chopor DISTILLATION Distillation is an unit operation in which constituents of liquid mixture (solution) are separated using thermal energy. Basically, the difference in vapour pressure of different constituents at the same temperature is responsible for such separation. This unit operation js also termed as fractional distillation or fractionation. With this technique it is possible to separate liquid mixture into its components in almost pure form and this fact has made distillation perhaps the most important of all mass transfer operations. In distillation, the phases involved are liquid and vapour or gas (vapour phase is created by supplying heat to liquid) and mass is transferred from both the phases to one another, by vaporisation from liquid phase and by condensation from vapour phase. The basic requirement for separation of components by distillation is that the composition of vapour be different from the composition of the liquid with which it is in equilibrium. The vapour is always richer in the more volatile component than the liquid from which it is formed. If the vapour composition is same as the liquid composition, distillation technique will not effect a separation. Distillation is commonly encountered in chemical and petroleum industries as a means of separating the liquid mixture into its component parts. Separation of ethanol and water mixture, production of absolute alcohol from 95% ethyl alcohol using benzene, separation of petroleum crude into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil ete. are the typical examples of distillation. Evaporation is concerned with separation of solution containing non-volatile solute and volatile solvent whereas distillation is concerned with separation of solutions where all the components are appreciably volatile. Thus, the separation of a brine into salt and water is a evaporation whereas the separation of a mixture of alcohol and water into its components is a distillation. Boiling Point : For any given pressure, a pure liquid when heated will boil or vaporise at a certain single temperature known as boiling point of the liquid. Boiling point of a liquid increases with inerease in pressure and vice versa. Boiling points at a given pressure vary greatly for different liquids. For example, boiling point of water is 373 K (100° C), that of toluene is 383.6 K (110.6° C) and that of methanol is 337.7 K (64.79) at one atmosphere (101.325 kPa). In the binary mixture (two component system), the component with lower boiling point or component with higher vapour pressure at a given temperature, is termed as more volatile or lighter and the component with higher boiling point or with lower vapour pressure at a given temperature is termed as less volatile or heavier. Thus in case of binary mixture of methanol and water, methanol is more volatile component and water is less volatile component. The whole mixture of methanol and water will boil somewhere between 337.7 K (64.7° C) and 378 K (100°C) at atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa). (1.1)Mass Transfer ~ Il 1.5 Distillation Majority of distillation operations are carried out at constant total pressure. For distillation calculations, the equilibrium vapour-liquid composition can also be plotted as shown in Fig. 1.2 wherein vapour phase composition (y) is plotted as ordinate and liquid phase composition (x) is plotted as abscissa. Such a diagram is called as an equilibrium diagram or distribution diagram. As the vapour is richer in more volatile component than the liquid, the equilibrium curve lies above the 45° diagonal line which is drawn for comparison. 10 ‘Temperature —__» 0,0 xy —> 1.0 0.0 x 1.0 J Fig. 1.8: Effect of increased pressure : vapour-liquid equilibrium ~ Raoult's law: It is commonly used for predicting vapour-liquid equilibrium for an ideal solution in equilibrium with an ideal gas mixture from vapour-pressure data. It states that equilibrium partial pressure of a constituent at a given temperature is equal to the product of its vapour pressure in a pure state and its mole fraction in the liquid phase. ‘Thus, for a binary (two component) system, if pa is the equilibrium partial pressure of A, p® is the vapour pressure of A in pure state and xq is the mole fraction of A in the liquid phase, then, PA = PA Xa ala) and Pp = PS Xp (EQ) = pp (1-xq), as xa +xp=1 where Pp = equilibrium partial pressure of B Xp = mole fraction of B in liquid phase a pe = vapour pressure of pure B. ~Dalton's law : It states that the total pressure exerted by a gas/vapour mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the components present in it. Thus, it expresses the additive nature of partial pressures. Mathematically, for a binary system : P = patps (18) where P is the total pressure.Mass Transfer — II 1.6 Distillation For ideal gas or vapour, the partial pressure is related to the mole fraction of the component in the gas or vapour phase by the relation ; Partial pressure = Mole fraction x Total pressure Thus, for component A, Pa = ya'P + (4) where ya is the mole fraction of A in the vapour phase. Knowing the vapour pressures of components A (more volatile) and B at various values of temperatures, x - y data can be generated for an ideal solution as follows : Pa = Py *Xa + (1.5) Pp = Py‘ (1—xa) «+ (1.6) Pa = Ya’ P oe (L7) Pp = Ya'P w+ (8) From Equations (1.5) and (1.7), we get Po°Xs = Yas P + (1.9) Pe ya = Bom -+- (1.10 a) o Similarly, ye = ee “xp w+ (1.10 b) But Yo+Yp = land xp= 1-x, YatYe = 1 oe (1.11) Putting values of y, and yg from Equations (1.10) and (1.11), and of xp in terms of xa, in Equation (1.11), we get, ° ° P, ? me (l-x) = 1 spafl «+ (L.15) PAT PB _/ Knowing xa, corresponding equilibrium value of the vapour phase concentration (yq) As obtained with the help of Equation (1.10 a). Relative volatility : Volatility of A : It is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of A to the mole fraction of A in the liquid phase. ‘ = Pa Volatility of A = XA ++ (1.16) Similarly, Volatility of B = Pa w- (1.17)Mass Transfer ~ Il A. Distillation, Relative volatility is the ratio of the volatility of A (more volatile component) to that of B. It is also known as volatility of A with respect to B and is denoted by a symbol cap. _ PaXs Gan = xepe - (1.18) but Pya = Pa and Pyg=Pp _ YaXs Gan = xe + (1.19) _ Ya/Yp Gan = tap .