This miiash photograph ‘of motion in wo dimensio ave parabolas that te le motion horizontal and pontents; the gold nls the dovi CHAPTER 4 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectors suc of te E other proj projected outward ne olf alls, kieked foots of motion in two dime nd how to add them. El Vectors and Scalars that the term velocity refers not only to how fast moving but also (o ils direction, A quantity such as velocity, which has direction as well as magnitude, is a veetor quantity. Other quantities that are also veetors are displacement, foree, a entum, However, many quantities ied with mass, time, They are specitied completely by a sealar quantities, have no direction asso -mperature4 oo. vlc Vom =! "e . FIGURE 3-1 Car traveling on a roa, The green arrows represent the velocity vector at each position FIGURE 2-2 Combining vectors in ane dimension o FIGURE 3-3 _ person walks 11.0 km east and then 5.0km north, These two displacements ate represented by which are shown as arcows The ‘sector, Dy. which is the vector sum ‘of Dy and Dp. isalso shown. Measurement on the graph with ruler and protractor shows that Dy has a magnitude of wise 112 km and points at an ungle @ the vectors Dy and D, resultant displacemer dm) Fast cam) East Drawing diagram of a particular physieal situation is always helpful in physics, and this is especially true when dealing with vectors. On a diagram, each vector is represented by an arrow.,The arrow is always drawn so that it points in the direction of the vector quantity it represents. The length of the arrow is drawn proportional to the magnitude of the vector quantity. For example, in Fig. 3-1, green arrows have been drawn representing the velocity of a car at various places as it rounds a curve. The magnitude of the velocity at ench point can be read off Fig. 3-1 by measuring the length of the corresponding arrow ‘and using the scale shown (Lem = 90 km/h) ‘When we write the symbol for a vector, we will always use boldface type, with ‘a tiny arrow over the symbol. Thus for velocity we write ¥, If we are concerned only with the magnitude of the vector, we will write simply v, in italics, ns we do for other symboks, Ad iraphical Methods Beano voGiom dre quate that have diootion ea wall ue magaitade, thy must be added in a special way. In this Chapter, we wil deal mainly with Alsplacement vectors, for which we now vse The symbol D, and Yeaeiy vectors.» But tho results will apply for other vectors we eneounier later. We use simple arthmetie for adding scalars. Simple arithmetic can also be used for adding vectors if they are in the same direction, For example, if a person walks Skm east one day. and km east the next day, the person will be Skm + 6km ~ It km east of the point of origin, We say that the net or resultan displacement i 14 km tothe east (Fig. 3~2a) fon the other hand, the person walks 8km enston the first day, and 6m west (inthe reverse direction) fon the second da, then the person wil end up 2km from the origin (Fig. 3-26), so the resultant displacement is 2km to the east In this case the resultant displacement is obtained by subtraction: km ~ km ~ 2 km 'But simple arithmetic cannot be used ifthe two vectors are no along the same line, For example, suppose a person walks 100 km east and then walks 50km north, These displaccments can be represented on a graph in which the positse sy axis points north and the positive ass points east, Fig. 3-3. On this graph, we draw an arrow, abeted B,, (o represent the displacement vector of the 100m displacement to the cast, Then we draw a second arrow, Dy, to represent the SO:km displacement tothe north, Both vectors are draw to sal, asin Fig 3-3. ‘After talking this wall, the person fs now 10.Okm east and S0km north of the point of origin. The resullant displacement is represented by the arros: labeled Dy in Fig, 3-3. Using a ruler and a protractor, you can measure on this diagram thatthe person is 112 km from the origin at an angle @ ~ 27" north of fast. In other words, the resultant displacement vector has a magnitude of 11.2km and makes an angle = 27° with the postive x axis, The magnitude (length) of By can also be obtained using the theorem of Pythagoras in this case since Dy, -Dz, and Dy form tight triangle with Dy a the hypotenuse, Thus Dy + DE = VCO0Kmy + OKmP = V/2SkmF = 11.2km, You can use the Pythagorean theorem, of course, only when the vectors are perpendicular to each other. in of Vectors: 7 north of east 46 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; VectorsThe resultant displacement vector, By, isthe sum of the That is, ceotors B, and 1, By, = B +B. ‘This is a necior equation. An important feature of adding two vectors that are not along the same fine is that the magnitude of the resultant Yector is not equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the two separate vectors, but is smaller than their sum: Dy < Di + Dy [vectors not along the same line] In our example (Fig. 3-3), Dy = 11.2km, whereas D, + Ds equals 1Skm, Note also that we cannot st Dy equal to 11.2 km, because we have a vector equation and 11.2km is only « part of the resultant vector, its magnitude, We could write some- thing like this though; Dy = D, + B, = (11.2km, 27° N of E). EXERCISE A Under what conditions can the magninude of he resultant vector aboxs be De =D, + BL? Figure 3-3 illustrates the general rules for graphically adding wo vectors together, no matter what angles they make, to get their sum. The rules are as follows 1. On a diagram, draw one of the vectors call it B,—to see, 2. Next draw the second vector, B», to scale, placing its tail at the tip of the fist vector and being sre its dicetion is correct. 3. The arrow drawn from the tail ofthe first vector to the tip of the second ‘vector represents the stm, oF resultant of the Wo vectors ‘The length of the resultant vector represents its magnitude, Note that veetors can be translated parallel to themselves (maintaining the same length and angle) to accomplish these manipulations, The length of the resultant can be ‘measured with a ruler aad compared to the scale. Angles can be measured with 1 protractor. This method is known as the tallstoip method of adding veetors, Tt ie nt important in which ardor th weetnrs are added Far example, a displacement of 5.0km north, 1o which is added a displacement of 10,0km east, yields a resultant of 112km and angle @ = 27° (sce Fig, 3-4), the same as ‘when they were added in reverse order (Fig. 3-3). That is, Wit The tail-o-tip methad of adding vectors can be extended to three oF more vectors The resultant is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last one added. An example is shown in Fig, 3-5: the three vectors could repre- sent displacements (northeast, south, west) or perhaps three forces Check for yourself that you get the same resultant no matter in whieh order you add the three vectors Wty, Weg Veeror equation Ta-soup omehivd of aang vectors x (ky 10 Bas Sot FIGURE 3-4 If the vectors are ‘added in reverse order. the resultant is the same. (Compare to Fig, SECTION 3-2 Addition of Vectors—Graphical Methods 47Ponliehgrom nehadof A seeand way to add two veetors is the parallelogram method. Tt is fully vite socio equivalent to the tail-to-tip method. In this method, the two veetors are drawn starting from @ common origin, and a parallelogram is constructed using these tbv0 vectors as adjacent sides as shown in Fig, 3-6b.The resultant is the diagonal drawn from the common origin. In Fig, 3-6a, the tail-to-tip method is shown, and itis clear that both methods yield the same result x, — + eos hh, (a) Taito % (o) Paratietogram FIGURE 3-6 Vector addition by ‘0 diferent methods, (2) and (6). * Part (¢) is incorrect. (©) Weng CAUTION It is a common error to draw the sum vector as the diagonal running De neiv wwe dhecorecidinonal between the tips of the wo vectors, as in Fig, 3-6e. This is incorrect: it does not on puralciogran (osetihsreulnt epresent the sum of the two vectors. (In fact, it represents their difference, Ve — Vj, as we will see in the next Section.) Range of vector lengths. Suppose two vectors each have length 3.0 units, What is the range of possible lengths for the vector representing the sum af the two? RESPONSE The sum can take on any value from 6.0 vectors point in the same direction, to 0 ( antiparallel 0 + 3.0) where the 3.0 ~ 3.0) when the vectors are EXERCISE B If the two vectors of Conceptual Example 3-1 are perpendicular to each ‘other. what isthe resultant vector length? Subtraction of Vectors, and Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar Given a vector V,we define the negative ofthis vector (—¥) to be a vector with to vector is ever negative in the sense ofits magnitude: the magnitude ol every tector is postive, Rather, a minus sign tells us about is direction FIGURE 3-7 The negative of 2 We cin now define the subiraetion of one vector from another: the differ Nectorisa vectorhaviag the same etice between two vectors ¥, ~ ¥) is defined as length but opposite azeution ‘ ‘That is the difference between two vectors is equal to the sum of the first plus the negative of the second, Thus our rules for addition of veetors can be applied as shown in Fig. 3-8 using the tail-to-tip method, ~Wo at ( FIGURE 3-8 Substacting wo vectors Vy — Vj wf sy of + Sk, 48 CHAPTER 3. Kinematics in Two Dimensions; VectorsA veetor ¥ can be multiplied by a scalar ¢. We define their product so that eV has the same direction as V and has magnitude eV. That is, multiplication of ‘vector by a positive scalar c changes the magnitude of the veetor by a factor ¢ but-doesn’t alter the direetion. If cis a negative sealar, the magnitude of the product cV is still €V (without the minus sign), but the direction is precisely ‘opposite to that of ¥ it cis negative). EZ] Adding vectors by Components Adding vectors graphically sing a ruler and protractor is often not sufficiently ageurate and is not useful for vectors in three dimensions, We discuss now a Imore powerful and precise method for adding vectors. But do not forget graphical methods—they are always useful for visualizing, lor checking your ‘ath, and thus for getting the correct result Consider fist a vector ¥ that Fes in a particular plane. 