ALGEBRA

Block Diagram of the Number System

COMPLEX

REAL IMAGINARY

IRRATIONAL RATIONAL

NON-INTEGER INTEGER

NEGATIVE ZERO POSITIVE

Definitions:

Complex numbers – numbers which take the form x + yi where x and y are real numbers.
x- is the real part
y- is the imaginary part
i- is the imaginary unit which is equal to 1
Examples: 2 + 3i, 3 – 4i, -2 + 5i

Rational number – a number which can be expressed as the ratio of two integers such as
¾, ⅝, –3, 0.25.

Irrational number - a number which can not be expressed as the ratio of two integers such
3
as 3, 4 , π, e.

Integer – any whole number which can be either negative, zero or positive such as –3, 0, 7.

Natural numbers- are positive whole numbers including zero such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .

Properties of Real Numbers

1. Commutative property : Changing the order of terms/factors in addition/multiplication

will not change the sum/product, i.e.
a+b=b+a for addition & ab = ba for multiplication

2. Associative property: Changing the grouping of terms/factors to be added/multiplied will

not change the sum/product, i.e.
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c for addition
a(bc) = (ab)c for multiplication
3. Distributive property: a(b + c) = ab + ac
4. Reflexive property: Any number is equal to itself, i.e. a = a.
5. Symmetric property: If a = b, then b = a.
6. Transitive property: If a = b and b = c, then a = c.

Factors and Special Products

1. Difference of two squares: a 2  b 2  (a  b)(a  b)

2. Sum of two cubes: a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )
3. Difference of two cubes: a 3  b 3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )
 4. Square of a binomial: (a  b) 2  a 2  2ab  b 2
5. Cube of a binomial: (a  b) 3  a 3  3a 2 b  3ab 2  b 3

Laws of Exponents: Laws of Radicals

1. a m a n  a m n 1. a1 / n  n a
am
2. n
 a mn 2. a m / n  n a m  (n a ) m
a
3. (a m ) n  a mn 3. (n a ) n  n a n  a
4. (ab) n  a n b n 4.
n
a n b  n ab
n n
a an a a
5.    n 5. n
b b n
b b
6.
m n
a  mn a
3 4
A surd is a radical expressing an irrational number such as 3 ( a quadratic surd), 5 (a cubic surd), 2 (a
quartic surd), etc.

The Quadratic Equation:

The general form of a quadratic equation is ax  bx  c  0 where a, b & c are real constants. The roots of
2

this equation are expressed by the quadratic formula shown below.

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
where the discriminant, b  4ac determines the nature of the roots.
2

If b  4ac > 0, the roots are real and unequal;

2

If b  4ac = 0, the roots are real and equal;

2

If b  4ac < 0, the roots are imaginary.

2

Properties of the roots:

b c
Sum of the roots =  Product of the roots =
a a
Logarithms

Definition: The logarithm of a given number is the exponent to which the base must be
raised in order to yield the number. Thus, if bx  N , then x  log b N .
Types of Logarithms:

1. Common (or Briggsian) logarithm – logarithm having 10 as base..

2. Natural (or Naperian) logarithm having the number e as base.

Properties of Logarithms:

1. log b xy  log b x  log b y 4. log b a 

log c a
log c b
x 1
2. log b  log b x  log b y 5. log b a 
y log a b

3. log b x n  n log b x 6. b logb x  x

Progressions

I. Arithmetic Progression: - a sequence of numbers called terms, each of which, after the
first, is obtained from the preceding term by adding to it a fixed number called the common
difference (d). The sequence a1, a2, a3, . . . . .,an is an arithmetic progression if a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = . .
. . . . = an – an-1 = d.
Example: 17, 14, 11, 9, . . . . with d = –3

nth term of an Arithmetic Progression:

an = a1 + (n – 1)d where an – the nth term

a1 – the first term
d – the common difference
Sum of first n terms:

Sn 
n
a1  an  or S n  n 2a1  n  1d  where Sn – the sum of the first n terms
2 2
Arithmetic Mean: - the term between any two given terms of an arithmetic progression.
Between two numbers a and b, the arithmetic mean (AM) is
ab
AM =
2
II. Geometric Progression: - a sequence of numbers called terms, each of which, after the
first, is obtained by multiplying the preceding term by a fixed number called the common ratio (r).
The sequence a1, a2, a3, . . . . .,an is a geometric progression if
a 2 a3 a
  ......  n  r
a1 a 2 a n 1
Example: 27, 9, 3, 1, 1/3, . . . . . with common ratio, r = 1/3

nth term of a Geometric Progression:

an  a1r n1

Sum of first n terms:

r n 1 1 rn
S n  a1 or S n  a1
r 1 1 r
Sum of an infinite Geometric Progression:
a1
S  where r <1 or its equivalent –1 < r < 1
1 r
Geometric mean: - the term between any two given terms of a geometric progression.
Between two numbers a and b, the geometric mean (GM) is

GM = ab

III. Harmonic Progression: - a sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an arithmetic

progression. Example: 1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, . . . . .

The Binomial Theorem

If n is a positive integer,
n n1 n(n  1) n2 2 n(n  1)(n  2) n3 3
( a  b) n  a n  a b a b  a b  .....  b n
1! 2! 3!

The numerical coefficients in the binomial expansion of (a  b) can also be obtained using a triangular array
n

known as Pascal’s triangle.

