Orifice Meter

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Learn more about Orifice Meter

Differential (Head) Meters

Paul J. LaNasa, E. Loy Upp, in Fluid Flow Measurement (Third Edition), 2014

Maintenance
(The following supplements information previously presented in Chapter 9.)

Orifice meter maintenance consists of periodic inspection (as indicated above),

cleaning primary elements, and scheduled testing and calibration against standards
(if necessary) of the secondary elements. Maintenance frequency, if not set by
agreement or contract, should simply be based on experience and performed as
often as necessary to correct any calibration drift or error that may occur. Proper
records for each station will determine this schedule.

Advantages of the orifice meter:

1. Well documented in standards;

2. Enjoys wide acceptance; personnel knowledgeable across the industry about

requirements for use and maintenance;
3. Relatively low cost to purchase and install;

4. No moving parts in the flow stream; and

5. When built to standards’ requirements, does not require calibration beyond

confirming mechanical tolerances at the time of purchase and periodically in
use.
Disadvantages of the orifice meter:

1. Low rangeability with a single device;

2. Relatively high pressure loss for a given flow rate, particularly at lower beta
ratios;
3. More sensitive to flow disturbances at higher beta ratios than some meters;
and
4. Flow pattern in the meter does not make meter self-cleaning (Figure 11-3).-
Figure 11-3. Many variations in orifice design allow for special measurement
applications.

Several special-shaped orifices for special applications are worthy of mention even
though they are not in the industry’s standards. The quadrant-edge (quarter circle)
orifice is used at Reynolds numbers below which the square-edge concentric orifice
coefficient becomes too non-linear to be useful. A conic-entrance orifice can be
used for a similar range of Reynolds number; however, it can be applied for even
lower than quadrant-edged Reynolds numbers. Both of these devices should be
used with limited diameter ratios, and the required flow rates and Reynolds numbers
must be evaluated carefully to ensure good measurement. (See Chapter 6, Reference
5.)

Eccentric, segmental, and annular orifices—with accuracies in the order of 2%—are

special devices to take care of dirty fluids and two-phase flows. Since these are not
the best devices for obtaining accurate measurement, they are used only where these
special conditions exist. No detailed standards exist for these devices. For details on
construction of these orifices, see Chapter 6, Reference 5.

Honed flow sections are orifice runs made in sizes of 0.25 through 1.50 inches.
They are covered by the ASME, and data are available from manufacturers who have
developed special manufacturing requirements and special coefficients to calculate
corrected flow. These devices are used for low flows of gas, liquid, and steam with a
higher tolerance than standard-sized meter tubes of 2.00 inches and larger that are
covered in the industry standards.

> Read full chapter

Meters and Valves

E. Shashi Menon, in Transmission Pipeline Calculations and Simulations Manual,
2015
5 Orifice Meter
An orifice meter consists of a flat plate that has a sharp-edged hole accurately
machined in it and placed concentrically in a pipe as shown in Figure 12.4. As liquid
flows through the pipe, the flow suddenly contracts as it approaches the orifice and
then suddenly expands after the orifice back to the full pipe diameter. This forms a
vena contracta or a throat immediately past the orifice. This reduction in flow pattern
at the vena contracta causes increased velocity and hence lower pressure at the
throat, similar to the venturi meter, discussed previously.

Figure 12.4. Orifice meter.

The pressure difference between section 1, with the full flow and section 2 at the
throat, can then be used to measure the liquid flow rate, using equations developed
earlier for the venturi meter and the flow nozzle. Because of the sudden contraction
at the orifice and the subsequent sudden expansion after the orifice, the coefficient
of discharge C for the orifice meter is much lower than that of a venturi meter or
a flow nozzle. In addition, depending on the pressure tap locations, section 1 and
section 2, the value of C is different for orifices.

There are three possible pressure tap locations for an orifice meter as listed in Table
12.1.

Table 12.1. Pressure taps for orifice

Inlet pressure tap, P1 Outlet pressure tap, P2

1.One pipe diameter upstream from plate One-half pipe diameter downstream of inlet
face of plate
2.One pipe diameter upstream from plate At vena contracta

3.Flange taps, 1 in upstream from plate Flange taps, 1 in downstream from

outlet face of plate

Figure 12.5 shows the variation of C with the beta ratio d/D for various values of pipe
Reynolds number.

Figure 12.5. Orifice meter discharge coefficient.

Comparing the three types of flow meters discussed previously, we can conclude that
the orifice plate has the highest energy loss due to the sudden contraction followed
by the sudden expansion. On the other hand, the venturi meter has a lower energy
loss compared with a flow nozzle because of the smooth, gradual reduction at the
throat, followed by the smooth, gradual expansion after the throat.

Flow tubes are proprietary variable head flow meters that are streamlined in design
to cause the least amount of energy loss. The flow tube is also a variable head type
flow meter, which is manufactured by different companies with their own special,
proprietary designs.

> Read full chapter

Production Engineering
Michael Economides Ph.D., ... Pudji Permadi Ph.D., in Standard Handbook of
Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, Volume 2, 1996

The Orifice Metering System

The orifice meter consists of static pressure and differential pressure recording
gages connected to an orifice flange or orifice fitting. The orifice meter tube (meter
run) consists of upstream and downstream sections of pipe for which size and toler-
ance have been determined through calculation and which conform to specifications
set forth in ANSI/API 2530 (GPA 8185-85) [140].