1 ean be expressed as the sum of two other vectors called the components of the original vector The components are usually chosen to be along two perpendicular direc- Lions, The process of finding the components is known 0s resolving the vector into its components, An example is shown in Fig. 3-10; the vector V could be a displacement vector that points at an angle 6 = 30° north of east, where Wwe have chosen the positive x axis o be to the east and the postive y axis north, This vector ¥ is resolved into ils x and y components by drawing dasiied lines out from the tip (A) of the vector (lines AB and AC) making them perpendicular to the x and y axes. Then the lines OR and OC repre sent the x und » components of V, respectively, as shown in Fig. 3-10, ‘These vector components are writen V, and V,. We generally show vector components as arrows, like vectors, but dashed, The scalar components, V, and Varo sumbts, with units, that are given a positive or negative sign depending on whether they point along the positive or negative x oF y axis ‘As ean be seen in Fig. 3-10, ¥, + V, ~ ¥ by the parallelogram method of adding vectors FIGURE 2-10 the tector ise. Space is made up of three dimensions, and sometimes it is necessary to resolve a vector inta components along three mutually perpendicular directions In reetangular coordinates the components are 9, and ¥,, Resolution of sector in three dimensions fs merely an extension ofthe above technique. We Sill manly be conccrned with situations in which the vetons ae in a pane and two components are all hat are necessary To add veclors using the method of components, we need to use the trigonometric functions sin, cosine, and tangent which we now revi FIGURE 3-9 Multiplying a vector V by a scalar € aives a vector whose magnitude ise times greater nd in the same direction as V (or opposite direction Resolving # nector into components Resolving a vector V into its components along an arbitrarily chosen set of sand y axes. The components, once found, thomsalves represent the vector. Tht is, the Components eatin as much information as SECTION 3-4 Adding Vectors by Components 49‘ be b lo FIGURE 3-11. Staring with on ansle das ight triangles of “a = TS © in (a), We can construct ferent sizes (b) and ¢ the lene the size of the triangle Trigonomaric fiuetions defined FIGURE 3-12 Finding the ‘components of a vector using Trigonomerie functions, Components ofa W ut the ratio of of the sides does not depend on @ ©) Given any angle @, as in Fig, 11a, a right triangle ean be constructed by drawing a line perpendicular to either of its sides, as in Fig, 3-11b, The longest side of a right triangle, opposite the right angle, is called the hypotenuse, which ‘we label h. The side opposite the angle # is labeled 0, and the side adjacent is labeled a. We let A, 0. and a represent the lengths of these sides. respectively. ‘We now define the three trigonometric functions, sine, cosine, and tangent (abbreviated sin, cos, tan), in terms of the right triangle, as follows: _ side opposite _o Sin? = Typotenuse — h — Seadiacemt a a4 SS = “hypotenuse — ep side opposite _ 0 rang = SSeonposite _ ¢. tan Sade adjacent ~ a Ii we make the triangle bigger, bat Keep the same angles, then the ratio of the length of one side to the other, or of one side to the hypotenuse, remains the same. That is, in Fig. 3-[le we have: a/k = a'/h': o/h = o'/h'; and ofa = ofa. Thus the values of sine, cosine, and tangent do not depend on how big the triangle is They depend only om the sie of the angle. The values of sine, cosine, and tangent for different angles can be found using a scientific tr, or from the Table in Appendix A. ‘A useful trigonometrie identity is sin’ @ + cos! = 1 en which follows from the Pythagorean theorem (0? + @? = A in Fi LL), That is: sino + cota = B+ = OO {(Sce also Appendix A for other details on trigonometric functions and identities) ‘The use of trigonometric functions for finding the components of a vector is iMlustrated in Fig. 3-12, where a veetor and its two components are thought of as making up a right triangle, We then see that the sine, cosine, and tangent are as given in the Figure. If we multiply the definition of sin@ = V,/V by V on both sides, we get ¥, = Ving 8-3) Similarly, from the definition of eos, we obtain V.= Veosa, B-3b) Note that @ is chosen (by convention) to be the angle that the vector makes with the positive x axis Using Eqs. 3-3, we can ealeulate V, and V, for any vector, such as that illus: trated in Fig. 3-10 or Fig. 3-12, Suppose ¥ represenis a displacement of $00m 50 CHAPTER 3. Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectorswy in a direction 30° north of east, as shown in Fig. 3-13. Then V = 500m, From «calculator oF Tables, sin 30° = 0,500 and cos 30° = 0,866, Then Vi, = Views = (500 m)(0.866) = 433 m (east), V, = V'sin @ = (500:m)(0.500) = 250m (north). ‘There are two ways to specify a vector in a given coordinate system: 1, We can give its components, V, and V, 2, We can give its magnitude V and the angle @ it makes with the positive « axis, We can shift from one description (0 the other using Eqs 3-3, and, for the reverse, by using the theorem of Pythagoras’ and the definition of tangent vaVWiew 40) v tnd =F 40) as.ean he seen in Fig, 3-12. ‘We can now diseuss how to add veetors using components, The fits step is to resolve each veetor into its eomponents Next we ean see, using Fig, 3-14, that the addition of any two veetors Vj, and Ve to give a resultant, V= Vp + Vs, implies tha VeVi t Me * 3 Vin + Vi = “That isthe sum of the x components equals the + component of the resultant, and sinilny or 3-That tis std can be verred by carer examination of Fig. 3-14. But noe that we add all the x components together to gel the x component ofthe resultants and we add al the y components together fo get the ¥ component ofthe resultant. We do nov add x components Coy components Tithe magnitade and direction of the resultant vector are desired they ean te obtained wsing Eqs 3-4 In thie dimensions. the the compament along the third, o whore Vis the cm of Pythagoras becomes UV = AE = Vp +E, re Mit FIGURE 3-14 ‘The components of V Hy and Vy = Vay + FIGURE 3-13. (a) Vector V repre sents a displacement of $00m at 30° angle north of east. (b)-The compo: nenis of Vare V, and Vy, whose ‘magnitudes are given on the right Tuo mays taspecify Components related io magi direction and Adding vectors ‘analsicatty dhycomponents) SECTION 3-4 Adding Vectors by Components 51(Choice of ares cam simpli fort nected FIGURE 3-15 Example 3- {a) The two displacement vectors B, and B.. (b) Beis resolved into its components (¢) By and B, are ‘added graphically to ob the resltant D. The component method of adding the vectors i ‘explained inthe Example we PROBLEM SOLVING Tdentfy the correct quadrant By drawing a careful diagram ‘The components of a given vector will be different for different choices of coordinate axes. The choice of eoordinate axes is always arbitrary, You can often reduce the work involved in adding vectors by a good choice of axes—for example, by choosing one of the axes to be in the sme direetion as one of the ‘vectors Then that vector will have only one nonzero component, Mail cartier’s displacement. rural mail carrier leaves {he post office and drives 22.0 km in a northerly tection, She then drives in a dlircotion 60.0° south of east for 470 km (Fig, 3=15a). What is her displacement from the post office? APPROACH We resolve cach vector into its x and y components. We add the ¥y components together, and then the » components together, giving Us the x and y'components of the resllant, We choose the positive « axis lo be east and the positive y avs to be north sine those are the compass directions used oon moxe maps. SOLUTION Resnive each displacement vector into its components, a8 shown in Fig, 3-15b, Singe By has magnitude 22.9 km and points north, i has only ay component: Dy= 0% Dy= 1B, has both « and y components: Dox = +(47.0km)(cos 0") = +(47.0km)(0500) = +235km Dy = —(47.0km)(sin 60°) = —(47.0km)(0.866) = —40.7 km, km. Notice that Dy is negative because this vector component points along the negative y axis The resultant vector, D, has components: Do= Dy + Dy = Okm+ 23Skm = 4235km Dy = Dy + Dy, = 2.0m + (40.7 km) = —187 km, ‘This specifies the resultant vector completely D,=BSkm, Dy = ~18.7km. We can also specify the resultant veetor by giving its mi using Ege 342 D Vv VBS Rm CTEM tan = 5 0.796, A calculator with an IV TAN, an ARC TAN, oF a TANT! key gives 0 = tan (0,796) = 385°. The negative sign means # = 385° below the x axis, Fig. 3-15e. So, the resultant displacement is 30.0km directed at 38.5° in a southeasterly direction NOTE Always he attentive about the quadrant in which the resultant vector lies, An electronic calculator does not fully give this information, but a good diagram does TThe signs of trigonometric functions depend on which “quadrant” the angle falls in: for example, the tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants (from 0° t 99°, and 180° (o 270"), but negative in the second and fourth quadrants; see Appendix A=7. The best way to keep track of angles, and to check any vector result, is always to draw a vector diagram. A vector diagram gives you something tangible (0 look at when