( a  b) 0 1
( a  b) 1 1 1
(a  b) 2
1 2 1
(a  b) 3
1 3 3 1
(a  b) 4
1 4 6 4 1
(a  b) 5
1 5 10 10 5 1
(a  b) 6
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(a  b) 7
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
. . . . . . . . . .
Properties of the binomial expansion (a  b) :
n

1. There are (n+1) terms in the expansion.

2. The exponent of a decreases by 1 in each succeeding term; b appears in the 2 nd term and its
exponent increases by 1 in each succeeding term.
3. The sum of the exponents of a and b in any term is always equal to n.

In general,

n(n  1)(n  2)    up to r factors nr r

Term involving b = (r  1)th term =
r
a b = n Cr a nr b r
r!
or

n(n  1)(n  2)    (n  r  2) nr 1 r 1

rth term  a b  n C r 1a nr 1b r 1
(r  1)!

Remainder Theorem:

If a polynomial f(x) is divided by a binomial of the form x – r, then the remainder R = f(r).
Example: Find the remainder if 3x3 – x2 – 3x + 1 is divided by x – 2.
Solution: Let f(x) = 3x3 – x2 – 3x + 1
x – r = x – 2, hence x = 2
3 2
R = f(2) = 3(2) – (2) – 3(2) + 1 = 15

Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) and Highest Common Factor (HCF):

A number is prime if it is greater than 1 and has no other factor except itself and 1. Examples of prime
numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, etc.

The lowest common multiple (LCM) of several numbers is the smallest number of which each of the given
numbers is a factor. It is obtained by taking the product of all the different prime factors raised to the highest
power to which it occurs in any of those numbers.
Example: Find the lowest common multiple of 60 and 72.
Solution: Expressing each of the given numbers as the product of prime factors, we have
60 = 22∙3∙5 72 = 23∙32
3 2
LCM = 2 ∙3 ∙5 = 360

The highest common factor (HCF) of several numbers is the largest number which is a factor of the given
numbers. It is obtained by taking the product of all the different prime factors that are common to the given
numbers, each taken to the lowest power to which it occurs in any of these numbers.
Example: Find the highest common factor of 60 and 72.
Solution: Expressing each of the given numbers as the product of prime factors, we have
60 = 22∙3∙5 72 = 23∙32
2
HCF = 2 ∙3 = 12

Ratio and Proportion

The ratio of a number a to another number b is the fraction a/b usually written as a:b where a is called the
antecedent and b is called the consequent.

A proportion is a statement that two ratios are equal, e.g. a:b = c:d. Here, a and d are called extremes
while b and c are called the means, d is called the fourth proportional to a, b and c. If the means are equal,
e.g. a:x = x:b, then x is called the mean proportional to a and b while b is called the third proportional to a
and x. The mean proportional between a and b is also equal to their geometric mean, i.e. x  ab .
Example: Find the fourth proportional to 3, 5, and 21.
Solution: Let x be the fourth proportional.
3 21 21(5)
3 : 5  21 : x    x  35
5 x 3
Equations

An equation is a statement that two quantities are equal. It has two members, the left member and the right
member. Numbers which, when substituted for the variables (or the unknowns), make the two members of
the equation equal are said to satisfy or be a solution (or root) of the equation.

A conditional equation is an equation which is satisfied by some, but not all, of the values of the variables for
which the members of the equation are defined.

An identical equation (or identity) is an equation which is satisfied by all the values of the variables for
which the members of the equation are defined.

A system of equations having a unique solution is said to be consistent; a system of equations having no
solution is inconsistent; a system of equations having infinitely many solutions is said to be dependent.

Word Problems:

Suggestions for attacking word problems:

1. Read and reread the problem until it is clear what is stated, getting well in mind the given data and the
unknowns.
2. Express each unknown in terms of a literal symbol.
3. Find the quantities, involving the given data and the unknowns, which are equal. Then form an
equation or a system of equations.
4. Solve the equation (or system of equations) and check the result.
Example: If you own a store, at what price will you mark a camera for sale that cost Php 6000
in order that you may offer 20% discount on the marked price and still make a profit of 25% on the
selling price?
a. Php 10,000 b. Php 12,000 c. Php 15,000 d. Php 8,000
Solution:
Let x – marked price
x  0.20x  0.80x - selling price
x  0.20 x  6000  0.25(0.80 x)
0.80 x  6000  0.20 x
0.60 x  6000
x  Php 10,000

Variation

Direct variation: If a variable y is equal to a constant times another variable x, then y is said
to vary directly as x, i.e.
y  kx
where k is called the constant of proportionality, or the constant of variation.

The expressions
y varies directly as x
y varies as x
y is directly proportional to x
y is proportional to x
are all used with the same meaning.

Inverse variation: If a variable y is always equal to a constant times the reciprocal of another
variable x, then y is said to vary inversely as x, or y is inversely proportional to x. This relation is
expressed by the equation
k
y
x
Joint variation: If a variable z is equal to a constant times the product of variables x and y,
then z is said to vary jointly as x and y. This relation is expressed by the equation
z  kxy
Example: The time required for an elevator to lift a weight varies directly with the weight and
the distance through which it is to be lifted and inversely as the power of the motor. If it takes 30
seconds for a 10 HP motor to lift 100 lbs through 50 ft., what size of motor is required to lift 800 lbs in
40 seconds through 40 ft.?
Solution:
Let t – time in seconds
W – weight in lbs
d – distance in ft.
P – the power of the motor in HP

Wd Wd
t  tk  30  k
(100)50
 k
3
P P 10 50

Wd 3 (800)40
Pk    48 HP
t 50 40