-- (1.20) ‘Thus, relative volatility is the ratio of concentration ratio of A to B in the vapour phase to that in the liquid phase. Yas cap = VASB ee We have, yp = 1-¥a se L201) Xp = 1-x, ++. (1.22) _ Ya(l- xa) ic Op = howe % .- (1.28) Gap (1—ya)Xq = ya (1—¥,) Gap Xa~ Cap YaXa = Ya—YaXa Gap XA = YatYaXa (Gap - 1) GapXa = yall +(Gap—D xal eyes TAB ZA Ya = T+(ap-D¥a + (24) Dropping subseript, we get : ox 3 y= ves (1.25) _ g-9) « = Yay (1.26) From Equation (1.25), knowing « for a given binary system, x - y data (equilibrium data) can be generated by taking x = 0, 0.1...... to 1 and evaluating corresponding values of y (equilibrium vapour phase composition). For ideal system, the volatility is equal to the vapour pressure of the pure component. ‘Therefore, the relative volatility of two substances forming an ideal solution is the ratio of their vapour pressures. v Relative volatility =o4g=a = ~% w= (L272) Pa Relative volatility is a measure of separability by distillation and when a = 1 separation by distillation is not possible. Separation by distillation is possible for relative volatility values greater than one. Larger the value of relative volatility, easier is the separation by distillation.Mass Transfer — I! 1.8 Distillation ‘THE METHODS OF DISTILLATION - BINARY SYSTEMS : Basically, distillation is carried out in two ways : 1, The liquid mixture is heated to create vapour. The vapours formed are condensed in a condenser and withdrawn as a product. As there is no reflux, the products of relatively low purities are obtained. 2. The liquid mixture is heated to create vapour, vapours formed are condensed in the condenser. Part of the condensed liquid is returned to the distillation system (as reflux) and the remaining part is withdrawn as a product. In this, liquid and vapour are brought into intimate contact for a number of times and almost pure product can be achieved and the operation is called rectification or fractionation: The term rectification originated in alcohol industry whereas the term fractionation is popular in petroleum industry. Common methods used in distillation practice are : 1. Differential or simple distillation, 2. Flash or equilibrium distillation, 3. Rectification or fractionation. Out of these three methods, distillation with rectification or simply called rectification is the most important. The first two methods are carried out without reflux and the third one is carried out with reflux (- which is nothing but returning a part of the condensed liquid bagk to the distillation system). Misc or Simple Distillation : In this distillation technique, a known quantity of liquid mixture is charged into a jacketed kettle or still. The jacket is provided for heating the mass in the still with the help of a heating media such as steam. The charge is boiled slowly, vapours formed are withdrawn and fed to a condenser where they are liquified and collected in the receiver as a distillate. In early stage of distillation, vapours leaving the still are richest in the more volatile component and as the distillation proceeds the liquid in the still becomes lean with Vapour Coolant out Feed (Condenser Coolant in Still/kettle lacketed) R ‘Condensate R,R, - Distillate receivers Residue ~~ Fig. 1.4 : Simple distillation unitee eee ee Mass Transfer ~ Il 1.9 ab Distillation respect to more volatile component. The composition of the less volatile component thereby increases and hence the boiling point increases. The product (distillate) from such units can be collected in several receivers, called cuts, to give products of various purities over the length of distillation period. The distillation is continued till the boiling point of liquid reaches a predetermined valué and the content of the still is‘finally removed as residual liquid containing majority of less volatile component. prea balance - binary mixtures : N ‘As the composition of vapour issuing from distillation and that of the liquid remaining in it changes during the course of operation, the mathematical approach should be differential. Let F be the kmol of liquid mixture (A + B) containing xp mole fraction of A which is charged to distillation still. Let D be kmol of distillate and W be kmol of residual liquid in still which are obtained at the end of operation. Let ypavg and xw be the mole fraction of A in distillate and bottom residual liquid. Let L be the kmol of liquid in the still at any time during the course of distillation and let x be the mole fraction of A in liquid, Let very small amount dD kmol of the distillate of . the composition y in equilibrium with the liquid is vaporised. Then the composition and quantity of liquid decreases from x to x — dx and L to L-dL respectively. Then, Overall material balance at any time is : L = L-db+aD «++ (1.28) " aL = aD ... (1.29) Material balance of component A Lx = (L-dL)(x-dx)+y aD «.