analyzing a problem, and provides a check an the results ‘The fellowing Problem Solving Box should not be considered a prescrip- tion, Rather it is a summary of things to do to get you thinking and involved in the problem at hand. 52 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectors(ECS Acaing vectors tre ee ee eee eee vectors using components: points along the negative x or y axis gets a — sign. 41. Draw a diagram, adding the vectors graphically by Add the x components together to get the Bihar ae anlage’ oc bcp oct Sop mal one Saeed Da ey 22 Coote and y aves. Choose them int way, posible, V, = Vj, + Va + any others Tsar abs ep Cem (roe OA co! Vis Ae a) caer cone axis along the dreotion of one of the Vectors $0 This isthe answer the components of the resultant ‘that vector will have only one component.) ‘vector. Check signs to see if they fit the quadrant Snhie Galeaa Naty hone eae ante showing each component along its appropriate 6 IT you want to know the magnitude and direction of (ory) axis asa (dashed) arrow. Hoge enicpe ny renew Ei cacitatee ocetaed aera ere eae , oe na Le eset ae ve VVETV}, tno The vector diagram you already drew helps to Vir=Meosd, y= Kisingy. ‘obtain the correct position (quadrant) of the angle 6 'Y| makes with the positive x axis then: Three short trips. An airplane trip involves three legs with 1Wo stopovers as shown in Fig. 3~16a,The fist leg is due east for 620k the second lp is southeast (45°) for 440 km: and the third leg sat $3 south of wes, for 350 kmas shown, What is the plane's total displacement? APPROACH We follow the steps in the above Problem Solving Box SOLUTION 1. Draw a diagram such as Fig, 3-16a, where Dy, B,, and Dy represent the three legs of the trip, and Bi is the plane’s total displacement 2. Choose axes: Axes are also shown in Fig. 3-160, 2 Resolve componente Ttis imperative to draw a good figure, The components are drawn in Fig 3-16b. Instead of drawing al the vectors starting from a common origin, as we did in Fig. 3-15b, here we draw them "tailto- Style whichis just as valid and may make it easier to se=. 4. Calculate the components: 4D, cos? =D, = 620km +D,sin0® = Okm = #D, cos 45° = +(440km)(0.707) = =Dysin4s? ~ ~(440km)(0.707) 1D, cos 53° = ~ (550 km)(0.602) = ~351 km = Dysinss* = ~(580 km)(0.799) = 439 km We have given a minus sign to each component that in Fig. 36h points in the —1 or ~y direction. The components are shown in the Table in the margin 5. Add the components: We add the + components logether, and we add the y Components together to obtain the x and y components of the resultant: Veer Components Dy = Dye + Dac + Day = 620km + 311 km — 331 km = 61KDKM Sm) __p en Dy + Dy + Ds = Okm— 3iikm—439km = —750km.P 20 ° D, au 31 ‘The x and y components are 600 km and ~750 km, and point respectively to ie the east and south. This is one way to give the answer 6. Magnitude and direction: We can also give the answer as De 600 -750 Dy =\VDE+ DE = VOY + (750) kan = 960 km Dy _750km tan = FE = OS = - ‘Thus, the total displacement has magnitude 960 km and points 51° below the x axis (South of east), as was shown in our original sketch, Fig. 3-16 SECTION 3-4 Adding Vectors by Components 53 soo = —SIEl Projectile Motion In Chapter 2, we studied the motion of objects in one dimension in terms of displacement, yelocity, and acceleration, including purely vertical motion of falling bodies undergoing acveleration duc to gravity. Now we examine the more netal motion of objects moving through the air in two dimensions near the Earth's surface, such as a golf ball, a thrown or batted baseball, kicked footballs, and speeding bullets. These are all examples of projectile motion (see Fig, 3-17), Which we can deseribe as taking place in two dimensions, Although air resistance is often important, in many cases its effect can be ignored, and we will ignore it in the following analysis. We will not be concerned now with the process by Which the abject is thrown or projected. We consider only its motion afer it has been projected, and before it lands or is eaught—that is, we analyze our projected object only when itis moving freely through the air under the action lone, Then the acceleration of the object is that due to gravity, which = 880m/s?, and we aesume itis constant ‘cribe projectile motion accurately. He showed Hoviconioland that it could be understood by analyzing the horizontal and vertical components, eves! motion of the motion separately. For convenicnec, we assume that the motion begins at senwtely time t= 0 at the origin of an xy coordinate system (80 % = sy = 0). FIGURE 3-17 "This strobe phoio- aph ofa ball making a series of ounces shows the characteristic yraabsac™ pl of prjecile mio of gravity sets downward with magnitude Galileo was the first 10 d FIGURE 3-18 Projecile motion of a small ball oo Fe projected horizontally. The dashed black line IS Psi represents the path of the object. The Weoci TON movin ate: on of motion and thus pee is tangent to the path. The Velocity vectors are green . arrows and velocity components are dashed. ing at the same point isshown atthe left for comparison: is dhe same for the falling object and the projectile) Vertical fall Let us look at a (Liny) ball rolling off the end of a horizontal table with initial velocity in the horizontal (x) direction, 4 See Fig, 3-18, where an object falling vertically is also shown for comparison, The velocity veetor # at each Yisungoutwshe path instant points in the direction of the ball’s motion at that instant and is always tangent fo the path, Following Galileo's ideas, we treat the horizontal and vertical ‘components of the velocity, », and 1, . separately, and we ean apply the kinematic ‘equations (Eqs 2-I1a through 2-11¢) to the x and y components of the motion, YVerieal motion First we examine the vertical (y) component of the motion. At the instant (vy = enmstan’ = 2) the bral Teaves the table's top (¢ it has only an x component of velocity Once the ball leaves the table (at ¢ ~ 0), it experiences a vertically downward acceleration g, the aceeleration due to gravity. Thus », is initially zero (v4) = 0) but increases continually in the downward direction (until the ball hits the ground), Let us take y to be positive upward. Then a, = —g, and from Eq. 2-Ila we can write», = —gr since we set ty = 0, The vertical displace. ments given by y = — #30 ict um to objets whose distance traveled and maximum height wove the Earth are small wred to the Earths radius (40 km) 5 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; VectorsFIGURE 3-19 Multiple-exposure photograph showing positions of two balls at equal time intervals (Ome hall ene dropped fram rach a the same time the ‘ther was projected horizontally outward, The vertical positon of each balls seen to be the same In the horizontal direetion, an the other hand, there is no acceleration (we — 170 are ignoring air resistance). So the horizontal component of velocity, ry. (Hs ~ or. ~ evmseen?) remains constant, equal to ils initial value, tq, and thus has the same magni tude at each point on the path. The horizontal displ ven by X= dwt. The two veetor components, and ¥,, can be added veetorially at any stant to oblain the velocity ¥ at that time (that is, for each point on the path). as shown in Fig. 3-15, One result of this analysis, which Galileo himself predicted, is that an abject projected horizontal dropped vertically. This is bee ceases, as shown in Fig. 3-18, Figure 3-19 is a multiple-exposure photograph of ‘an experiment that confirms this. cement is then reach the ground in the same tine as an object use the vertical motions are the same in both EXERCISE C ‘Iwo bulls having different spceds roll off the edge of a horizontal table atthe same time, Which hits the Flor soorer, th Fig. 3-20, the analysis is Objet projected yp ur Tran object is projected at an upward angle, as in Similar, except that now there is an initial vertical component of velocity, 2,» Because of the downward acceleration of gravity, v, gradually decreases with me until the object reaches the highest point on its path, at which point 0. Subsequently the object moves downward (Fig. 3-20) and vy inereases in the downward direction, as shown (that is, becoming more negative), As before, », remains constant y FIGURE 3-20. Path of a prc este =O atjhis poi . angle @ to the horizontal, Path is Shainin black, the veloiy vectors are green arrows and velocity Components are dashed SECTION 3-5 Projectile Motion 55EY Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion We now work through several Examples of projectile motion quantitatively, We use the kinematic equations (2~I la through 2-12) separately for the vertical and horizontal components of the motion. These equations are shown separately for the x and y components of the motion in Table 3-1, for the general ease of two- dimensional motion at constant acceleration. Note that x and y are the respective displacements, that 0, and v, are the components of the velocity, and that 4, and a, are the components of the acceleration, each of which is constant. ‘The subscript 0 means “at 1 = 0." TABLE 3-1 General Kinematic Equations for Constant Acceleration in Two Dimensions component (horizontal) {Y component (vertical) = tat ae (Eq 21a) y= Be tat X= ut vot tte (Ey.2-11b) Yan t tot + dae Pha + 2a ~ m) (Ey.2-116) 13 = vy + 2ayly — 9) ‘We can simplify these equations for the case of projectile motion because We ccan set dy = 0. See Table 3-2, which assumes y is positive upward, so ay = —¥ = —9.80:m/s'. Note that i # is chosen relative to the +1 axis.as in Fig, 3-20, then aysind. Pa = WE0s8, and — Tn doing Problems involving projectile motion, we must considera time interval for Which our chosen object is in the air, influenced only by gravity. We do not consider the throwing (oF projecting) process nor the time after the object lands or is caught, because then ather influences act on the abjeet,and we can no longer set a em sotving Choice of de terra TABLE 3-2 Kinematic Equations for Projectile Motion 980 /) Ve (ay a) % 11b) y (Ey.2-116) % onto Pecome #Se TEp taken pore downward the mins (—) ae Projectile Motion ‘Our approach to solving problems in Section 2-6 also applies here, Solving problems involving projectile ‘motion can require creativity, and cannot be done just by following some rules. Certainly you must avoid just plugging aumbers into equations that seem to “work.” LAs always, read carefully; choose the object (or objects) you are going to analyze. 