The orifice plate is held perpendicular to flow by flanges or a fitting.

The thickness of the orifice plate is normalized. As shown in Figure 6-223 the
maximum thickness varies from 0.130 to 0.398 in. as pipe size is increased from
2 to 12 in. The thickness of the orifice plate at the orifice edge shall not exceed the
smaller of of the pipe diameter D or of the orifice diameter d.

Figure 6-223. Orifice plate dimensions [140].

If the thickness of the orifice plate must be greater than permitted by these limita-
tions, the downstream edge shall be cut away (beveled or recessed) at an angle of
45° or less to the face of the plate, leaving the thickness of the orifice edge within
those requirements. All orifice plates that are beveled should have the square-edge
side stamped “inlet” or the beveled side stamped “outlet.” The upstream edge of
the orifice shall be square and sharp, so that it will not show a beam of light when
checked with an orifice edge gage, or alternately will not reflect a beam of light
when viewed without magnification. The orifice shall not have a burred or feathered
edge; it shall be maintained in this condition at all times. Moreover, the orifice plate
shall be kept clean at all times and free from accumulation of dirt, ice and other
substances.

The magnitude of the measured pressure differential is affected by the location of

the points across the orifice between which it is measured. The four types of pressure
tap locations that have been used are as follows:

1. Flange type. In this type, the pressure is measured 1 in. upstream and 1 in.
downstream of the orifice. This is the most common type of pressure tap.
2. Pipe taps. The pressure is measured 2.5 pipe IDs upstream and 8 pipe IDs
downstream of the orifice.
3. Vena contracta taps. The upstream tap is one ID upstream of the orifice, and
downstream tap is located at the plane of the vena contracta. Vena contracta
location is determined from an experimental curve.
4. Corner type. The pressure taps are located immediately adjacent to the up-
stream and downstream faces of the orifice plate (see Figure 6-224).Figure
6-224. Pressure-tap spacing [141].

The orifice is usually mounted between a pair of flanges. To avoid errors resulting
from disturbance of the flow pattern due to valves, fittings, etc., a straight run of
smooth pipe before and after the orifice is recommended. Required length depends
on ratio (ratio of diameter of orifice to inside diameter of pipe) and severity of the
flow disturbance. The orifice to meter tube diameter ratio = d/D should be limited
as follows: 0.15 to 0.70 with meters using flange taps and 0.20 to 0.67 with meters
using pipe taps. The term “meter tube” shall mean the straight upstream pipe of the
same diameter (of length A and A’ on Figures 6-225 to Figure 6-229 and Table 6-53)
between the orifice flanges or fittings and the similar downstream pipe (length B on
the same figures) beyond the orifice.
Figure 6-225. Partly closed valve upstream of meter tube [140].

Figure 6-226. Two ells not in same plane upstream of meter tube [140].

Figure 6-227. Less than ten pipe diameters D between two ells in same plane
upstream of meter tube [140].
Figure 6-228. Greater than ten pipe diameters D between two ells in the same plane
upstream of meter tube.

Source: after (13)

Figure 6-229. Reducer or expander upstream of meter tube [140].

Table 6-53. Minimum Motor Tube Lengths in Terms of Pipe Diameters and Beta
Ratio

Beta Ratio
Installation Dimension 0.5 0.6 0.67 0.70 0.75
Figure
6-225 A 25.0 30.0 36.0 38.6 43.5
A 10.2 12.2 14.2 15.3 17.5
B 3.8 4.1 4.2 6.3 4.5
C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.4 7.0
C 5.2 6.7 8.0 8.9 10.5
6-226 A 20.8 25.0 28.8 31.0 35.2
A 10.0 11.4 12.8 13.5 15.0
B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5
C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.5 7.2
6-227 C 5.0 5.9 6.6 7.0 7.8
A 10.0 13.8 17.4 19.0 22.0
A 9.0 10.3 11.7 12.3 13.8
B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 6.5
C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.5 7.1
C 4.0 4.8 5.5 5.8 6.7
6-228 A 6.9 9.3 12.5 13.9 16.7
B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5
6-229 A 7.5 9.7 11.8 12.1 13.6
B 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5
Use for all pipe sizes. Based on flange taps. For pipe taps add 2 diameters to A, A ,
and C and 8 pipe diameters to B.

The mean inside diameter of the meter tube should be determined. Measurements
are to be made on at least four diameters equally spaced in a plane 1 in. upstream
from the upstream face of the orifice plate. The mean of these four or more mea-
surements is to be used in the calculation of the flow coefficient when minimum
uncertainty of this variable is desired.

The difference between the maximum measured diameter and the minimum mea-
sured diameter of the inlet section shall not exceed the tolerance allowed by Figure
6-230 as a percent of the published diameter. The following equation may be used
to calculate the variance of the upstream section of the meter tube:

Figure 6-230. Maximum percent allowable meter tube tolerance [140].

(6-302)

The meter tube diameter must agree with the published inside diameters within
the tolerance allowed by Figure 6-230. The temperature at which the motor tube
measurements are made should be recorded for possible correction to operating
conditions.