- (1.80) Lx = Lx-Lédx-xdL +dLdx + ydD dLdx being very small can be neglected. 0 = -Ldx-xdL + ydD (13D) Put the value of dD as dL from Equation (1.29) 0 = - Ldx—xdL + yd .. (1.32) Lex = (y-x) dL .. (1.33) aL _ dx FP joe (1.34) 4 Integrating the above equation between two extreme conditions : L=F, x=x and L = W, x=3w F xP aL dx Je- fes ws (1.35) xw XP F dx n& = Js «.. (1.86) xw (y is in equilibrium with x i.e. y is the vapour phase composition in equilibrium with liquid phase composition (x)).Mass Transfer ~ I| 1.10 Distillation Equation (1.36) is known as the Rayleigh equation. It is used to determine F, W, xp or xw when three of these are known. RHS of Equation (1.36) i.e. integral on the RHS side is evaluated graphically by plotting 1y — x) as an ordinate and x as the abscissa and determining the area under the curve between x = xp and x= xw. The required data for above procedure are taken from vapour-liquid equilibrium relationship. Ifyp, avg, is a composition of composited distillate, then, Material balance of component A is : xp F = yp,avg. D+xwW (137) Though the simple or differential distillation as a method of separation is not effective, many such units are used, especially where the components to be separated have widely ee boiling points and methods giving sharp separations are not necessary. Cor nstant Relative Volatility: \ I During the course of distillation, although the temperature in distillation still/kettle increases, the relative volatility does not change much and so some average volatility « can be used, over the concentration range involved, which makes the direct integration of RHS of Equation (1.36) possible and graphical integration can thus be avoided. The relationship between the composition of vapour (y) and that of liquid (x), in equilibrium, in terms of relative volatility is y = awl+(a-1)x So y from above Equation can be substituted in Equation (1.36). wee foe Wer tyes Xp m= =_—- WwW Ox *W 1+@-Dx * XP F 1+(a-1) x] dx aw * J Gress ee) Xw Consider the term wot of RHS of Equation (1.38). l+#(a-1)x sd ¢ox-x ox—x[1+(a-1)x] ~ ox—-x-ax?+ x? _ (=x) sax * x@-D-x @-D _ (= +ux * (a-1) &— x?) (=x) + ax * (@-1)x(-x)Mass Transfer — I 4.11 Distillation a a-1 (=x) xd-»* 1a x*I-x Putting the above value of RHS back into Equation (1.38), we get, XP Xp J parva i xw x Ww 1-xp ox x(1- “a-1 Integrating we get, E ine [in Zt ain =*| Equation (1.39) relates F, W, xp and xw through a. Equation (1.39) can be arranged in another useful form as : Add and subtract In [(1 — xw)/(1 - xp)] in bracket on RHS of Equation (1.39). ++ (1.89) F_i1[),% 1-xw 1-xw 1-xp ny - gi [sees 2 lap -angae| Combining and rearranging the terms in bracket, ad xp (1 xw) hy = A [nes Fool xp (1 - xw) 1 ng = aim? eal Fol xpd —xw) 1 xy Inge = aa ade * Tome ... (1.40) This can be rearranged to another form as : Fo. i-xy 1 xp (1— xy) =~ “ise, 6-1 “gon -o wl. . 1 jy er (1 -xw) NW(1l-xw) ~a@-1 xw(l-xp) (@-Din FQ=2p) f jn Xe-2w) W(-xw) xw (1 — Xp) qin FO=¥8) my FU=xe) 2 ty Xe(L-2w) " W—xw) Wd -xw) xw (1 — xp) gin FQ-x5) 2 jp xe(-xw) 4, FO-xp) W(1-xw) xw( xp)" W(—xw) ain FG) . pe wetheme Bi oe W(-xw) xw(l—xp) W(1-xw) gin FQ-xp) 2.) Fur Wd-xw) W xw | in FRE. FQ -xp) | 1. (14) Wxw oln Wa xw)Mass Transfer — II 4.42 Distillation Equation (1.41) relates the number of moles of A remaining in the residue, W xy to that of B remaining, W (1 - xw). F xp = number of moles of A initially, let it be Noa F(1-xp) = number of moles of B initially, let it be Nop. W xw = number of moles of A remaining, let it be Nq (after distillation is over) W (1-xw) = number of moles of B remaining, let it be Np. Noa _ Nop Ine = ain se Noa _ (Nos\* Na ~ (Ne Nay® _ Na (Bos) * Noa Np. Na) Na _ (Na vee (1.42 Nos (a) 2 Differential Condensation : In this case, vapour feed is slowly condensed and condensate is drawn in equilibrium with vapour residue. Let F be the moles of vapour of composition yy and D be the moles of vaporous residue of composition yp then the treatment similar to that described above yields F_Pa me = foe .. (1.43) yp 27 * Flash or Equilibrium distillation : Flash distillation is normally carried out in continuous manner. In this method, a liquid mixture is partially vaporised, vapour and liquid are allowed to attain equilibrium and finally withdrawn separately. Vapour ‘fr mole, y Heat exchanger Separator Liquid (=f) mole, x Fig. 1.5: Flash/Equilibrium distillationMass Transfer - II 4.13 Distillation Feed is heated in a tubular heat exchanger. The hot liquid mixture is then fed to a separator via pressure reducing valve whereby pressure is reduced and vapour is formed at the expense of liquid adiabatically. The liquid is withdrawn from bottom of the separator and the equilibrium vapour leaves the separator from top which is then liquified in a condenser. Flash distillation is commonly used in petroleum industry, handling multicomponent system in the pipe stills. Consider one mole of liquid mixture, having xp mole fraction of more volatile component, is fed to flash distillation unit. Let f be the fraction of feed that is vaporised and is of composition y. Then (1 — f) will be the moles of residual liquid obtained. Let x be the mole fraction of more volatile component in liquid. Then, material balance of more volatile component gives : xp = fry+(1-fx fy = -(-Ox+xp ys tat te (1.46) Equation (1.46) is a material balance/operating line for flash distillation with slope equal to - (1 — f/f and intercept equal to xp/f. The point of intersection of operating line and diagonal (x = y) is, G-fx x» - -250% ,8 ey GPx, scares 2 xf = -xtxf+ xp . x = and y = For f =1, feed totally vaporised (feed 100 mole per cent vaporised) Slope = - 452-0 and hence operating line is parallel to x-axis through point (xp, xp) on diagonal. For f = 0, no feed is vaporised. Slope = > and operating line will be parallel to y-axis through point (xp, xp) on diagonal. The operating line for various values of f on equilibrium diagram is as shown in Fig. 1.6. 