2. Draw a careful diagram showing what is happening to the object. 3. Choose an origin and an xy enordinate system, 4. Decide on the time interval, which for projectile motion ean only include motion under the effect of graviy alone, not throwing or landing. The ume interval must be the same for the x and y analyses The sand y motions are connected by the common time. §. Examine the horizontal (x) and yertieal (y) motions separately. If you are given the initial velocity, you may want to resolve it into its x and y components 6. List the known and unknown quantities. choosing. a, = 0 and a, = ~g or +g, where g = 980m/s' tnd using the’-+ or — sign, depending on whether you choose y positive down or up. Remember that vv, never changes throughout the trajectory, and that v, = 0 at the highest point of any trajectory that returns downward, The velocity just before landing is generally not zero. 7. Think for a minute before jumping into the equations A Title planning goes a long way. Apply the relevant equations (Table 3-2), combining equations it necessary. You may need to combine eomponents of fa vector to get magnitude and direetion (Eqs 3~4) 56 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; VectorsSEEISEZN Driving off a cliff. A movie stunt driver on a motoreycle speeds horizontally off a 500-m-high clift, How fast must the motorcycle leave the eliff top to land on level ground below, 0.0m from the base of the cliff where the cameras are? Ignore air resistance, APPROACH We explicitly follow the steps of the Problem Solving Box. SOLUTION ‘and 2, Read, choose the object, and draw a diagram. Our object i the motor- cycle and driver, taken asa single unit. The diagram is shown in Fig, 3-21. 3. Choose a coordinate system. We choose the y direction t0 be pes upward, with the top of the eliff as. xy ~ 0. The = diteetion is horizontal With p= 0 at the point where the motoreyele leaves the clit. Choose a time interval. We choose our time interval to hegin (¢ = 0) just as the motoreyele leaves the cli top at position x) = 0, i) = 0; our time interval ends just hefore the motoreyee hits the ground blow. Examine x and y motions. In che horizontal (4) diteetion, dhe aeeeteracion 44, = 0, $0 the’ velocity is constant, The value of x when the motoreyele reaches the ground is x= +90.0m. In the vertical direction, the accolera- FIGURE 3-21 Example 3-4, tion isthe acceleration due to gravity, ay = ~¢ = ~980m/s'. The value of y when the motoreycle teaches the ground is y= =500m. The initial velocity is horizontal and is our unknown, v9; the initial vertical velocity is zer0, Dy = 0. t knowns and unknowns. See the Table in the margin, Note that in addition to not knowing the initia! horizontal velocity ny (which stays constant until “xy = yy 4 landing), we also do not know the time ¢ when the motoreyele reaches the y= 9.0m t ground, y= ~Sikom 7. Apply relevant equations. The motorcycle maintains constant v, as lang as @ = 0 . itis in the air. The time it stays in the air is determined by the y motion— = 8 = “98 m/s! when it hits the ground. So we first find the time using the y motion, and ¢= then use this time value in the x equations. To find out how long it takes the motoreycle (0 reach the ground below, we use Bg. 2-11b (Table 3-2) for the vertical (y) direction with y) =O and. y= 0: Y= wt wot hye -ut 0 +iCRF y= er We solve for rand set y = ~50.0.m To caleulate th ty, Pa, We again use Eq. 2—11b, but this time for the horizontal (x) direction, with a, = 0 and xy x= 0+ to! + ha, =O + nt 0 ‘Then . x_ 900m _ 5.5 Yo =~ FIg5 82m hier is about 100 kun/l (rouglly 60 smi /). NOTE In the time interval of the projectile motion, the omly acceleration is g in the negative y direction, The acceleration in the x direction is zero. SECTION 3-6 Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion 57’ at this pint FIGURE 3-22 Example 3-5 @ewvsics apeuieo A Kicked football. A football is kicked at an angle Spam | @ = 37.0" with a velocity of 20.01m/s.a5 shown in Fig. 3-29. Calculate (a) the maximum height, (6) the time of travel before the football hils the ground, (6) how for nay it hits the ground, (the velocity vector atthe maximum height, and (e) the acceleration vector at maximum hight, Assume the ball leaves the foot at ground level and ignore ar resistance and rotation ofthe bal APPROACH ‘This may seem difielc at fst because there are so many ques- tions But we can deal with them one ata time. We tke they direction as pos tive upward and teat the x and y motions separates Th tial ime in the aris aenin determined by the y motion, The + motion occurs at constant volocity. The {component of velociy varies being positive (upward) inital, decreasing t0 Zero atthe highest point, and dhen becoming negative asthe football falls SOLUTION We resolve the inital velocity ino its components (Fig 3-22} ba) = ¥60837.0° = (20.0 m/s)(0.799) = 16.0 m/s ‘oy = wysin 37.0" = (20.0 m/s)(0.602) = 12.0 m/s (0) We considera time interval that begins just afr the football loses contact, vvith the foot until it reaches its maximum height. During ths time interval the acceleration is ¢ downward, AC the maximum height, the velocity is horizontal (Fie, 3-22), so. ~ 0+ and this occurs ata time given by 1) ~ Bye gt with y= 0 (see Eq.2-Lla in Table 3-2). Thus fo (120m) ie 2 Um) as = (OxDm/s) From Eq.2-11b, with 3, = 0, we have nyt $a = (12.0m/s)(1.228) ~ 4(9.80 m/s?)(1.225)° Alternatively, we could have used Eq.2-Ic, solved for y, and found = (m/s) 39380 m/s" 735m “The maximum height i 7.35 m. (0) To find the time it takes for the ball to return to the ground, we consider @ different time interval, starting at the moment the ball leaves the foot (7 = 0,5) = 0) and ending just before the ball touches the ground (y= 0 again). We can use Eq. 2-I1b with xy ~ 0 and also set_y = 0 (ground level): Y= wt mot — be? = 0+ (120m/sye — H0.80 m/s)e ‘This equation ean be easily factored: (9.80 m/s?) — 120m/s}r = 0, ‘There are to solutions, « = 0 (witch corresponds to th 2U20m/2) p= OO 2455, (os0m/s) whieh is the total travel time of the football initial point, y)),and 58 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; VectorsNOTE The time r= 2.455 for the whole trip is double the time to reach the highest point, calculated in (a). That is the time to go up equals the time to Tine. ~ vine down come back down to the same [evel but only in the absence of air resistance (©) The ‘otal distance traveled in the x direction is found by applying Eg. 2-11b with ay = Oy = 0. U0 = 160 m/s X= eal = (16.0m/s)(2458) = 392m, (@) At ihe highest point, there is no vertical component to the velocity. There is only the horizontal component (which remains constant throughout the Aight), 80. = v9 = my ¢0837.0° = 16.0m/s (@) The acceleration vector is the sume at the highest point as itis throughout the flight, which is 9.80 m/s? dowaward. NOTE We treated the football as iit were a particle, ignoring its rotation, We also ignored air resistance, which is considerable on a rotating football, so our resulls are not very aceurate EXERCISE D ‘vo balls are utrown in che ir a diferent singles, but each reaches the same height, Which hall romains inthe nirlongor: the one thrown at the steeper angle ‘or the one throwin ata shallower angle? Where does the apple land? A child sits pr Tmoving to the right at constant speed as shown in Fig. 3-23, The child extends her and and throws an apple straight upward {ftom her own point of view, Fig. 3-250). while the wagon continies to travel forward at constant speed. If air resistance is neglected, will the apple land (@) behind the wagon. (b) in the wagon, or (c) infront of the wagon RESPONSE The child throws the apple straight up from her own reference frame with initial velocity fy (Fig. 3-23a). But when viewed by someone on the around, the apple also has an intial horizontal component of velocity equal to the speed of the wagon, fq. Thus, t0-a person on the ground, the apple will follow the path of a projectile as shown in Fig. 3-236, The apple experiences no horizontal acceleration, soy will stay constant and equal © the speed ofthe wagon. As the apple follows is are the wagon wil he directly (b) Grown fear frame tnder the apple at all times because they have the same horizontal velocity When the apple comes dovn, it will €r0p right into the outstretched hand of the child, The answer is (b). [SONGEPTUAL-EXAMPLE-E-T] The wrong strategy. boy on « small hill ains his waterballoon slingshot horizontals, straight at a second boy hanging from a cree branch a distance if away, Fig. 3-24. At the instant the water balloon is released, the second hoy lets go and falls fom the tree, hoping to avoid being hit. Show that he made the wrong move, (He hadn't studied phsies yet) anor aie resistance RESPONSE Hath the water balloon and the boy in the tre star falling atthe same ina time rthey each fal the same vertical distance_y ~ $ much like Fig 3-19. In the time it takes the water balloon to travel the hori zontal distance «the balloon will ive the same y position