> Read full chapter

Maintenance of Meter Equipment

Paul J. LaNasa, E. Loy Upp, in Fluid Flow Measurement (Third Edition), 2014
Meter Tube Inspection and Cleaning
Good orifice meter measurement requires that new metering equipment is built
and installed to meet the requirements of AGA-3 Part 2. As previously discussed,
in addition to the requirements for new installations, meters must be maintained
in like-new conditions to continue providing accurate measurement. This requires
maintenance, since all pipelines contain liquids and solids that will dirty meter tubes
and necessitate cleaning. Meter tubes for other types of meters should also be
similarly inspected and cleaned.

Previous cleaning methods required line shutdown and removal of meter tubes. In
recent years, with personnel and budget reductions in the operating and mainte-
nance functions, it has become more and more difficult to get the proper meter
tube care funded and accomplished. Yet dirty meter tubes are one of the most common
reasons why metering loses accuracy.

New Cleaning Procedure

An improved method of cleaning meter tubes can circumvent the manpower/fund-
ing barriers. It involves using this equipment:

Fiber optic inspection device;

High pressure water pump;
Clean-water tank;
Dirty-water collection tank;
Various hoses used in pumping and collecting water;
Drain-collection open tank; and
Chemicals and/or ball hones needed for removing certain deposits.

Several types of hydraulic pump systems, tanks, hoses, hydraulic spray systems and
chemicals, and ball hones are available from supply stores and service centers in
most oil/gas areas where meter tube cleaning is needed. The equipment is usually
rented but can be purchased.

The first step is to inspect the meter tube’s internal condition with the fiber optic
device. The meter tube must be blown down and removed from service. Insertion
of the inspection device requires a tap that is 1/2 inch or larger in diameter. This
may be a blow-off valve, a tap hole, or a fitting slot. Where no taps other than those
required for T/P/dP transducers are allowed, a new tap may be installed in the meter
station piping outside the distance specified by AGA-3.

The most critical parts of the meter tube to inspect are the 5 to 7 diameters
immediately upstream of the meter and downstream of straightening vanes or
flow-conditioner plates (if used). Examine these for any liquid or solid deposits.
Contrary to common belief, any amount of deposit may cause measurements to be
in error, usually low. Evaluation of the necessity for cleaning can be made after visual
inspection, but cleaning is almost always the best choice. It is simply better to err
by cleaning than to take a chance that the measurement may be several tenths of a
percent low.

Cleaning also requires a means of inserting nozzles and hoses, typically a 1 inch or
larger hole. This can be a 45° collar welded outside the dimensions specified by the
applicable standard but inside shutoff valves. Such collars should be welded on the
bottom side of the meter tube to allow drainage as well as hose insertion. The collar
or collars should allow upstream and downstream access.

Manually feed the high pressure water hose and nozzle of the hydraulic system into
the upstream tap. The downstream tap should have a collection container to collect
dirty rinse water. Dirty water can be pumped from the container into a collection
tank for proper disposal as an environmentally unsafe material.

The high pressure hose can be fed through straightening vane tubes 3/4 inch or
larger in diameter. On small meter tubes—3 inches and less—the meter tube
will have to be cleaned from both the upstream and downstream directions if
flow-conditioning devices are present, or a smaller tube/nozzle system can be used.

The cleaning cycle should be repeated until the drain water runs clear. Check the
actual results by repeating the optical inspection. If inspection verifies that internal
cleaning has been effective, the drain plugs should be removed and all water drained
from the fitting cavity. Proper choice of a drain tap depends on whether the fitting
is upright (use both drains) or installed on the side (where only the bottom tap need
be used for drainage). Standard purging and repressurizing procedures should be
used to return the meter tube to service.

If a tube is not clean after high pressure washing, two other cleaning methods may
be used; namely ball hone and/or chemical cleaning, depending on the composition
of deposits. Chemical cleaning can be done in place, whereas ball-hone cleaning
requires meter tube removal with a pipeline crew and lifting equipment (standard
in the pipeline industry) (Figure 9-5).
Figure 9-5. The orifice plate shown here in a gas measurement system clearly shows
that a “river of liquid” was flowing in the line. Needless to say, gas measurement
accuracy was far from accurate!

Once a tube is cleaned chemically or honed, it may subsequently require only water
cleaning for an extended time. Periodic inspection will establish how often cleaning
should be scheduled and what type will be needed. Prices to rent inspection/cleaning
equipment are lower than hiring out the work to be done by a pipeline or contract
crew, but the cost and time associated must be added to rental costs for a meaningful
comparison.

> Read full chapter

Volumetric Measurement
Dr.Boyun Guo, Dr.Ali Ghalambor, in Natural Gas Engineering Handbook (Second
Edition), 2005

10.2.1 Orifice Equation

The basis for the orifice-meter equation is the first law of thermal dynamics. De-
rivation of the equation can be found in a number of publications such as that by
Ikoku (1984). For the calculation of the quantity of gas, AGA (1956) recommends the
formula:

(10.1)

where

qh = quantity rate of flow at base conditions, cfh

C = orifice flow constant
hw = differential pressure in inches of water at 60 °F
pf = absolute static pressure, psia

The orifice flow constant C is expressed in the following equation:

(10.2)

where

Fb = basic orifice factor, cfh

Fr = Reynolds number factor
Y = expansion factor
Fpb = pressure base factor
Ftb = temperature base factor
Ftf = flowing temperature factor
Fg = specific gravity factor
Fpv = supercompressibility factor
Fm = manometer factor for mercury meter
F1 = gauge location factor
Fa = orifice thermal expansion factor

The basic orifice factor, Fb, is dependent on the location of the taps, the internal
diameter of the run, and the size of the orifice. Tables for the basic orifice factor are
presented in Appendix C of this book.