1 WZ 0,0 x—> 1 Fig. 1.6 : Plotting the material balance line (operating line) for flash distillation on equilibrium diagramMass Transfer — Il 1.44 Distillation 09 x—> 1 Fig. 1.7 : Determination of x and y for a given f Fig. 1.7 shows method of obtaining equilibrium compositions of vapour (y;) and liquid (x;) for a given f. Continuous Rectification - Binary Systems : Rectification is commonly encountered in industrial practice as it is possible to get almost pure product by this method. The enrichment of the vapour stream as it passes through the column in contact with reflux is termed as rectification. In this separation method, part of the condensed liquid is returned back as a reflux and maximum enrichment of more volatile component in vapour is obtained by successive partial vaporisation and condensation by multistage contact of vapour and liquid. This is achiéved in a single unit called as fractionating column. wo mating Column : Fractionating column or fractionator consists of (i) cylindrical shell divided into sections by a series of perforated trays, (ii) reboiler and condenser. The liquid mixture to be separated is introduced in the cylindrical column more or less centrally, The column itself is divided into two sections - rectifying and stripping section. The section above the feed plate or tray is called the rectifying section, wherein vapour is washed to remove the less volatile component with the liquid returned to the column from top (known as reflux). The rectifying section is also called the enriching section as the feed is enriched in this section, owing to which the top product/distillate is richer in the more volatile component than the feed. The portion below the feed plate including feed plate is called the stripping section wherein liquid is stripped off more volatile component by rising vapour. Perforated trays are nothing but gas-liquid contacting devices on which gas/vapour and liquid streams are brought into intimate contact for mass transfer to occur. The vapours are generated in the reboiler (generally steam heated) and are fed to the bottom of the column. The liquid removed from the fractionator rich in less volatile component is called bottoms or bottom product. The vapour issuing from the top of column is fed to the condenser where latent heat is removed with the help of circulating coolant through the condenser. A part of condensed liquid is returned to the column (reflux) and part is withdrawn as a top product or distillate which is rich in more volatile component. As we move up the column, vapour becomes richer and richer in more volatile component and as we move down the column, liquid becomes richer and richer in less volatile component. As the liquid is at its bubble point and vapour is at its dew point, temperature is maximum at bottom and minimum at top. 7Mass Transfer — I 1.15 Distillation Condenser 7 J Accumulator El y = Cooler ( Pr Distillate Xp Plate Feed (F), F-----4 : Fo be----4 oer. |---- 4. vapour ‘Reboiler Liquid Steam in Condensate a EN). Bottom product, xy Fig. 1.8 : Fractionating column ication on ideal plate : Refer to the Fig. 1.9 wherein the plates are numbered serially from top down. Consider nth plate from top in the cascade. The plate n-1 is immediately above the plate n and plate n +1is immediately below the plate n. On every plate, the two different fluid streams not at equilibrium are brought into intimate contact, mass transfer takes place, phases are separated, and finally two fluid streams leave the plate in equilibrium with each other. ‘Thus, the plate under consideration will receive the liquid Ly_, moles/h of composition Xp-1 and the vapour Va41 moles/h of composition yp+1 from plates n-1 and n+1 respectively. The liquid Ly moles/h of composition x, and vapour Vj moles/h of composition yn leave this plate for plates n+1 and n -1 respectively in equilibrium with each other. When vapour from plate n+1 is brought into intimate contact on plate under consideration with liquid from plate n-1 and (the diffusing substances distribute themselves between the phases) their compositions tend to change to attain equilibrium values. During the interchange process, some of the more volatile component is vaporised from liquid Ly.,, decreasing the liquid concentration from xp_; to Xp; and some of the less volatile component is condensed from the vapour Vp.1, increasing the vapourMass Transfer ~ II 1.16 Distillation concentration from n+, to yp. In the column, as liquid is at its bubble point and vapour is at its dew point, the heat to vaporise more volatile component from liquid is supplied by the heat released in the condensation of less volatile component from vapour. Thus the net effect is that the more volatile component is transferred to the vapour rising up from the liquid running down the column, while the less volatile component is transferred to the liquid running down from the vapour rising up the column. Liquid