a the falling hos Splat. Ifthe boy hod sinyed in the tree he would have avoided the humiliation FIGURE 3-23 Example 3-6 FIGURE 3-24 Example 3-7 SECTION 3-6 Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion 59Horizontal range of a projectile FIGURE 3-25. Fxample 3-8, [ay The range R of a projectile (0) there are generally wo angles thar will give the same range. Cam you show that fone angle 1s the other is a = 9° ~ Oy? Level ne formula Ly Ginat) = vl EXERCISE E A package is dropped from a plane flying at constant velocity parallel to the ground, If air resistance is ignored, the package will (a) fall behind the plane, (b) remain directly below the plane until iting the ground. (¢) move abead of the plane, or (d) it depends on the speed of te plane. [STS Level horizontal range. (2) Derive a formula for the hori- zontal range R ofa projectile in terms of its initial velocity r) and angle 4. The horizontal range is defined as the horizontal distance the projectile travels before returning to its original height (which is typically the ground); that is, vy (final) = yy, See Fig, 3-25a. (b) Suppose one of Napoleon's cannions had @ ‘muzzle velocity, n, of 60.01m/s At what angle should it have been aimed (ignore air resistance) to strike a target 320 m away’? APPROACH ‘The situation is the same as in Example 3-5, except we are not ‘now given numbers in (a). We will algebraically manipulate equations to ‘obiain our result SOLUTION (2) We sei x= 0 and yy =) at 1= 0. Afier the projectile travels a horizontal distance R, it returns to the same level, y =D, the final point. We choose our time interval to start (1 = 0) just after the projectile is fired and to end when it returns to the same vertical height. To find « general ‘expression for R, we set both y = 0 and yj = 0 im Eq, 2-11b for the vertical mation, and obtain Y= Wt tet + hae 0504 nyt — ber ‘We solve for f, which gives two solutions: ¢ = 0 and f= e/g. ‘The first solution corresponds to the initial instant of projection and the second is the time when the projeetile returns to y = 0, Then the range, R, will be equal to x at the moment has this value, Which We put into Eq, 2-11b for the hovizonial motion (x = vat, With x4 = 0).Thus we have: R ) Beate _Zrhsindyeossy | (2 vot = Bal \ z ® y=) ¥ where we have written Py = ¥j€08M%) and ve = nysind. This 8 the result ‘we sought, Tecan be rewritien, using the trigonometric identity 2sin 6 cos sin 28 (Appendix A or inside the rear cover) “sin 2A, ® R [y=] ‘We see that the maximum range, for a given initial velocity vy, is obtained ‘when sin 20 takes on its maximum value of 1.0, which occurs for 24, — 90" so 4% = 45° for maximum range, and Rays = 2i/. [When air resistance is important, the range is less for a given oy. and the ‘maximum range is obtained at an angle smaller than 45°,] NOTE The maximum range increases by the square of 1), so doubling the murzle velocity of a cannon increases its maximum range by a factor of 4. (b) We put R= 320m into the equation we just derived, and (assuming, unrealistically, no air resistance) we solve it to find Re _ (320m)(9.80 m/s") sinzg, = <= RE = 087 me CoOma NE ‘We want (o solve for an angle 4y that is hetween 0° and 90°, which means 24 in this equation can be as large as 180. Thus, 28, = 60.6" is a solution, but 60 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectors2a, = 180° ~ 60.6" = 119, also a solution (see Appendix A-7). In general we will have two solutions (see Fig. 3-25b), which in the present ease are given by 4 = 303° or 59.7 Either angle gives the same range. Only when sin 24) = 1 (50. @ = 45°) is there a single solution (that is, both solutions are the same). Additional Example: Slightly more Complicated, but Fun {A punt. Suppose the football in Example 3-5 was a punt fand left he punte's foot at a height af 1.00m above the ground. How far did the football travel before hitting the ground? Set y= D. 4 ~ 0 APPROAGH The x and y motions are again eated separately. But we cannot use the range formula from Example 3-8 because itis valid only if 1 (final) = yy, which isnot the case here, Now ws has, ~ 0, and the foxt- ball hits the ground where y ~~ 1.0m (sce Fig, 3-26). We choose our time inverval to start when the ball leaves his foot ~ 0, ) = 0,49 = 0) and end just before the ball hits the ground (y= —1.00m). We ean get x from Eq. 21h, x= tf since we know that Py = 16.0m/s from Example 3-5. But first we must find ¢ the time at which the ball hits the ground, which we cobain from the y motion. SOLUTION With y= =1.00m and yo ~ 120m/s (see Example 3-5), we use the equation ya wt tor tee, and obtain 1.00 m = 0+ (12.0m/syu ~ (4.90)? We rearrange this equation into standard form so we can use the quadratic formula (Appendix A~4; also Example 2-15): (490m/ (12.0m/syr ~ (1.00m) = 0. Using the quadratic formula gives 10m/s = VC20mpay = Ka9Om/P\— LOOM) 24.90 m/s) Sor 081s, ‘The second solution would correspond 10 a time prior to the kiek, so it docsn't apply. With ¢ = 2.53 for the time at which the ball touches the ground, the horizontal distance the bal traveled is (Using, ¥4» = 16.0 m/s from Example 3-5) x = tof = (16.0.m/s}(2.53s) = 40.5 m. ‘Our assumption in Example 3-5 that the ball leaves the foot at ground level results in an underestimate of about 1.3m in the distance traveled. = Seon o> pRosLem sotviNG Donor ise any formula unless yore are suve ts rage of ality fits the problem The range formate dees not Spite here Beene v2, FIGURE 3-26 Example 3-9:the football leaves the punter’s foot at y= 0, and reaches the ground ‘where y= — 1.0m, SECTION 3-6 Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion 61FIGURE 3-27 Examples of projec lle motion—sparks (small hot ‘of metal), water, and fireworks. exhibit the parabolic path characteristic of projectile mation, although the effects of ar ca be seen to alter the path of some trajectories ‘> PROBLEM soLVING Subscrpas for ating veces first subscript forthe object secenid subscript forthe reference EB] Projectile Motion Is Parabolic We now show that the path followed by any projectile is a parabola, it we ignore air resistance and assume that g is constant. To show this, We need to find y as a funetion of x by eliminating # between the two equations for horizontal and vertical motion (Eg, 2-11b}, and we set so = si = 0: y= rot — See From the first equation, we have 1 = x/Dy, and we substitute this into the second one t0 obtain Mwe write ro = rycosAy and ry = nid, we can also write s\ y= (ana)s ~ (sa) Feora,) Tm cither ease, we see that y as a funetion of x has the form y= Ax = Bs, where A and B are constants for a specific projectile motion. This is the well known equation for a parabola, See Figs 3-17 and. 3-27. The idea that projectile motion is parabolic was, in Galileo's day, at the forefront of physics research, Today we discuss it in Chapter 3 of intraductory physics! Ej] Relative Velocity We now consider how observations made in different reference frames are related t each other. For example, consider wo trains approaching. one another, each with a constant speed of 80km/h with respect to the Earth Observers on the Earth beside the tracks will measure 80 km/h for the speed of each train, Observers on either of the trains (a different reference frame) will measure a speed of 160km/b for the other train approaching them. Similarly, when one car traveling 40 km/h passes a second ear traveli the same direction at 7Skm/h, the first ear has a speed relative to the seeand car of 99km/h — 75km/h ~ 1S km/h, When the velocities are along the same line, simple addition or subtrac- tion is sufficient to obtain the relative velocity, But if they are not along the same line, we must use vector addition, We emphasize, as mentioned in Section 2-1, that when specifying a velocity itis important to specify what the reference frame is, ‘When determining relative velocity, it is easy to make a mistake by adding for subtracting the wrong velocities. It is important, therefore, to draw a diagram and use a careful labeling process. Each velocity is labeled by rivo subscripis: she first refers 10 she object, the second to the reference frame in which it has this velocity. For example, suppose a boat is to cross a river to the opposite side, as shown in Fig. 3-28. We let yw be the velocity of the Boat with respect to the Water. (This is also what the boat’s velocity would be rela tive to the shore if the water were still.) Similarly, vy is the velocity of the Boat with respect to the Shore, and Yas is the velocity of the Water with respect to the Shore (¢his is the river current). Note that ¥yy is what the boat's motor produces (against the water), whereas ¥as is equal (0 Yn plus the effect ff the current, vs. Therefore, the velocity of the boat relative to the shore is 62 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectors(soe vector dingram, Fig, 3-28) Sus = Yaw + Fas. B-6) Follow the subscripts By writing the subscripts using this convention, we see that the inner subscripts (the two W's) on the right-hand side of Eq. 3-6 are the same. Whereas the outer subscripts on the right of Eq. 3-6 (the B and the S) are the same as the wo subscripts for the sum vector on the left, ¥-ys- By following this convention (first subseript for the object, second for the reference frame), one can write down the correct equation relating velocities in different reference frames Equation 3-6 is valid in general and can be extended to three or more velocities, For example, if a fisherman on the boat walks with a velocity ¥jy rela~ five 10 the boat, his velocity relative (© the shore i8 fis — Yu + Yaw + Pos ‘The equations involving relative velocity will be correct when adjacent inner subseripts are identical and wien the outermost ones correspond exactly to