The Reynolds number factor, Fr, is dependent on the pipe diameter and the viscosity,
density, and velocity of the gas. It is expressed as:

(10.3)

where the values of b are given in Appendix C of this book.

The expansion factor, Y, depends on the expansion of gas through the orifice.
The density of the stream changes because of the pressure drop and the adiabatic
temperature change. The expansion factor Y corrects for the variation in density.
It is a function of the differential pressure, the absolute pressure, the diameter of
the pipe, the diameter of the orifice, and the type of taps. Tables for Y values are
presented in Appendix C of this book. The pressure base factor, Fpb, is a direct
application of Boyle's law in the correction for the difference in base from 14.73 psia.
The pressure base is set by contract:

(10.4)

The temperature base factor, Ftb, would be used in a direct application of Charles's
law to correct for the base temperature change from 60 °F. Gas measured at one
base temperature will have a different calculated volume if it is sold to a customer
on a different base. That is, if the gas is measured at a base temperature of 60 °F
and sold at a base temperature of 70 °F, the company must correct the volume to
the contract temperature or, in this case, lose money. It is clear that the absolute
temperature of the base (60 °F) divided by the absolute temperature of the contract
will give a factor that should be applied to correct the meter reading to the terms of
the contract temperature.

(10.5)

The flowing temperature factor, Ftf, corrects the effects of temperature variation.
The flowing temperature has two effects on the volume. A higher temperature
means a lighter gas so that flow will increase. Also, a higher temperature causes
the gas to expand, which reduces the flow. The combined effect is to cause the
quantity of flow of a gas to vary inversely as the square root of the absolute flow
temperature. The Ftf is usually applied to the average temperature during the time
gas is passing. The temperature may be taken by recording charts or by periodic
indicating thermometer readings.

(10.6)

where t = fluid temperature, °F

The specific gravity factor, Fg, is used to correct for changes in the specific gravity
and should be based on the actual flowing specific gravity of the gas as determined
by test. The specific gravity may be determined continuously by a recording gravit-
ometer or by gravity balance on a daily, weekly, or monthly schedule, or as often as
necessary to meet conditions of the contract. The basic orifice factor is determined
by air with a specific gravity of 1. With a given force applied on a gas, a larger quantity
of lightweight gas can be pushed through an orifice than a heavier gas. To make the
basic orifice factor usable for any gas, the proper correction for the specific gravity of
the gas being measured must be applied. This factor varies inversely as the square
root of specific gravity.

(10.7)

The supercompressibility factor, Fpv, corrects for the fact that gas does not follow
the ideal gas laws. It varies with temperature, pressure, and specific gravity. The
development of the general hydraulic flow equation involves the actual density of
the fluid at the point of measurement. In the measurement of gas, this depends on
the flowing pressure and temperature compared to base pressure and temperature.
It is necessary to apply the law for an ideal gas. All gases deviate from this ideal gas
law to a greater or lesser extent. The actual density of a gas under high pressure is
usually greater than the theoretical density obtained by calculation of the ideal gas
law. This deviation has been termed supercompressibility. A factor to account for this
supercompressibility is necessary in the measurement of some gases. This factor is
particularly appreciable at high line pressures.

(10.8)

The manometer factor, Fm, is used with mercury differential gauges and compen-
sates for the column of compressed gas opposite the mercury leg. Usually, this is
not considered for pressures below 500 psia, nor is it required for mercury-less
differential gauges. The weight of the gas column over the mercury reservoir of
orifice meter gauges, introduces an error in determining the differential pressure
across the orifice, unless some adjustment is made. This error is consistently in
one direction and becomes increasingly important with increasing pressure. The
correction varies with ambient temperature, static pressure, and specific gravity.
Because the correction is very small, usually some average conditions are selected
and a factor is agreed on.

(10.9)

The gauge location factor, Fl, is used where orifice meters are installed at locations
other than 45° latitude and sea-level elevation. It may affect the total flow of gas as
recorded by the orifice meter.

(10.10)

where

(10.11)

where

L = latitude, deg.
H = elevation above sea level, ft

The orifice thermal expansion factor, Fa, is introduced to correct for the error
resulting from expansion or contraction of the orifice operating at temperatures
appreciably different from the temperature at which the orifice was bored.

(10.12)

where tm = temperature during orifice boring, °F

> Read full chapter

Flow measurement
ProfessorF.A. Holland, DrR. Bragg, in Fluid Flow for Chemical Engineers (Second
Edition), 1995

8.2 Head flowmeters in closed conduits

The primary element of an orifice meter is simply a flat plate containing a drilled
hole located in a pipe perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow as shown in Figure
8.2.
Figure 8.2. Orifice meter

Equation 1.15 is the modified Bernoulli equation for steady flow in a pipe with no
pump in the section.

(1.15)

For the steady horizontal flow of an incompressible fluid of density between points
1 and 2 in a pipe with no pump and no friction, equation 1.15 can be written as

(8.5)

Consider points 1 and 2 in Figure 8.2. At point 1 in the pipe, the fluid flow is
undisturbed by the orifice plate. The fluid at this point has a mean velocity u1 and
a cross-sectional flow area S1. At point 2 in the pipe the fluid attains its maximum
mean velocity u2 and its smallest cross-sectional flow area S2. This point is known
as the vena contracta. It occurs at about one half to two pipe diameters downstream
from the orifice plate. The location is a function of the flow rate and the size of the
orifice relative to the size of the pipe. Let the mean velocity in the orifice be u0 and
let the diameter and cross-sectional flow area of the orifice be do and So respectively.

