Chapter 2 Failure under mechanical loading ‘This chapter describes the major causes of mechanical failure of the engineering components or structures, Various level of materials performance is introduced. Failures due to fracture, fatigue, creep, wear and corrosion will be explained in ‘order to understand the common mechanical failure Learning Outcomes After learning this chapter student should be able to do the following: 4 Suggest the factors that influence the level of performance of a material ‘¢ Explain the major causes of mechanical failure 4 Bvaluate ductile-to-brittle transition phenomenon 4 Justify the safe se of materials for engineering application 2.1 Mechanical failure Engincering materials do not reach theoretical strength when they are tested in the laboratory. Therefore, the performance of the material in service is not the same as it is expected from the material, hence, the design of a component fro- ‘quently implores the engineer to minimize the possibilty of failure. However, the level of performance of components in service depends on several factors such as inherent properties of materials, load or stress systema, envitonment and maine tenance, The reason for felure in engineering component can be attributed to {design deficiencies, poor selection of materials, manufacturing defects, exceeding ‘design limits and overloading, inadequate maintenance ete, Therefore, engineer should anticipate and plan for possible failure prevention in advance. ‘The design of a component of structure often aske to minimize the possi. bility of failure, The failure of metals os a complex subject which can only be dealt with fracture or other relevant phenomenon. ‘Therefore, it ie important to ‘understand the different types of mechanical failure ie. fracture, fatigue, croep, corrosion, wear otc ‘Tho general types of mechanical failure include n12 CHAPTER 2. FAILURE UNDER MECHANICAL LOADING Failure by facture due to static overload, the fracture being either brittle or duetile «Buckling in columns due to compressive overloading «Yield under static laoding which then leads to misalignment or overloading. on other components. 1 Failure duo to impact loading or thermal shock. 1 Failure by fatigue fracture 1 Failure duo to the combined effect of stress and corrosion 1 Creep failure due to low strain rate at igh temperature f Failure due to excessive wear 2.1.1 Failure due to fracture Hracture is described in various ways depending on the behaviour of the mate. ral under stzess upon the mechanistn of fracture ot even its appearance, "The fracture can be classified either as ductile or brittle depending upon whether or rot plastic deformation of the material before any catastzophie failure. A brief description of both types of fracture is given below Ductile fracture Ductile fracture is characterized by tearing of metal and significant plastic do. ormation. ‘The ductile fracture may have a gray, fibrous sppearance. Ductile fractures are associated with overload of the structure or large discontinuities ‘This type of fracture occurs due to error in design, incorrect selection of ma- terials, improper manufacturing technique and/or handling. Therefore, service failures that occur solely by ductile fracture are relatively infrequent and Brittle fracture Brittle fracture is characterized by rapid crack propagation with low energy release and without significant plastic deformation, Brittle metals experience little or no plastic deformation prior to fracture. The fracture may have a bright granular appearance, ‘The fractures are generally of the flat type and chevron patterns may be present. Materials imperfection, sharp corner or notches in the component, fatigue crack ete. Brittle fracture displays either cleavage (transgranular) or intergranular fracture. This depends upon whether the grain boundaries are stronger or woalor than the grains. This type of rac- ‘vate are associated with non-ametals such as glass, concrete and thermosetling plastics. In metals, brittle fracture oveurs mainly when BCC and HCP crystals fare present. In polymeric material, initially the crack grows by the growth of the voids along the midpoint of the trend which then coalesce to produce a crack followed by the growth of void ahead of the advancing crack tip. This part of the fracture surface shows as the rougher region. Prior to the material yielding and necking formation, the material is quite likely to begin to show a clouding appearance.21, MECHANICAL PAILURE 13 ‘Yoble 2.1: The difference between duetile fracture and brittle fracture —_nti acta Bath ect Process flow Rapidly Crack Unstable Warming signal Imminent No Shape Cup-and-cone —_V or chevron Strain energy High Less oc metas (e.9,.02N) ‘BCC metals (¢.g., iron at T < 9140) polymers Arita <—{—>More Ductila High strength materials ( oy-E/150) Impact Energy Temperature Ductile-to-brittio transition temperature Figure 2.1: Ductile-brttle transition temperature curve ‘This is due to small voids being produced within the material. Ceramics are bristle materials, whether glassy or crystalline. ‘Typically fractured ceramic shows around the origin of the erack a mirror-like region bordered by a misty rogion containing numerous micro cracks. In some cases, the mirror-ike region ‘may extend over the entire surface, The difference between ductile fracture and brittle fracture is shown in Table 2.1 Ductile-to-brittle transition ‘The temperature at which the component works is one of the most important {actors that influence the nature of the fracture, Sharp ductile-to-brittle transi- tion (DBT'T) is observed in BCC and HCP metallic materials a shows in Figure 21, 2.1.2 Fracture toughness and fracture mechanics Tk is now recognized that all engincering materials contain potential sites for «racks in the form of discontinuities, heterogeneities, daws, inclusio structural defects that can be classified as follows {© Microstructural features such as oxide or sulphide inclusions, large carbide