the ‘ovo on the velocity on the left of the equation, But this works only with plus signs (om the right), not minus signs. It is often useful to remember that for any two objects or reference frames, ‘A and B, the velocity of A relative to B has the same magnitude, but opposite direction, as the velocity of B relative to A: FIGURE 3-28 To move directly Yun = “Yaw 8-7) across the river the boat must head For example, if a train is traveling 100km/h relative to the Earth in a certain upstream at an angle & Velocity direction, objects on the Earth (such as trees) appear to an observer on the _Yesler ae shown as green arvows: train to be traveling 100 km/h in the opposite direction Sng = velocity of Boat with respet CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE E=10] Grossing a river. A man ina. small gears ac with epost ‘motor boat is tying to cross a river thal flows due west with a strong eurrent, Soe The man staris on the south bank and is trying to reach the north bank. scny ot Water with directly north from his starting point. Should he (a) head due north, (4) head ee wes oe due wes, (¢) head in a northwesterly direction, (@) head in a northeasterly pee direction? RESPONSE If the man heads straight across the river, the current will drag the boat downstream (westward). To overcome the river's westward current, the boat must acquire an eastward component of velocity as well as a north ‘ward component. Thus the boat must (d) head in @ northeasterly direction (see Fig. 3-28). The actual angle depends on the strength of the current and how fast the boat moves relative to the water. Ifthe current is weak and the motor ong, then the boat can head almost, but not quite, due north. FEXIUGNSESIN Heading upstream. A boars speed in still water is pIGUREa-28 Example yw ~ 1-85mn/s. If the boat is to travel directly across a river whose current has speed yy ~ 1.20m/s, at what upstream angle must the hoat head? (See Fig. 3-29.) APPROACH We reason as in Example 3-10, nd use subscripts as in Eq. 3-6. Figure 3-29 has been drawn with Wy, the Velocity of the Boat relative to the Shore, pointing directly across the Fiver since this is how the boat is supposed to move. (Note that fs = Saw + Sys.) To accomplish this, the boat needs to head upsteeam to offset the current pulling it downstream. SOLUTION Vector fiw. points upstream at an angle @ as shown. From the diagram, ews _ L20m/s wt ay TRS mis = 6886. ‘Thus @ = 40.4°, so the boat must head upstream at a 40.4° angle. ‘We thus woul know by inspection that (or example) the equation Tq = Tug + Fe 1 Wrone: the inner subscripts are not the same, and the outer ones um the Hight ure Not the Same athe subsripts onthe Tet. *SECTION 3-8 Relative Velocity 63FIGURE 3-30. Example 3.12.4 hoat heading directly across a ive whose eurrent moves at [.201m/s summary Heading across the river. The same boat (ry 1.85 m/s) now heads directly across the river whose current is still 120m/s. (2) What isthe velocity (magnitude and direction) of the boat relative to the shore? (b) Ifthe rivers 110m wide, how long will i take 10 ross and how far downstream will the boat be then? APPROACH The boat now heads directly across the river and is pulled dawn- stream by the current, a8 shown in Fig, 3-30, The boat's velocity with respect ta the shore, Ss. isthe sum ofits velocity with respeet to the wale. gy pls the velocity ofthe water with respect tothe shore, Yn Ses = Sw + Fass just as before, SOLUTION (a) Since Yay is perpendicular (o Yas, We ean get gus Using the theorem of Pythagoras: tus = Vile * Oh = VRS mY > OM/Ry = 2.21 m/s. We can obtain the angle (note how @ is defined in the diagram) from: tan 6 = vy6/tmw = (1.20m/s)/(1.85 m/s) = 0.6486. A calculator with an Iv TAN, an ARC TAN, or a TAN! key gives @ tan™(0.6486) = 33.0". Note that this angle is not equal to the angle caleulated in Example 3-11 (6) The travel time for the boat is determined by the time it takes to eros the river. Given the river's width D = 110m, wwe ean use the velocity component inthe direction of D, tay = D/t. Solving for we get ¢ = 110 m/1.85 m/s = {00s The boat will have been cartied downstream, in this time, a distance 4 rast = (1.20 m/s)(60 8) = 72m, NOTE There is no acceleration in this Example, so the motion involves only constant velocities (of the boat or of the river), ‘A quantity such as velocity, chat has hoth a magnitude and a direction is called a veetor. quantity such as mass, that has ‘only a magnitude, i called 2 sealar. Aadgition of veetors ean be done graphically by placing the tail of each successive artem at the tip of the previews one The sum, oF resultant vector. the arvow drawn from the tail ‘of the frst veetor tothe tip of the last vector. Two vectors can also be added using the parallelogram method. Vectors can be added more accurately by adding their ‘components along chosen axes with the aid of trigonometric functions. A vector of magnitude V making an angle # with the x axis has components Van Veo, Vy = Vina. os Given the components, we ean find a vector's magnitude and rection from a % FH, ne =F a4 Projectile motion is the motion of an abject in an are near the Earth's surlace under the elfect of gravity alone. It cam he analyzed as two separate motions if air resistance ean tbo ignored. The horizontal component of motion is at constant velocity, whereas the vertical component is at constant acceleration, just as for a body falling vertically ‘under the action of gravity [-The velocity of an object relative to one frame of refer~ tence ean be found hy vector addition i its Selocty relative to 4 second frame uf reference. and the relative velocity of the ‘oxo reference frames, are known. | 64 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectorsi Questions 1. One car travels due cast at 40km/h, and a second ear travels north at 40km/h. Ate their velocities equal? Explain 2 Can you give several examples of an abjeets motion in ‘whieh a great distane is traveled but the displacement is A Can the displacement vector for a particle moving in two dimensions ever he longer than the length of path trav led by the particle over Uhe same time interval? Can it ever be less? Discuss, 4. During baseball practice. a batter hits a very high fly ball find then rns ina straight line and catches it. Which had the greater displacement, the batter or the ball? IV =¥, + Vy, is V necessarily greater than ¥ and/or V2 Digests 6, Two vectors have length Vj = 3Skm and V5 = 40km. What are the masimum and minimum magnitudes of their 7. Com two vectors of tnequal magnitude add up to give the zero vector? Can three unequal vectors? Under what conditions? 8. Cam the magnitude of a vector ever (a) be equal to one of| its components or (b) be less than one of its components? Can a particle with constant speed be accelerating? What iit has constant velocity? 10, A child wishes to determine the speed a slingshot imparts to-a rock. How can this be done Using only a meter stick, sock, and the slingshot? 11 was reported in World War F that a pilot ying at an tude of 2 km caught in his bare hands a bullet fired at the plane! Using the fact that a bullet slows down consi erably due (© ait resistance, explain how this incident ‘occurzed 12. AL some amusement parks, to get on a moving “car” the des fast hop onto @ moving walkway and then ante the cars themselves Why is this done? 9. [Problems 1. 4 1s, 16. 1 1. If you are ring om a train that speeds post another train moving in the same direction onan adjagent track, it appears thatthe ather train is moving backward. Why’) If you stand motionless under an umbrella in « rainstorm ‘where the draps fall vertically you remain relatively dey However, if you start running, the rain begins to hit your Jegs even if they remain under the umbrella, Why’? |A person sittin constant velocity ross ball straight up into the her reference frame. (a) Where does the ball land? What is your anvwer if the car (b) accelerates, (e) decelerates, (d) rounds a curve, (e) moves with constant velocity but is fopen to the ait? Ia rowers who ean row a the same speed! sn shill water set olf ass a river at the same time. One heads straight across and is pulled downsiream somewhat by the current The ather one heads upstream at an angle so a8 to artive at a point opposite the starting point. Which rower roaches the opposite side firs? Hlow do you think a baseball player judges” the fight of fly ball? Which equation in this Chapter becomes part ‘of the player's intuition? . In archers: should the arrow be aimed directly at che target? How should your angle of aim depend on the distance tothe target? |A projectile is launched at an angle of 30° to the hori onal with a speed of 30m/s, How does the horizontal component ofits yolocty Is after launch compare with its horizontal component of velocity 208 after launch? . To cannonball A and B, are fired from the ground with dential inkial speeds but with @ larger than ty (4) Which canada seales a highce clovatnas? (2) Which stays longer in the ais? (c) Which travels farther? 