For this case the principle of continuity can be expressed by any of the following
three equations.

(8.6)

(8.7a)

or
(8.7b)

where M is the flow rate of fluid and Q is the volumetric flow rate.

Using equation 8.7 to substitute for u1 and u2 in equation 8.5 gives

(8.8)

which can be rearranged in the form

(8.9)

giving the mean velocity through the orifice.

Using equation 8.7, the volumetric flow rate is given by

(8.10)

Equation 8.10 gives the volumetric flow rate Q when there is no friction in the
system.

In practice, the measured volumetric flow rate is always less than Q given by equa-
tion 8.10. Viscous frictional effects retard the flowing fluid. In addition, boundary
layer separation occurs on the downstream side of the orifice plate resulting in a
substantial pressure or head loss from form friction. This effect is a function of the
geometry of the system.

In practice, the volumetric flow rate Q is given by equation 8.11

(8.11)

In equation 8.11, which is analogous to equation 8.10, Cd is the dimensionless

discharge coefficient which accounts for geometry and friction; d0/d1 is the ratio
of the diameter of the orifice to the inside diameter of the pipe. This ratio does not
vary as does the ratio d2/d1 in equation 8.10 for frictionless flow.

Using equation 8.3 to substitute for the pressure difference in equation 8.11 gives

(8.12)

Equation 8.12 gives the volumetric flow rate Q in terms of the head differential across
the orifice plate Δh. The latter is based on the flowing fluid.

Both equations 8.11 and 8.12 refer to horizontal pipes. When the pipe is not
horizontal, the total pressure difference (P1 – P2) must be corrected for the pressure
difference due to the static head between the two pressure taps. Thus, equation 8.11
should be replaced by

(8.13)
and equation 8.12 by

(8.14)

It must be remembered that, in equation 8.14, Δh is still defined by equation 8.3.

Provided that location 1 is always the upstream pressure tap and location 2 the
downstream tap, these equations are applicable for both upward and downward flow,
but note that the sign of (z1 – z2) will change. The value of ΔP, and consequently Δh,
will be negative for downward flow if the pressure drop due to flow is smaller than
the static pressure difference. Equations 8.13 and 8.14 reduce to equations 8.11 and
8.12, respectively, when z1 = z2.

It is essential to appreciate that the pressure difference measured by a manometer

automatically eliminates the static head difference. This is shown in Figure 8.1(b).
The static head g(z1 – z2) in the pipe is exactly balanced by the extra static head
above the right hand limb of the manometer. Consequently, if Δh is calculated from
Δzm using equation 8.4, no further correction for the static head should be made.

The holes in orifice plates may be concentric, eccentric or segmental as shown in

Figure 8.3. Orifice plates are prone to damage by erosion.

Figure 8.3. Concentric, eccentric and segmental orifice plates

The coefficient of discharge Cd for a particular orifice meter is a function of the

location of the pressure taps, the ratio of the diameter of the orifice to the inside
diameter of the pipe d0/d1, the Reynolds number in the pipeline Re, and the thickness
of the orifice plate.

Most orifices used for flow measurement are sharp-edged as shown in Figure 8.2;
this produces well-defined separation of the flow at the orifice and consequently
consistent values of the discharge coefficient. Figure 8.4 shows how the discharge
coefficient for a circular, sharp-edged orifice depends on the Reynolds number and
the ratio of the orifice diameter to the internal diameter of the pipe. The Reynolds
number is based on the orifice diameter and the fluid speed through the orifice.
The discharge coefficient varies greatly with Reynolds number for relatively large
orifices making them unsuitable for flow measurement. At Reynolds numbers above
about 2 × 104 the discharge coefficient has a constant value of about 0.62: it is
preferable to use orifice meters in this constant Cd region.
Figure 8.4. Orifice discharge coefficients

Source: J. H. Perry, Chemical Engineers' Handbook (Sixth edition, New York: Mc-
Graw-Hill, 1984) p. 5–15

Orifice meters suffer from high frictional pressure or head losses. Thus, most of the
pressure drop is not recoverable. The pressure loss is given by the equation [Barna
(1969)]

(8.15)

Orifice plates are inexpensive and easy to install since they can readily be inserted at
a flanged joint.

Figure 8.5 shows a Venturi meter. The theory is the same as for the orifice meter
but a much higher proportion of the pressure drop is recoverable than is the
case with orifice meters. The gradual approach to and the gradual exit from the
orifice substantially eliminates boundary layer separation. Thus, form drag and eddy
formation are reduced to a minimum.
Figure 8.5. Venturi meter

A series of tap connections in an annular pressure ring gives a mean value for the
pressure at point 1 in the approach section and also at point 2 in the throat. Although
Venturi meters are relatively expensive and tend to be bulky, they can meter up to
60 per cent more flow than orifice plates for the same inside pipe diameter and
differential pressure [Foust el al. (1964)]. The coefficient of discharge Cd for a Venturi
meter is in the region of 0.98. Venturies are more suitable than orifice plates for
metering liquids containing solids.

Figure 8.6 shows a flow nozzle. This is a modified and less expensive type of Venturi
meter.