and vapour phase composition increases along column height with respect to more volatile component and therefore temperature decreases. The temperature of plate n is less than that of the plate n+ 1 and greater than that of the plate n - 1. ty, 1 Plate n- 1 Plate n @ a 5 2 Platen+1 0,0 AC DB 1.0 | oe Va+2 e = xy Caxy, 2 D= ues Bay Fig, 1.9 : Material balance over ideal plate Fig. 1.10 : Boiling point diagram showing 2 rectification on an ideal plate Material balance : Consider that the column is fed with F moles/time of liquid mixture (feed) with xp mole fraction of more volatile component. Let D moles/time of composition xp are withdrawn as a distillate and W moles/time of composition xy are withdrawn as a bottom product. Overall material balance : Feed = distillate + bottom product F =D+W ws. (47) Material balance of more volatile component (A) over fractionator : Ain feed = A in distillate + A in bottom product. xp F = xp D+xwW + (1.48) With the help of Equations (1.47), and (1.48), it is possible to calculate D and W Imowing F, xp, xp and xy.Mass Transfer — 1! 1.17 Distillation Eliminating W from Equations (1.47) and (1.48), we get, DIF = (xp -xw)/(xp -¥w) (1.49 a) Eliminating D gives WIE = (Xp — xe)/(tp — xw) va (1.49 b) Let L be the moles/time of liquid returned to the top of column then, Reflux ratio = R This reflux ratio is also known as external reflux ratio. IV is the (moles/time) molal flow rate of vapour leaving the top of column then, the ratio L/V is known as internal reflux ratio. Vv ~ Condenser ee +——— 4; D. Xp Tt: L, Vas Xn Yael Fig. 1.11 : Rectifying section including condenser palance around condenser: Vv =L+D o L =vV-D ++ (1.50) and D=V-L Overall material balance over Fig. 1.11 is: Vapour flow to platen = liquid flow from plate n + distillate withdrawn Vat1 = Int+D + (61) Similarly, material balance of more volatile component (A) is: Vn+i¥nt1 = Ln ¥n +D Xp + (1.52) In , , Dx Yor = Vas * Vas Dxp Yor. = Vy, * Vane ++ (1.58) From Equation (1.51), Vater = Int+D Therefore Equation (1.53) becomes : .. (1.54)Mass Transfer — Il 1.18 Distillation Equation (1.54) is known as the material balance line or operating line of the rectifying section, V, n+ 1°¥m +1 Plate m +1 G Reboiler ee Fig. 1.12 : Stripping section including reboiler Overall material balance over Fig. 1.12: Liquid flow to platem +1 = Vapour flow from plate m + 1 + Bottom product withdrawn Lm = VmeitW vos (1.55) Similarly, Material balance of more volatile component (A) : Lm Xm = Vine ¥m+it W Xw (1.56) Rearranging the Equation (1.56), Lm Wxw Ye = ym yo 5D) We know from the Equation (1.55), that Vinex = Lm- W ie = Ww (2.58) en aw ew) ‘The Equation (1.58) is known as the material balance line or operating line of the stripping section. Analysis of fractionating columns : The theoretical/ideal stages/plates required for a given degree of separation can be obtained by : 1. McCabe - Thiele method. 2. Lewis - Sorel method. , 3 Ponchon — Savarit method. McCabe - Thiele Method : It is a graphical procedure of obtaining theoretical plates Assumptions underlying the method are : 1. Constant molal heat of vaporisation. 2. No heat losses. 3. No heat of mixing.Mass Transfer — Il 1.19 Distillation Consider any plate n in the rectifying section. Va r an Viet Fig. 1.13 A heat balance across plate n is Unt Hig ,+Vnei Hy,,; = Ln Hi, +Vn Hy, + heat losses + heat of mixing Heat losses are negligible for good insulation. Heat of mixing is zero for ideal system. Una Hig j+Van Bvgy = In Hig +¥n Hy Hy and Hy ~ enthalpies of liquid and vapour per mol. If the molar heat of vaporisation is constant (independent of the composition) then one mol of vapour Vn; on condensing releases sufficient heat to liberate one mol of vapour Vp. It follows that V, = Vns1. Therefore, the molar flow of vapour up the column is constant. As the temperature change from one plate to the next is small, H,,, can be taken equal to Hy, Ina Hi, +Von Hy,,, = VauHy,, *%n Hy, ” Ina = In So the moles of liquid reflux in this section are also constant. Therefore, Ly and Vp41 are constant in the rectifying section and Vin, 1and Lm are constant in the stripping section. ie. molar flow rates of vapour and liquid are constant in each section of the column. In = Ina=L, Im=bma =U Vn = Van=V, Vma=Vm =V! [The above cited assumptions lead to a concept of constant molal vapour flow and constant molal liquid flow in any section of the column. In other words, for one mole of vapour condensed, one mole of liquid is vaporised. Thus Vp = Vneu In =Ln+1 --- ete] The subscripts n, n + 1, m, m +1... etc. may be dropped and the operating lines then plotted on equilibrium diagram are straight. ‘The operating line of the rectifying section becomes : 4 L Dxp *gpeen .. (1.59) AsR = , above equation becomes : Xp y Reix* tees ++ (1.60)Mass Transfer ~ I! 1.20 __Distilation Point of intersection of the operating line for the rectifying section and the 45° diagonal (x = y) obtained as, R xp Y= Rei **Re1 Putting y=x x x Rai Ren (R+I)x = Rx+xp x = x and y =X ‘Thus, the operating line of the rectifying section is to be drawn on equilibrium diagram through the point with the coordinates (xp, xp) on the 45° diagonal and with the slope equal to R(R + 1) or intercept on y-axis equal to xp/(R + 1). 