3-2103-4 Vector Addition (1) A car is driven 21Skm west and then 8Skm southavest. What is the displacement of the car from the point of origin (magnitude and direction)? Draw a diagram, 2 (DA delivery truck travels 18 blocks north, 10 blocks feast, and 16 blocks south, What isis final displacement from the origin? Assume the hlocks are equal length 8. (D Show thatthe vector labeled “incorrect” in Fig, 3-6 is actually the difference of the t¥o vectors Is it Vs — Vj or Vi — HP 4. (DIF Vy = 680 units and. ¥, = ~740 units, determine the magnitude and direction of V 5. (ID) Graphically determine the rotultant of the following hiee vector displacements: (1) 34m, 25° north of east (©) 48m, 33° east of north: and (3) 22m, 56" west of south (11) The components of « ywotar V ean be written {Yj V2). What are the components and length ofa vector Which’ the sim of the two vectors Vy and Vs, whose components are (80, ~37,01) and (39, “81, 44)? (1) Visa vector 14.3 units n magnitude and pnts a an langle of S48" hove the negative avis (a) Sketch this vector. (b) Find V, and ¥,. (6) Use Vz and Vy to obtain {again} the magnitude and direction of V, [Note Bast (c) i8-8 good way to cheek if you've resolved your vector correct | (Ul) Veewor ¥) is 6.6 units long and points along the negs live x avis. Vector Vz is 8Sunits long and points at +45" othe pouliye y soe (6) Wat ase the x med y compre nents of each vector? (4) Detexmine the sum V+ ¥ (magnitude and angle) Problems 659. (ID) An airplane is traveling 738 km/h in a direction 41.5 \West of narth (Fi. 3~31).(a) Find the components of the velocity vector in the northerly and westerly disgetions (b) How far noth and how far west has the plane trav led attor 3004? Was (738 katy FIGURE 2 31 ' Problem 9 10, (II) Thzee vectors are shown in Fig. 3-22. Their ‘magnitudes are given in arbitrary units. Determine the sum of the three vectors. Give the resultant in terms of (@) components (6) magnitude and angle with the axis FIGURE 3-32 Problems Il 11,12, 13,and M4. ‘Vector magnitudes are given in arbitrary units 11, (i) Determine ihe vector A ~ €. given the vectors A and Cin Fiz. 3-22. 12, (II (a) Given the vectors A and B shown in Fig. 3-22 determine B— A. (F) Determine A ~ B without using your answer in (a), Then compare your roslts and ses if they are opposite 18. (I) For the vectors. given in Fis 3-32, determine @A-W+E()A+H- Cand C-A-B M4. (I For the vectors shown in Fig (a) Hh 2A, () 2A ~ Sih + 26. 15, (1D) The summit of a mountain, 2450 above base camp, ‘is measured on a map to he 488m horizontally from the ‘samp in direction 32.1 components of the displacement veetor from camp 0 summit? What is its magnitude? Choose the x axis east, y ais north, and 2 axis up. dotermine wet of north. What are the 16. (ID) You are given a vector in the xy plane that has 2 ‘magnitude of 70D unite and a component of —$5.0 units What are the two possibilities fo its « component? 3-5 and 3-6 Projectile Motion ineglect air resistance) 17. (DA ter leaps horizontally from a 6 5-a-high rock with ‘a speed of 3.5 m/s, How far om the base of the rock will she land? 18, () A diver cunning L8 m/s dives out horizontally from the edge of a vertical liff and 3.0s later reaches the water helo. How high wos the elif and hay far fram is base did the diver hit the water? 19. (ID) A fire hose held near the ground shoots water at a speed of 68m/s. At what angle(s) should the nozzle point in order thatthe water land 20m away (Fig, 3-33)? Why are there (wo different angles? Sketch the two trajectories ‘ 20m —+ FIGURE 3-33. Problem 19. 20, (1) Romeo is chucking pebbles gently up co Iie’ swindoss and he wants the pebbles to hit the Windows with ‘only 2 horizontal component of velocity: He is standing at aden 451m below her window and 5.0m from the hase of the wall (Fig. 3-34). How fast are the pebbles going when they hit her window? 43m 4 21, (1A ball is thrown horizontally fom the roof af a building 45.0 m tall and lands 24.0% from the base. What ‘vas the bal’ intial speed? 2 (II) A football is kicked at ground level with a speed of 180)m/s at an angle of 35.0" tothe horizontal. How much 23, (I) A ball thrown horizontally at 22.2 m/s from the root ‘of 9 building lands 6.0m from the hase of the building, How tals the building? FIGURE 3-34 + 50m Problem 20. 66 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectors24, (ID) An athlete executing « long jump leaves the ground ft 9 2X0" angle and travels 780m, (a) What sas the lakeolf speed? (b) IF this speed were increased by just 5.0%, how much longer would the jump be? 25, (ID) Determine how much farther a person ean jump on | the Moon as compared to the Earth ifthe takeoff speed tnd angle are the same. The acceleration due to gravity fan the Moon is one-sixth what it ison Earth 26, (II) A hunter aims directly at a target (on the same level) 75.0m1 aay. (a) If Ue bullet leaves the gun ata speed of 180m/s hy how much will it miss the target? (b) At what angle should the gun be aimed so as to hit the target? 27. (I) The pilot ofan airplane traveling 180 km/h wants to drop supplies to flood vitims isolated on a patch of land 160m below. The supplies should he dropped how many seconds before the plane is directly overhead”? 25 UP) Show that the speed with which a projectile leaves the grennd is equal to is speed just before it strikes the ground atthe end of its journey. assuming the firing level equals tho landing level 28, (AD Suppose the kiek in Example 3-5 is attempted 360m from the goalposts, whose crossbar is 3.0Dm above the ground, I the foothal is directed correctly between the goalposts, will it pass over the har and be a field goal? Show why or why not 0 (ID) A projectile is fied ith an initial speed of 652m/s aL an angle of 343° above the horizontal on a long fat firing range. Determine (a) the maximum height reached by the projectile (4) the total time inthe air, (e) the total horizontal distance covered (that is, the range). and (i) the velocity ofthe projectile 1.50 ater fring AL (ID) A projectile is shot from the edge of a cliff 125m above ground level with an initial speed of 65.0m/s at an tangle of 370° with the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 3-35. (a) Determine the time taken by the projectile to hit point Pat ground level. (b) Determine the range ¥ of the projec- {ie mensurelfFom the have of the cliff. tthe fnstant jst before the projestile hits point Pefind (e) the horontal and the vertical components of its velocity. (d) the magni tude of the velocity, and (¢) the angle made by the velocity vector with the horizontal. (f) Find the maximom height above the cliff top reached by the projectile FIGURE 3-35 Problem 32, (11) A shoiputier throws the shot with an iniial speed of I5Sm/s ata 340 angle to the horizontal Calculate the horizontal distance traveled by the shot if it leaves the athlete’ hand at a height of 220 m above the ground. 35, (11) At what projection angle will the range of a projectile equal is maximum height |S, (IF) Revisit Conceptual Example 3-7, and assume that the hoy with the slingshot & briow the boy in the tee (Fig. 3-36), and 9 aims upward, directly at the boy in the tree, Show that again che boy in the tree makes the wrong move by letting goat the momes the water ballon i shot FIGURE 3-36 Problem 34 35, (UID) A rescue plane wants to drop supplies to isolated ‘mountain climbers on a rocky’ ridge 238m below. I the plane is traveling horizontally with a speed of 250km/h (6940/3), (a) how far in advance ofthe recipients (hor zontal distance) must the goods be dropped (Fig. 3-37a)? {(®) Suppose. instead, thatthe plane releases the supplies 3 horizontal distance of 425 m in advance of the movitain cimbers, What vertical velocity (up or down) should the supplies bo given so that they arrive precisely at the limbers! postion (Fig. 3-37)? (c) With what speed do the supplies tand inthe later case? = “Dropped @o= i I__4y =< 285 m @ Thrown ups? Sto Pirown donut) >, (o<0) hy FIGURE 3-37 o Problem 35, Problems 679 8-8 Relative Velocity = 36, (I) A persom going for a morning jog on the deck of a cruise ship is running toward the bow ({hont) of te ship at2.2m/s while the ship is moving ahead at 7.5m,/< What is the Velocity of the jogger relative to the water? Later, the jogger is moving toward the stern (rear) of the ship. ‘What isthe joggers velocity relative 10 the water now? (11) Huck Finn walks at a speed of 0.60 m/s eros his raft ‘hat is,he walks perpendicular to the raft’s motion rela- tive to the shore). The rat is traveling down the Missi sippi River at a speed of 1.70m/s relative to the river Dank (Fig. 3-38), What is Huek's velocity (speed and direction) relative to the river bank? FIGURE 3-38 Problem 37 38 (I) You are driving south on a highway at 25m/s {approximately 5Smi/h) in snowstorm. When you last Stopped, you noticed that the snow was coming. down vertically, but itis passing the windows of the moving car aan angle of 3" wo the horizontal Estimate the speed of the snowflakes relative t0 the ear and relative to the rim (11) A boat can travel 230m/s in still water. (@) If the oat poings its prow directly across a stream whose current is 1.201m/s, what is the Velocity (magnitude and direction) of the boat relative to the shore? (b) What vl be the position of the boat, relative 10 ils point of origin, after 3.0115? (See Fig. 3-30) 40. (11) Two planes approach exch othor head-on. Bach has a speed of 785 km/h, and they spot cach other when they are initally 11.0km apart. How much time do the pilots hhave to take evasive action? +3, +41. (I) An airplane is heading duo south at a speed of (6l0km/h. Ifa wind begins blowing from the southwest at a speed of 100 km/h (average), caleuate: (a) the velocity (magnitude and direction) of the plane relative to the ground, and (5) how far from its intended position will it be after Wimin if the pilot takes no corrective action (din: Fest dra a dagen. *42, (1) In what direotion shoud the pilot aim tho plane in Problem 41 so that iwi fly due south +43. (IT) Determine the speed of the boat with respect to the shove in Example 3-11 #44. (UI) A passenger on a boat moving at 150m/s on a still Jake walks up a flight of stars at a speed of 050 m/s (Fig, 3-39). The stars are angled at 45° pointing in the direction of motion as shovsn, What i the velocity of the passenger relative to the water? FIGURE 2-39 Problem 44 £45. (1) A motorboat whose speed in still water is 2.60.m/s ‘must aim upstream at an angle of 285° (with respect