Figure 8.6. Flow nozzle

The theoretical treatment of head flowmeters in this section is for incompressible
fluids. The flow of compressible fluids through a constriction in a pipe is treated in
Chapter 6.

Orifice meters, Venturi meters and flow nozzles measure volumetric flow rate Q or
mean velocity u. In contrast the Pitot tube shown in a horizontal pipe in Figure 8.7
measures a point velocity . Thus Pitot tubes can be used to obtain velocity profiles
in either open or closed conduits. At point 2 in Figure 8.7 a small amount of fluid is
brought to a standstill. Thus the combined head at point 2 is the pressure head P/( g)
plus the velocity head 2/(2g) if the potential head z at the centre of the horizontal
pipe is arbitrarily taken to be zero. Since at point 3 fluid is not brought to a standstill,
the head at point 3 is the pressure head only if points 2 and 3 are sufficiently close
for them to be considered to have the same potential head z.

Figure 8.7. Pitot tube

Thus the difference in head Δh between points 2 and 3 neglecting friction is the
velocity head v2/(2g). Therefore the point velocity v is given by the equation

(8.16)

The difference in heads between points 2 and 3, Δh, is usually measured with a
manometer.

Combining equations 8.4 and 8.16 gives

(8.17)

Equation 8.17 gives the point velocity in terms of the difference in level between
the two arms of the manometer Δzm, the density of the flowing fluid , the density
of the immiscible manometer liquid m and the gravitational acceleration g.
Most Pitot tubes consist of two concentric tubes parallel to the direction of fluid
flow. The inner tube points into the flow and the outer tube is perforated with small
holes which are perpendicular to the direction of flow. The inner tube transmits the
combined pressure and velocity heads and the outer tube only the pressure head.

Although Pitot tubes are inexpensive and have negligible permanent head loss-
es they are not widely used. They are highly sensitive to fouling, their required
alignment is critical and they cannot measure volumetric flow rate Q or mean
velocity u. The latter can be calculated from a single measurement only if the velocity
distribution is known: this can be found if the Pitot tube can be traversed across the
flow.

Example 8.1
Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water through a pipe with an inside diameter
of 0.15 m fitted with an orifice plate containing a concentric hole of diameter 0.10
m given the following data.

Difference in level on a mercury manometer connected across the orifice plate

Mercury specific gravity

Discharge coefficient

Calculations

The head differential across the orifice is given by

(8.4)

The volumetric flow rate is given by

(8.12)

Given that

it follows that

> Read full chapter

Natural Gas Measurement

Saeid Mokhatab, ... John Y. Mak, in Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and
Processing (Fourth Edition), 2019

16.3.2.3 Orifice Meters

Either a volumetric or mass flow rate may be inferred with an orifice meter depend-
ing on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It uses Bernoulli's principle
which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the
velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice
versa. The pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor, and when
calibrated, this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.

An orifice meter is an easy method to measure single-phase, continuous flow rates

in large pipes and is relatively inexpensive. It has predictable characteristics and
occupies a relatively small space (see Fig. 16.9).

Figure 16.9. Orifice meter.

Source: eFunda.

An orifice only works well when supplied with a pseudo-fully developed flow profile.
This is achieved by an upstream straight pipe length of 20–40 pipe diameters,
depending on Reynolds number, or the use of a flow conditioner to eliminate swirl
and nonsymmetry.

Orifice plates are small and inexpensive but have higher pressure loss than a venturi.
Venturis require much less straight pipe upstream. A venturi meter is usually more
expensive and less accurate than an orifice plate.

Some other limitations and considerations include the following:

• The vena contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the
pipe and sharpness of the orifice plate.
• Overall pressure loss varies from 40% to 90% of the differential pressure.
• Flow conditioners or straightening vanes may be required upstream to obtain
laminar flow conditions.
• Suspended fluids can clog the orifice.

• Corrosion of the orifice plate may cause inaccuracy.

• The orifice plate has low physical strength.

The main parts of an orifice flow meter are as follows:

• A stainless steel orifice plate which is held between flanges of a pipe carrying
the fluid.
• It should be noted that for a certain distance before and after the orifice plate,
the pipe should be straight in order to maintain laminar flow conditions.
• Openings are provided at two places for attaching a differential pressure
sensor.

The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges upstream of the orifice
plate's opening. When the fluid exits the orifice plate's opening, its cross section is
minimum and uniform for a particular distance and then the cross section of the
fluid starts diverging.

At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the
pressure of the fluid is maximum. As the fluid starts converging to enter the orifice
opening, its pressure drops. When the fluid exits the orifice opening, its pressure
is minimum, and this minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum cross
section area of fluid flow at the downstream. This minimum cross sectional area
of the fluid obtained at downstream from the orifice edge is called vena contracta.
The differential pressure sensor records the pressure difference which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe.

Plates are commonly made with sharp-edged (also referred to as square-edged)

circular orifices. The edges may be rounded or conical, the plate may have an orifice
the same size as the pipe except for a segment at top or bottom which is obstructed,
the orifice may be installed eccentric to the pipe, and the pressure tappings may be at
other positions. Each combination gives rise to different coefficients of discharge
which can be predicted so long as various conditions are met, conditions which differ
from one type to another (Miller, 1996).

