' supply of electricity. In the year 1940's
hydropower provided about 75 percent of all the electricity consumed in the West and
Pacific Northwest, and about one third of the total United States' electrical energy. With
the increase in development of other forms of electric power generation, hydropower's
percentage has slowly declined and today provides about one tenth of the United States'
electricity. The early hydroelectric plants were direct current stations built to power arc
and incandescent lighting during the period from about 1880 to 1895. In the years 1895
through 1915 saw rapid changes occur in hydroelectric design and a wide variety of plant
styles built. Hydroelectric plant design became fairly well standardized after World War I
with most development in the year 1920's and 1930's being related to thermal plants and
transmission and distribution.
French Engineer, Benoit Fourneyron [4] (2011) developed a high efficiency
(80%) outward flow water turbine in which water was directed tangentially through the
turbine runner causing it to spin. Another French engineer, Jean V. Poncelet, designed an
inward-flow turbine in 1826 that used the same principles. It was not built until 1838
when S. B. Howd obtained a U.S. patent for a similar design
James B. Francis (1848) improved on these designs to create a turbine with 90%
efficiency. In 1870 the world's earliest hydroelectric project at Cragside, Rothbury,
England supplied electric light. In 1880 the first industrial use of hydropower to generate
electricity occurred in Grand Rapids Michigan when 16 brush-arc lamps were powered
using a water turbine at the Wolverine Chair Factory in Grand Rapids, Michigan 1881 in
Niagara Falls, New York a brush dynamo was connected to a turbine in Quigley's flour
mill to light city street lamps. In 1882 in Appleton, Wisconsin the first hydroelectric
station to use the Edison system was the Vulcan Street Plant.

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 San Bernadino,(1887) California, High Grove Station was the first hydroelectric
plant in the West of the U.S.1889 at Oregon City, Oregon, the Willamette Falls station
was the first AC hydroelectric plant. It transmitted single phase power 1miles to Portland
at 4,000 volts, stepped down to 50 volts for distribution. In 1891 at Frankfort on Main,
Germany, the first three phase hydroelectric system was used for a 175 km, 25,000 volt
demonstration line from plant at Lauffen.1895 the first publicly-owned hydro-electric
plant in the Southern Hemisphere was completed at Duck Reach, Tasmania and supplied
power to the city of Launceston for street lighting. In 1898 Decew Falls 1, St. Catherines,
Ontario, Canada was completed. Owned by Ontario Power Generation, four units are still
operational. On 25 August 1898 this station transmitted power at 22,500 Volts, 66 2/3 Hz,
two-phase, a distance of 56 km to Hamilton, Ontario. Using the higher voltage permitted
efficient transmission over that distance. (Recognized as an IEEE Milestone in Electrical
Engineering & Computing by the IEEE Executive Committee in 2002) .
Jorgensen, J. [5] (2009)at Trenton Falls, New York, saw the first installation of
high head reaction turbines designed and built in the U. S.1905 at Sault Ste. Marie,
Michigan, the first low head plant with direct connected vertical shaft turbines and
generators was built In 1906 at IL Chester, Maryland, a fully submerged hydroelectric
plant was built inside Ambursen Dam. In 1911 R. D. Johnson invented the differential
surge tank and Johnson hydrostatic penstock valve. In 1912 at Holtwood, Pennsylvania,
there was the first commercial installation of a Kingsbury vertical thrust bearing in
hydroelectric plant.
S.J. Zowski (1984) developed the high specific speed reaction (Francis) turbine
runner for low head applications. In 1916, there was the first commercial installation of
fixed blade propeller turbine designed by Forrest Nagler. In 1917 the hydra cone draft
tube was patented by W. M. White. In 1919 Viktor Kaplan demonstrated an adjustable
blade propeller turbine runner at Podebrady, Czechoslovakia. In 1922 was the first time a
hydroelectric plant was built specifically for peaking power. In 1929 the Rocky River
Plant at New Milford, Connecticut, was the first major pumped storage hydroelectric
plant. For more information : A recommended resource detailing the history of
hydroelectricity is the two volume set of Hydroelectric Development in the United States
1880-1940, prepared for the Task Force on Cultural Resource Management, Edison
Electric Institute, Duncan Hay, New York State Museum, in 1991.

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 CHAPTER 3

HYDROPOWER PLANTS
Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of
water. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable
height of fall of water, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a
reservoir through a channel or pipe into a turbine. The pressure of the flowing water on
the turbine blades causes the shaft to rotate. The rotating shaft is connected to an
electrical generator which converts the motion of the shaft into electrical energy.

Small hydro is often developed using existing dams or through development of

new dams whose primary purpose is river and lake water-level control, or irrigation.
Occasionally old, abandoned hydro sites may be purchased and re-developed, sometimes
salvaging substantial parts of the installation such as penstocks and turbines, or
sometimes just re-using the water rights associated with an abandoned site. Either of these
cost saving advantages can make the ROI for a small hydro site well worth the use of
existing site infrastructure & water rights.