to a line perpendicular to tho shore) in ordor to travel directly ‘across the stream. (a) What is the speed of the eurcent? {(b) What is the resultant speed of the baat with espect to the shore? (See Fig.3-28) 46, (II) A oat, whose speed in sill water fs 1.70m/s, must ross 9 26fh-m-wide river and arrive at a point 110m ‘upstream from where it starts (Fig. 3-40), To do $0, the pilot must head the boat at 45° upstream angle, What is the speed of the river's current? FIGURE 3-40 Problem 46, #49. (I) A simmer is capable of swimming 0.45 m/s in sil water. (a) If sho aims her body directly across a 75-m. ‘wide river whose current is m/s how far downstream {com a point opposite her starting point) wil she land? (8) How long will it take her to reach the other side” "48. (I) (a) At what upstream angle must the simmer in Problom 47 sim, if she is to arrive al a point directly across the stream? (b) How long would it take her? 68 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectorsa. I) An aigplane whose air spscd is 620km/h is supposed to fly in a straight path 35.0 north of east. But a steady 95 km/h wind is blowing from the north. Iu what dire: tion should the plane head? #30, (ill) An unmarked police eas traveting a constant 9Sk/, is passed by a speeder Waveling 145 kn/h.Preciely 1.005 aller the speeder passes. the policeman stepson the accel rato. Ifthe police core accelerate i 2 OD 0/2. hove ruch time elapss after the police ear is passed until it overtakes the speeder (assumed moving’ at constant spec? (IUD) Assume in Problem 50 that the spoeder’s speed is rot known. Ifthe police ear accelerates uniformly as given above, and avertakes the speeder after 700s, what was the speeder’ speed”? | General Problems +52, (IID) Two ears approach a street corner at right angles 10 teach other (Fig. 3-41), Car | travels ata speed relative to Earth je = SSkmjh, and car 2 at mp = SSkm/h. What is the relative velocity of ear 1 as seen by car 2? What is tho velocity of car 2 relative to car 1? se *, FIGURE 3-41 Problem 52, 53. William Tell most split dhe apple atop his son's head trom a distance of 27m, When William aims direedy at the pple, the arrow fs horizontal. At what angle must he aim ito hit the apple if the arrow tavels ata speed of 35 m/s? 54, A plumber steps out of his «ruck, walks Sim east and 25m south, and then takes an elevator Wm davwa into the Subbasement of a building where a bad leak is occurring What is the displacement of the plumber relative to his trick? Give your answer in campeinents and also give the ‘magnitude and angles with the x axis in the vertical and horirantal planes. Assume sis east ismeth, on = fs wp, 55. On mountainous downhill roads, escape rautes ace some: tims placed to the side of the road for trucks whose brakes might fail. suming © constant upward slope of 32’, caleulate the horizontal and vertical components ‘of the acceleration of a tuck uhat slowed from 120 n/a to rest in 610s Seo Fig. 3-42. FIGURE 3-42 Problem 55, 56, What is the ¥ component of a vector (in the xy plane) whose magnitude is 885 and whose x component i 75:82 What is the direction of this vector (angle it makes with the x axis)? 57, Raindrops make an angle @ withthe vertical when viewed ‘rough a moving train window (Fig. 3-43). Ifthe speed ‘of the train is oy, what is the speed ofthe raindrops i the roference frame of the Bacth in which they are assumed vo fall vertically? FIGURE 3-43 Problem 57, 58 A light plane is headed due south with a speed of 18S km/h relative to still sir. After LOOhoue, the pilot rotices that they have covered only 125km and their direction is not south but southeast (450°). What is the wind velocity? 59. A car moving at 95 km/h passes a 1,004kmong erin traveling in the samo direction on a track that is parallel to the road. Ifthe speed of the tain is 7S km/h, how long does it take the caro pass the tra, and how far will he ‘ar have traveled in this time? What ane the rosults if the ‘ar and train are insted (caveling in opposite directions? General Problems 6960. An Olympic long jumper is capable of jumping 80m. ‘Assuming his horizontal speed! is 9.1 m/s ashe leaves the round, how long is he in the air and how high does he go? Assume that he lands standing upright—that is, the Samo way he left the ground {, Apollo astronauts took a “nine iron” to the Moon and hit 4 golf ball about 180m? Assuming that the swing, launch langle, and $0 on, were the same as on Barth where the ‘same astronaut could hit it only 35m, estimate the accel eration due € gravity on the surface of the Moon. (Nopleet sir rosistanes in both cases, but an the Moon there fs none!) 2, When Babe Ruth hit a homer over the 7.5-m-high right- field fence 95m from home plate, roughly what was the ‘minima speed of the hall when it left the bat? Assume the ball was hit 1.0m above the ground and its path inital mode a 38° angle withthe ground. (3. The elif divers of Acapuleo push off horizontally trom rock plntforms about 35m above the water, but they must clear rocky outcrops at water level that extend out into the ‘water $01 from the base of the cliff directly under their Taunch point. See Fig, 3-44. What minimum pushoff speed is nevessary to clear the rooks? How long, are they ia the air! FIGURE 3-44 Problem 63 (4. At serve, a tennis player aims to hit the ball horizontally. ‘What minimum speed is required forthe ball to clear the (0.90-m-high net about 150m from the server ifthe bal is mnched” from a height of 250m? Where will the ball land i it just clears the net (and will it he “good” in the sense that it lands within 7.) m of the net)? How long will i bein the air? See Fig. 3-48, FIGURE 3-45 Problem 64 165. Spymaster Paul, flying a constant 215 km/h horizontally in a low-flying helicopter, wants to drop sezzet documents into his contaets open ea which i traveling 155 km/h en ‘aleve! highway 780m below: AC what angle (0 the hori ‘zontal should the car be in his sights when the packet is released (Fig, 3-46)? kyu FIGURE 3-46 Problem 65, (6, ‘The speed of a boat instil water is 2. The boat isto make 4 round Wp in a river whose current uavels at speed 1 Derive a formula forthe time needed to make a round tip fof total distance D if the boat makes the ronnd wip by ‘moving (a) upstream and back downstream, (b) diets ‘across the siver and back, We must assume wv: wis? Ir 198m Al FIGURE 3-47. Probem 67. (67. A projectile fs launched from ground level the top of a lift whichis 198m away and 155m high (See Fig. 3-47) IF the projectile lands on top of the cliff 76s after it is fired, find the inital velocity of the projectile (magnitude and direction), Neglect sir resistance * 130m 1m 70 CHAPTER 3. Kinematics in Two Dimensions; Vectors(6% (@) A skier is accelerating down a 30° hill a 1.80/52 (ig. 3-48) What isthe vertical component of her accel eration? (6) How long wlll take her to each the boom Othe bl assuming she starts fom fest and aeelerates “uniformly. if the clevaton change is 338m? FIGURE 3-48 Problem 68 (62. A basketball leaves a player's hands at a height of 210m hove the floor The basket is 264m above the floor The player likes to shoot the ball at 238.0" angle. If the shot is ‘made from a horizontal distance of 11.00 and must be accurate to 40122 (horizontally), what is the range of inital speeds allowed to make the basket? “70. A high diver leaves the end of a 50.n-high diving board ‘nd strikes the water 3s later, 3.0m hoyond the end of the board. Considering the diver as a particle, determine (@) her inal velocity. (0) dhe manimum height reached, fin (e) the velocity with which she enters the water. “7 A stunt driver wants to make his car jump ever eight ears parked side by side below a horizonial ramp (Fig. 3-49). (@) With what minimum speed must he drive off the hori zontal ramp? The vertical height of the ramp is 1.Sm above the cars and the horizontal distance he must clear is 20m. (6) If the ramp is now sited upward, so that “takeoff angle” is I above the horizontal, what is the ‘new minioium spect”? 20m FIGURE 3-49 Problem 71 "72. A batter hits a fly hall which Leaves the bat 0.9m above the grotnd at an angle of 6I° with an initial speed of 28imy/s heading toward centerfield. Ignore air resistance. {@) How far from hime plate would the bal land if not caught? (b) The hall eanght by the centerfieder who, Sarling at a distance of 105m from home plate, runs straight toward home plate ata consiant speed and makes the eateh at ground level. Find his sped. 73, AL ¢=0 a baer hits a baseball with an inivial speed of 32m/s ata $5° angle to the horizontal. An outfielder Is SS from the batter at ¢= 0, and, as seen from home plate, the line of sight co the ouffelder makes a horizontal angle of 22° with the plane in which the ball moves (see Fig 3-80), Whot speed and direction must the fielder take imerder to catch the hall atthe same height from which it was stuck? Give angle with respect to the outfielders line of sight to home plate. FIGURE 3-50 Problem 73, 74. A bull is shot from the top of a building with an intial velocity of 18m/s at an angle # = 42° above the heri- zontal. (a) What are the-« and y components ofthe initial velocity? (b) Ifa neazby building isthe same height aad ‘SS away: how far below the top of the building will the ‘all stike the nearby building? 75. You buy a plastic dart gun, and being a clever physics student you deeide to do a quick caleulation co find its ‘maximum horizontal range. You shoot the gun straight up, land i takes 40s for the dart to land hack at the bars What isthe maximum horizontal range of your gun? Answers to Exercises ‘Az When the two vectors Dj and Dy point inthe same Br 3V3 = 424, Cz They hit at the same time. Dz Both balls reach the same height: therefore they are in E (b). General Problems 71