Flow rates through an orifice plate can be calculated without specifically calibrating
the individual flow meter so long as the construction and installation of the device
complies with the stipulations of the relevant standard or handbook. The calculation
takes account of the fluid and fluid conditions, the pipe size, the orifice size, and
the measured differential pressure; it also takes account of the coefficient of
discharge of the orifice plate, which depends upon the orifice type and the positions
of the pressure tappings. With local pressure tappings, sharp-edged orifices have
coefficients around 0.6 to 0.63 (Bean, 1983), while the coefficients for conical
entrance plates are in the range 0.73–0.734 and for quarter-circle plates 0.77 to
0.85 (Miller, 1996). The coefficients of sharp-edged orifices vary more with fluids
and flow rates than the coefficients of conical entrance and quarter-circle plates,
especially at low flows and high viscosities.

The volumetric flow rate for an incompressible fluid is given by:

(16.6)

where is the volumetric flow rate, is the discharge coefficient, is the cross sectional
area of pipe, is the cross sectional area of orifice, is the upstream pressure, is the
downstream pressure, and is the fluid density.

The mass flow rate for an incompressible fluid is:

(16.7)

For compressible fluids such as gases or steam, an expansion factor (Y) is also cal-
culated. The expansion factor corrects for the density change between the measured
tap density and the density at the plane of the orifice face. This factor is primarily a
function of the ratio of the measured differential pressure to the fluid pressure and
can vary significantly as the flow rate varies, especially at high differential pressures
and low static pressures.

(16.8)

(16.9)

The coefficient of discharge has been empirically determined for flange-tapped

orifice meters. To accurately use these coefficients, the orifice meter must be
manufactured to the specifications of the API (API, 2000b). Basically the coefficient
of discharge depends on the Reynolds number, sensing tap location, meter tube
diameter and orifice diameter with some other smaller influences.

Once the orifice plate is designed and installed, the flow rate can often be measured
with high certainty simply by taking the square root of the differential pressure
across the orifice's pressure tappings and applying an appropriate constant. Even
compressible flows of gases that vary in pressure and temperature may be measured
with acceptable certainty by merely taking the square roots of the absolute pressure
and/or temperature, depending on the purpose of the measurement and the costs
of ancillary instrumentation.
The overall pressure loss caused by an orifice plate is less than the differential
pressure measured across tappings near the plate. For sharp-edged plates, it can
be approximated by the below equation:

(16.10)

where d is the orifice diameter, D is the pipe diameter, and ΔP is the pressure drop
across orifice.

> Read full chapter

Well Test Description

Paul J. Nardone, in Well Testing Project Management, 2009

Gas Metering
Metering of the gas phase takes place in the gas discharge using an orifice meter.
This device provides a flow rate measurement based on the principle that gas
traveling through an orifice restriction creates a pressure differential across the
orifice as a result of the increase in velocity of the gas. As flow rate increases, so,
too, does the velocity of the gas and therefore the pressure differential.

AGA report number 3 and API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards,

Chapter 14, Section 3, are common references for gas metering through well test
separators using orifice meters.
Figure 3.17. Orifice meter

The orifice meter requires little calibration. However; the orifice plate size and the
condition of the seal for the plate are important and should be included for inspec-
tion as quality checks by the well test engineer. The recording device, mechanical or
digital, records the differential pressure across the orifice plate; the static pressure
upstream or downstream of the orifice plate depends on the specific calculation used
and the temperature of the gas. This device requires periodic calibration, usually
before every test. The well test engineer retains copies of this calibration for quality
assurance purposes.

During production, liquid carryover into the gas discharge line will affect the gas
measurement. Close monitoring of the separator level and periodic sampling of the
gas in the discharge line take place to ensure that liquid carryover does not occur.
Sudden changes in trend on any of the recorded parameters alert the well test crew
to possible problems.

> Read full chapter

Production Engineering
In Standard Handbook of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering (Third Edition),
2016

6.7.9.1 Orifice-Meter Measurement

The most common method for measuring volumes is the differential measurement
device, the orifice meter, which is widely accepted for use in measuring liquids and
vapors. A correctly installed and maintained orifice may provide an overall accuracy
within plus or minus 2%.

The procedures presented here for calculating flow by use of an orifice meter are
designed to provide approximate solutions using a hand calculator or equivalent,
and do not include the rigorous, iterative solution procedures required when using
the Reader-Harris/Gallagher flow equation recommended for accurate, custody
transfer calculations with computing equipment. The procedures for applying the
Reader-Harris/Gallagher equation can be found in Chapter 14.3 of API Manual of
Petroleum Measurement Standards published after 1994.

The API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards is the source of a large portion
on the information presented below (Table 6.7.12). Chapter 14 is of particular interest
to gas processors because it applies specifically to the measurement of gas and
liquefied gas products. Chapter 14 is further divided as follows:

Table 6.7.12. API Chapter 14, Measurement Subsections

Chapter Title
14.3 Concentric, Square-Edged Orifice Meters (ANSI/
API 2350) (GPA 8185) (AGA Report No. 3)
14.4 Converting Mass of Natural Gas Liquids and Va-
pors to Equivalent Liquid Volumes (GPA 8173)
14.5 Calculation of Gross Heating Value, Specific
Gravity, and Compressibility of Natural Gas Mix-
tures from Compositional Analysis (GPA 2172)
14.6 Installing and Proving Density Meters
14.7 Mass Measurement of Natural Gas Liquids (GPA
8182)
14.8 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Measurement

The orifice meter consists of a static pressure and differential pressure recoding
gages connected to an orifice flange or orifice fitting. The orifice meter tube (meter
run) consists of upstream and downstream sections of pipe for which size and tol-
erance have been determined through calculation, which conform to specifications
set forth in ANSI/API 2530 (GPA 8185) (Table 6.7.15).