7 The equation of the operating line of the stripping section becomes : L! W xw 2 S ... (161) Y..56gta Woe (1.61 The point of intersection of the operating line of the stripping section and the 45° diagonal is obtained as follows : W xw L'-W Diagonal : Thus, the operating line of the stripping section is to be drawn through the point having coordinatés (xy, x) on the diagonal and with the slope equal to py“ Step-wise procedure for obtaining theoretical plates : 1. By material balances, evaluate the terms D, W, L ete. 2. Draw the equilibrium curve and diagonal with the help of x - y data given. If relative volatility is given, generate the x — y data. 3. Draw the operating line of the rectifying section through the point P (xp, xp) on the diagonal and with the intercept equal to xp/(R + 1) or Dxp/(L + D) or slope equal to RR + 1). 4, Draw the operating line of the stripping section through the point M (xw, xy) on the diagonal and with the slope equal to 75. 5. Starting from (xp, xp) on diagonal, draw a horizontal line to meet the equilibrium curve at point ‘a’. Drop a vertical from point 'a' to meet the operating line at point 1.Mass Transfer - Il 1.21 Distillation TP (Xp: Xo) Line - 1 - Rectification Section Line - 2 - Stripping Section y Intercept 0,0 wx — 1.0 Fig. 1.14 : Determination of theoretical plates by McCabe - Thiele Method 6. Proceed in this way, that is constructing the triangles (representing the stages) between equilibrium curve and operating line of rectifying section, till we are above the point of intersection of two operating lines. Once we cross this point of intersection, construct the triangles between equilibrium curve and the operating line of the stripping section i.e. dropping the verticals on the operating line of the stripping section. 7. Proceed in the same manner till we reach exactly or cover the point M (xw, xw)- 8. Count the number of triangles between xp and.xw. Each triangle on x - y diagram represents a theoretical plate. 9. If number of triangles are 'n’, then 'n' represents the theoretical number of plates including reboiler and n - 1 represents the number of theoretical plates in a umn to achieve the desired degree of separation. sain ot si -Thiele Method : 7 1, Ibis not used when relative volatility is less than 1.3 or greater than 5. 2. It is not used when more than 25 theoretical stages/plates are required, and 3. It is not used when operating reflux ratio is less than 1.1 times the minimum reflux ratio. 2, Lewis-Sorel Method of Determination of Number of Theoretical Stages/Plates : ‘The equation of operating line of the rectifying section is : Dxp ae You = Trp +igeD wa (1.62) ‘The equation of the operating line of the stripping section is : w tn = ... (1.63) yati = TW "Law 1. From the data cited in problem, evaluate the terms - D, W, L ete.| Mass Transfer-N 4.27 Distillation Vapour leaving the partial condenser has @ composition yp [Refer Fig. 1.19 (b)] which is in equilibrium with xc, composition of liquid reflux. Operating line for rectifying section with total condenser is : Yner = (RR+ 1) xy +Xp/R4+1 Operating line for rectifying section with partial condenser is : yout = BR+1)¥n +yp/R+1 only difference is xp is replaced by Yp- This operating line passes through point (yp, Yn) on the diagonal where yp is the composition of distillate withdrawn (in vapour state) As ypis in equilibrium with xc, the partial condenser is represented by triangle aba’. ‘As far as the column is concerned, the operating line ends at point a’ with coordinates (xc, y1) and triangle a’b'c! represents the top plate in the column. In case of partial condenser, we have to adopt the same procedure of construction of stages as that described previously for total condenser [only difference is xp is to be replaced by yp~ (composition of vapour produet)] and count the number of stages between yp and xy. Total number of theoretical plates counted starting from yp to xw will include reboiler as well as partial condenser (each of them acting as one theoretical stage). Number of theoretical plates counted between yp and xw =n +2. n+2-2 Number of theoretical plates required in column = For example, suppose we counted 10 theoretical plates between yp~xw (i.e, including partial condenser and reboiler) then Number of theoretical plates required (in the column) (n+2)-2 10-2=8 (as the reboiler and partial condenser are both equivalent to one theoretical plate.) jux Ratio: 1. Infinite reflux ratio or total reflux ratio, R..: ‘The total reflux operation is of interest to know the minimum number of plates required (it sets lower limit on number of plates required) and is not a practical method of operation as at total reflux the product rate is zero. ‘A column operating under total reflux is shown in Fig. 1.21. In this case, enough | material is charged to a distillation assembly and column is operated under total reflux. During the operation of the column, vapours issuing from top are condensed and all condensed stream is fed back to the column as reflux. Also all liquid going to the reboiler ' ' j is vaporised and is fed to the column. Thus, under the condition of total reflux P = 0, D = 0 and W = 0, therefore Vns1 =m throughout the column. The slope (L/V) of both the operating Iines becomes unity and hence both the operating lines coincide with the diagonal and tminimam number of stages (theoretical plates) are then required for the desired degree of separation (xp — xy). Total reflux operation corresponds to maximum reboiler heat supply and condenser cooling capacity for the separation,Mass Transfer ~ II 1.28 Distillation | = 1 2 3 Qe 4 | - Fig. 1.21: Operation under total reflux 4, Minimum Reflux Ratio, Rm : At total reflux, the operating lines of both sections coincide with the diagonal and to effect desired