Hydro Electric development is a well established technology. Power plants with

unit size of upto 5 MW are designed as a small hydro plants.
3.1 Components of A Hydroelectric Scheme:
Most of the hydro schemes in hilly areas in India are the high head and medium
head and have the same basic and common components of a hydroelectric head. The
major components of a hydro electric scheme are listed here under as (1) to (8).

Fig 1.6 Inside A Hydropower Plant

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 1. Diversion and Intake structure
2. Water Conductor system
3. Desilting chamber
4. Fore bay, Balancing Reservoir and Spilling arrangements
5. Penstock
6. Surge Tank (If necessary)
7. Power House Comprising of turbine, generator, inlet valve and other auxiliary
systems like cooling water, drainage and dewatering systems, auxiliary power
system and equipment, emergency and standby power system and equipment,
lighting system and equipment, instrumentation protection and control system and
equipment, ventilation system and equipment, station grounding, fire fighting
equipment and system.
8. Tail Race Channel
9. The hydroelectric stations on irrigation canals and dams are generally low head
schemes consequently have fewer components. Small hydro schemes on cooling
water channel of thermal power stations are typically low head schemes.

3.2 Intake Structure:

An intake structure is an arrangement by which water is diverted for the required
use. The intake is an arrangement which allows water to be taken from its source and then
discharged into the conveyance system from where it is led to the desired use (e.g. hydro
electric power generation). Arrangements for routing high flood discharge are also made.
Based on operating heads intakes may be classified as:
(a) Low head intake
(b) Medium head intake and
(c) high head intake.

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3.3 Water Conductor System
3.3.1 Feeder Channel
This is provided from Intake! to desilting tank, and carry sediment ridden water.
The velocity in the section should be enough, so that sediments present in water may not
get deposited at channel bed.
3.3.2 Head Race Channel
This is provided from desilting tank to forebay tank. It carries silt free water. The
channels may be of following types.
 Open channel (R.C.C., cut & cover & steel pipes are provided in reaches where
the slopes are geologically unstable).
 R.C.C. cut & cover / concrete Hume pipe
 P.V.C./HDPE/Fibre Glass
 Steel pipe
 Tunnel
 Open channel could be trapezoidal with thin concrete lining -or rectangular with
masonry or concrete walls.
 For access, provision needs to be made only for a bridle path to economies costs
as also to avoid unnecessary hill slope cutting.
 Loss of water due to seepage - Data on same may be obtained for representative
schemes so that its significance can be assessed.
3.3.3 Desilting and Sediment Controlling Actions
Sediment control by excluders or ejectors is accomplished by using following
devices. Settling basin is one of the most effective devices for removing sediment
particles from the flowing water. The reduction in the velocity of flow in the settling
basin is caused by expansion of the channel cross section over the length of the basin.
Such reduction in the velocity also reduces the bed shear stress and the turbulence.
Reduction in the velocity, shear stress and the turbulence, if adequate, stops the bed
material from moving and also causes part of the suspended material to deposit. Once the
minimum size of sediment to be removed has been decided, the design of the settling
basin involves determination of the depth and length of the basin and choice of the
method of removal of the deposited material.

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3.3.4 Penstock
Various types of material are nowadays available for manufacturing the pipes
which could be used as penstocks for hydropower development in the country. The merits
and demerits of these pipes vary widely. For making selection of the type of pipe that
should be used for a specific site, several factors such as basic cost, transportation and
erection and availability of material and skill should be considered thoroughly and a
comparative analysis shall lead to the designer to make some decision.
Design of Penstock :
1. Criterion for Hydraulic Design of Penstock IS : 11625-1986
2. Criterion for structural design of Penstocks IS : 11639 (PartI)-1986
The most common types of pipes which could be used as penstocks are :
1. Steel pipe 2. P.V.C.
3. Reinforced Concrete Pipe and Prestressed Concrete pipe
3.3.5 Surge Tank
Surge tanks are required to be provided on turbine penstock installations for speed
regulation on the following important basis. Surge tanks are provided where the resulting
reduction in water hammer pressure will provided a more economical turbine penstock
installation.
3.4 Power House
3.4.1 Power Plant Auxiliary Equipment & Appurtenant Facilities
Space is to be provided in a power house for the following auxiliary equipment
and appurtenant faculties:
 Turbine governor and shut off valve
 Generator
 Unit and auxiliary power transformers
 Control cubicle and relaying equipment
 Neutral grounding cubicle and surge protection
 Station battery
 Cooling water system
 Drainage and dewatering system
 Ventilation
 Fire extinguishers
 Compressed air system
 Powerhouse crane/cranes

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3.4.2 Classification of Turbines