Table 6.7.15. Minimum Motor Tube Lengths in Terms of Pipe Diameters and Beta
Ratio
Installation Figure Dimension Beta Ratio
0.5 0.6 0.67 0.70 0.75
6-225 A 25.0 30.0 36.0 38.6 43.5
A 10.2 12.2 14.2 15.3 17.5

B 3.8 4.1 4.2 6.3 4.5

C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.4 7.0
C 5.2 6.7 8.0 8.9 10.5

6-226 A 20.8 25.0 28.8 31.0 35.2

A 10.0 11.4 12.8 13.5 15.0

B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5

C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.5 7.2
6-227 C 5.0 5.9 6.6 7.0 7.8

A 10.0 13.8 17.4 19.0 22.0

A 9.0 10.3 11.7 12.3 13.8

B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 6.5

C 5.0 5.5 6.2 6.5 7.1
C 4.0 4.8 5.5 5.8 6.7

6-228 A 6.9 9.3 12.5 13.9 16.7

B 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5
6-229 A 7.5 9.7 11.8 12.1 13.6
B 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.5

Use for all pipe sizes. Based on flange taps. For pipe taps and 2 diameters to A, A”,
and C and 8 pipe diameters to B.

The orifice plate is held perpendicular to flow by flanges or a fitting. Bore, circum-
ference, edge sharpness, and other tolerances must meet specification as set forth
in ANSI/API 2530 (GPA 8185).

Orifice Flanges (Figure 6.7.35a–c) — When slip-on or screwed orifice flanges are used,
the end of the pipe shall extend through the flanges so that there is no recess greater
than in. between the end of the pipe and the orifice plate. It is preferred that no
recess exists.
Figure 6.7.35a–c. Orifice plate holders.

When weld neck flanges or weldend orifice fittings are used, the average inside
diameter of the section of pipe connected to the inlet side of the fitting or flange
should equal the inside diameter of the fitting or flange within the tolerance given
in Figure 6.7.35a.

When flanged orifice fittings are used, they should be aligned with the inside
diameter of the flange on the meter tube so there are no sharp edges or offsets at
the flange connection. Where separable gaskets are used to seal on orifice plate in
an orifice holder, care must be taken to assure proper alignment and prevent gasket
extension into the flow steam.

Orifice flanges require that the line be shut down and depressured in order to inspect
or change the orifice plate.

Single Chamber Orifice Fitting (Figure 6.7.35b) — This fitting also requires that the
line be shut down and depressured in order to inspect or change the orifice plate.
However, this fitting does not require breaking apart the flanges. Instead, the bolts
are loosened on the cover plate and the cover plate removed. The orifice plate holder
and orifice plate are then removed from the fitting. These fittings provide precise
alignment of the orifice plate.

Senior Orifice Fitting (Figure 6.7.35c) — This fitting allows the removal and inspection
of an orifice plate while the line remains under pressure. It allows the orifice plate
holder and orifice plate to be raised into the upper cavity for the fitting by the use of a
crank handle. A valve is then closed to separate the upper cavity from the lower cavity
of the fitting. The upper cavity is then depressured, the top cover plate removed, and
the orifice plate cranked out.

In this section, certain terms are used which are peculiar to the measurement
industry. Many of the terms are almost self-explanatory, or their general use in the
industry makes it somewhat unnecessary to define them. However, in order to be
specific with regard to these basic quantities, it is advisable to list the following
definitions of terms commonly used in orifice meter measurement.

> Read full chapter

Proving Systems
Paul J. LaNasa, E. Loy Upp, in Fluid Flow Measurement (Third Edition), 2014

Gas Provers
In the past, gas meters have not been proved like liquid meters. Proving an orifice
meter has involved making sure that the meter’s physical condition is maintained.
In looking at ways to lower tolerances on gas meters of all kinds to reconfirm a
meter or settle a concern over an individual meter’s accuracy, proving is used. This
occurs when physical inspection is not sufficient (such as with a PD or turbine
meter), to define errors and actual throughput testing with a pipe prover is used.
Some operators are also beginning to use adaptations of them with orifice meters.
Other provers may be master meters, critical flow provers, or a centralized proving
facility where meters can be taken for accuracy confirmation.

Master meters are meters whose basic calibration has been certified, which can be
placed in series with an operating meter for a comparative test. They can be made
in special test units with a computer to control the equipment, collect the data, and
calculate a meter factor.

For small, low pressure meter testing, a low pressure blower can provide the test
medium. The meter is taken out of service, depressurized, and piped in series with
the proving unit downstream. The blower then pulls air through the operating meter
 and the standard meter to obtain proofs at a series of flow rates. A meter factor curve,
plotted from these tests, allows an average factor to be obtained.

At larger volume stations with higher pressures, a master meter can be piped in
series with the operating meter for a test. A computer again controls system oper-
ation, calculates the data, and collects meter factors. This system can be remotely
controlled from a central office. Periodically the master meter is returned to a
standards lab or to the manufacturer for recertification.

All of these systems have been successfully used to improve measurement accura-
cies.

> Read full chapter

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