separation, number of stages (theoretical plates) required are minimum. As the reflux ratio is reduced, the operating lines move towards the equilibrium curve along the feed line and the number of stages increase. Ultimately, further reduction in the reflux ratio results into condition wherein the top operating line touches the equilibrium curve as shown in Fig. 1.22. The point of intersection of the operating lines lies on the equilibrium curve and at this point step becomes very close together, so that a zone of nearly constant composition is formed near the feed plate. Infinite number of plates are then required. This represents a condition of minimum reflux. Thus, a minimum reflux ratio is that reflux ratio at which an infinite number of plates are required for the desired separation. At minimum reflux ratio, the requirement of heat supply to the reboiler and that of coolant supply to the condenser are minimum. Fig. 1.22 : Minimum Reflux ratioMass“Transfer ~ Il 1.29 Distilation Calculation of minimum reflux ratio (Rm): For liquid at its bubble point, the feed line is vertical (parallel to y-axis) and the point C lies on the equilibrium curve and has the co-ordinates (xp, yr)- Draw the equilibrium curve and diagonal and draw the feed line, a vertical through the point P (xp, xp) on diagonal. Point of intersection of the feed line with the equilibrium curve is also a point of intersection of the operating lines at minimum reflux. Operating line (rectification: section) 0,0 eh 10. Fig. 1.28 : Method of obtaining R,, (saturated liquid feed) Slope of the operating line AC is given as : m_ _ *p- Je = (1.79) Ra vl % xp=2r : Rm (xp- Xr) = (Rm + 1) p-yr) Rm Xp- Rm Xr = Rm Xp - Rm yr+ XD YP Rm (vr- X) = XD-YF Rm = aE .-- (1.80) Yr- Xr Similarly for feed as a saturated vapour, the feed line is horizontal. Slope of the line AC is given as : 4. oe (81) Rm+i ~ xp-x | f Rm ; - (1.82) Fig. 1.24: R,, for saturated vapourMass Transfer ~ Il 1.30 Distillation For feed as a cold liquid : i . for ‘q! values greater than one : Rm = 2=% (1.88) v ~x x—> 0,0 J Fig. 1.25 : 'R,,' for cold liquid For 'q' values less than one and greater than zero : Slope = + (1.84) 1.0 0,0 Fig. 1.26 : 'R,,' for feed-partially vapour 3. Optimum Reflux Ratio: Any reflux ratio between infinite reflux ratio requiring minimum number of plates and minimum reflux ratio requiring infinite number of plates is a workable system which requires finite stages for desired degree of separation. At minimum reflux ratio as infinite number of plates are required, fixed cost is also infinite while cost of heat supply to reboiler and condenser coolant is minimum. As the reflux ratio is increased, the number of plates decreases and the fixed cost decreases at first, passes through a minimum and then increases as with higher reflux ratio the diameter of the column and sizes of reboiler and condenser increase. The operating cost increases continuously as the reflux ratio is increased as it is directly proportional to (R + 1). At total reflux, though the number of platesMass Transfer - Il 1.31 Distillation are minimum, the cost of heat supply to reboiler and condenser coolant is maximum and 4 N a “(I R, a Fig. 1.27 : Relation between reflux ratio and number of stages for distillation also large capacity reboiler and condenser are needed. The total cost which is sum of fixed cost and operating cost also decreases to a minimum and then increases with reflux ratio. The optimum reflux ratio occurs at a point where the sum of the fixed cost and operating cost is minimum, The optimum reflux ratio is defined as that reflux ratio at which the sum of the fixed cost and operating cost is minimum. As a rough approximation, the optimum reflux ratio is usually 1.1 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio. Operating costs Cost Fixed costs Rm) R (Reflux ratio) —> Fig. 1.28 : Optimum reflux ratio for distillation Fenske - Underwood Equations: Minimum Reflux Ratio (Rm) : The minimum reflux ratio, requiring infinite number of plates, ean be obtained analytically when the relative volatility is taken as constant over the concentration range concerned (xp ~ xw)- So let us obtain the required relationship with which we can calculate Rm. For the normal equilibrium curve which is concave downward throughout its length, the operating line of rectifying section, at minimum reflux, passes through the point of intersection of the q-line and the equilibrium curve. "The equation of operating line for rectifying section dropping the subscripts is : x+oe + (1.85) a Y "RelMass Transfer ~ II 1.75 Distillation Outlet weir Inlet weir Lf comm / Tray ‘Down conier Seal pot Fig. 1.61 : Downcomer - weir seal plot Entrainment : As gas/vapour bubbles through the pool of liquid on a plate, a large amount of turbulence is set up and the liquid particles can be entrained by the rising gas. Carry over of liquid articles by rising gas from a plate below to the plate above is known as entrainment and is much more pronounced at high gas flow rates. Entrainment reduces the concentration change per plate and hence, decreases the plate efficiency. Tray spacing, vapour flow rate, depth of liquid on tray are the factors on ~—e of entrainment depends. PACKED COLUMNS FOR DISTILLATION: For distillation operation, packed columns are especially useful whenever wé have to ‘carry out operation at low pressure (vacuum distillation) and whenever we are dealing with heat sensitive materials. Packed columns are cheaper than plate for column diameter less than 600 