 Francis Turbines
A Francis turbine is one having a runner with fixed buckets (vanes), usually nine
or more, to which the water enters the turbine in a radial direction, with respect to the
shaft, and is discharged in an axial direction. Principal components consist of the runner,
a water supply case to convey the water to the runner, wicket gates to control the quantity
of water and distribute it equally to the runner and a draft tube to convey the water away
from the turbines.
It exists in large numbers throughout the world. It is applied at head ranges
generally from about 15 to 750 meters and in power ranges from about 0.25 to 800 MW
per unit. here are also numerous small units at very low heads, for example, 1.5 meters,
and output, for example, 2 kW, but these are not typical of the current practice.
 Axial Flow Turbines
Axial flow turbines are those in which flow through the runner is aligned with the
axis of rotation. Axial flow hydraulic turbines have been used for net heads up to 75
meters with power output up to 200 MW. However, they are generally used in head
applications below 35 meters. S-turbines are used below 30 meters head and 8 MW
capacity. Bulb and pit units can be used to about 25 meters head and 100 MW capacity.
Specific mechanical designs, civil construction, and economic factors must be given full
consideration when selecting among these three axial flow turbine arrangements.

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  Pelton Turbines
An impulse turbine is one having one or more free jets discharging into an aerated
space and impinging on the buckets of a runner. Efficiencies are often 90% and above. In
general, an impulse turbine will not be competitive in cost with a reaction turbine in
overlapping range (Fig. 3.2.5 section 3.2.2). However, certain hydraulic conditions or
surge protection requirements may warrant investigation into the suitability of an impulse
turbine in the overlapping head.
Single nozzle impulse turbine have a very flat efficiency curve and may be
operated down to loads of 20% of rated capacity with good efficiency. For multi-nozzle
units, the range is even broader because the number of operating jets can be varied.
 Kaplan Turbine
Kaplan turbine with adjustable runner blade and fixed guide vane are being very
frequently used. Moveable runner blade is controlled by a hydraulic servomotor. The
runner blades are adjusted to accommodate the variation in flow of water through the
turbine and consequent control of load on the machine. This is achieved by movement of
piston of runner servomotor. This also eliminates provision of intake/draft tube gates. By
adopting proper control of opening of runner blades the load on the machine will be
adjusted such that the level of water in the upstream of the fall will remain undisturbed. In
this case also a gearbox is used between the turbine and generator for using standard
generator and in this case also the efficiency comes down by 1 to 2% due to gearbox. In
this case the investment cost is also less as the cost of machine as well as the cost of civil
works in construction of power station is less. As the name suggests, the Vertical Turbine
with Syphon Intake operation on the

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3.4.3 Generators
Vertical shaft generators are generally used. There are three types of vertical shaft
hydro generators distinguished by design speed and the bearing arrangements. This
design is shown in fig. 1.8 These generators have combined bottom thrust and guide
bearings and confined to low operating speeds (upto 200 rpm) and is the least expensive
generator design.

Fig 1.7 Generator construction

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 CHAPTER 4
4.1 ADVANTAGES
 Hydro power involves a clean process of power generation.
 Smaller hydro projects takes the shortest time for developing a unit.
 The operation and maintenance of such power station is the simplest.
 energy sources are free from hazards of pollution.
 These have no environmental problems, no loss of agricultural land.
 In certain cases projects are helpful in providing drinking water and irrigation
facilities.
 It helps in promoting the local industries in remote areas.
 Small hydro projects help in generating self employment in remote areas of the
state.

4.2 DISADVANTEGES
 The dams are very expensive.
 Initial cost of the plant including the cost of dam is high.
 Power generation by the hydro-plant is only depends on rain.
 Water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an impact
on plant life.

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 CONCLUSIONS
The future of small hydro plants in India is bright and in view many power
stations shall come up in future which will facilitate the development of far of areas of the
states and will provide quality power to the people of area. It is the need of time that the
small hydro power development should takes place keeping all the parameters of safely
and quality management in place so that the problems which are hampering the operation
and maintenance of existing power station may not reoccur. Depends on imported power
requirements may no longer be needed and we will be exporting hydropower after five
years.

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 REFERENCES
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International Energy Agency: Paris, France, 2000.

2. Punys, P.; Dumbrauskas, A. Advances in hydrological analysis for planning and

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throughout the United States. In Proceedings of the ESRI International User
Conference, San Diego, CA, USA, August 2004.
4. Virtual Hydropower Prospector (VHP). Available online:
http://hydropower.inel.gov/prospector/ index.shtml (accessed on 13 June 2011).
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Construction Magazine, July 2009, pp. 30–33.
6. United States Geological Survey. STREAMSTATS. Available online:
http://water.usgs.gov/osw/ streamstats (accessed on 13 June 2011).
7. Larentis, D.G.; Collischonn, W.; Olivera, F.; Tucci, C.E.M. Gis-based procedures for
hydropower potential spotting. Energy 2010, 10, 4237–4243.
8. Gismalla, Y.A.; Bruen, M. Use of a GIS in reconnaissance studies for small-scale
hydropower development in a developing country: a case study from Tanzania. In
Proceedings of the Conference HydroGIS 96: Application of Geographic Information
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