mm. A packed column consists of a cylindrical shell filled with some sort of ackings (rings or saddles) which offer large interfacial area for mass transfer. A mmon arrangement of the packed column for distillation operation is shown in Fig. 1.62, wherein the vapour flows upward and the refluxed liquid flows downward giving tinuous contact. The ability of a given packing to effect the desired mass transfer between gas and liquid phases (i.e. to effect the desired degree of separation) is usually expressed in an empirical form, as the height equivalent to one theoretical plate (HETP). In case of plate eolumns wherein a process of enrichment is stage wise, vapour leaving the plate is richer ith respect to more volatile component than vapour entering the plate by one equilibrium ge. In packed columns, the same enrichment of vapour will occur in a certain height of packing which is termed as height equivalent to one theoretical plate or height equivalent to theoretical plate. Thus, in packed columns, one equilibrium step is represented by a rtain height of a packed bed and the required height of packing for the desired degree of paration is given by : HETP x number of ideal plates required. HETP is defined as the ight of packing (packed bed) giving the enrichment of vapour same as that can be ained by one theoretical plate (in stage-wise operation).Mass Transfer ~ Il 1.76 Distillation Condenser Vapour Accumulator Reflux tH Distillate Packings Fea} | — Distributor A Reboiler Steam Condensate Boitoms Fig. 1.62 : Packed column for continuous distillation ‘The HETP can be estimated with the help of an empirical equation such as HETP = ky: G2-DP - 218 +a - wp «.. (1.160) where ky, kp and ky are empirical constants for packing and are function of type and size of packing. G — Superfacial gas mass velocity Dt - Tower diameter Z - Height of packing a — Relative volatility uy and p, are viscosity and density of liquid respectively. The HETP is an experimental quantity, characteristic of each packing and depends on the type and size of the packing, flow rates of each fluid and concentration. Method of Transfer Units : Fractionation by means of a packed column involves continuous countercurrent contact of the vapour and liquid whereas fractionation by means of a plate column involves stagewise contact of the vapour and liquid. So in the packed column there is a continuous change in the composition of the components and in the plate column there is a discontinuous change in the composition of components (effected at each plate). The theoretical unit of separation in a packed column is the transfer unit and not the theoretical plate (as it in a plate column). The efficiency of a packing consequently can be measured as the height of packing to give a separation of one transfer unit (height of transfer unit).Mass Transfer ~ Il 1.77 Distillation ‘The height of a packed column can be based on the number of transfer units and the height of transfer unit. The height of a packed column can easily be obtained by multiplying the number of transfer units by the height of transfer unit. 7, = Number of transfer units x height of transfer unit.” ‘The number of transfer units is the measure of ease or difficulty of separation. More difficult the separation, the more such units would be required. Hence, if very high purity products are desired or for high degree of separation, a large number of transfer units will be required. ‘The height of transfer unit is a measure of the separation effectiveness of a particular packing for the chemicals being processed. If the rate of mass transfer is high and surface avea for mass transfer is large then the height of transfer unit is small. For determination of the height of transfer unit, we require a knowledge of mass transfer coefficients in units consistent with those in which the composition of phases is expressed. Consider a packed column as shown in Fig. 1.63 in which the composition of the more volatile component increases from yp to yt- Y:4To condenser Je—— Reflux Vok t Fe . Feed-—> “EF Vapour Liquia from reboiler _to reboiler Fig. 1.68 : Packed column for distillation Let A be the empty column cross-sectional area, Z be the height of packed section ofa column, ‘a’ be the active interfercial surface per unit volume of packing (interfacial area per unit volume of packing). Consider a differential element of height 4Z, through which two phases pass countereurrently, wherein a differential change in vapour composition, dy, takes place. ‘At a same time, a differential change in liquid composition is dx. For steady-state operation, material balance of the more volatile component A over the differential height aZ assuming constant molar overflow i.e. neglecting change in molar flow rate in any particular section is Vdy = Lex ... (1.161) where V is the vapour flow rate in enriching section of the column in moles/time and L is the molar flow rate of liquid in mole/time. V is constant in the entire enriching section. Tt will be also constant in the stripping section but of different magnitude depending upon the feed conditions. Fach term of Equation (1.161) is the indication of moles of A diffusing i.e. rate of addition or depletion of A to the vapour phase or from the liquid phase and is a statement of the rate of transfer of A across the transfer area in dZ. This must be equal to the total driving force divided by the total resistance.Mass Transfer - II 1.78 Distillation So the rate of change of a component A within the phase must be equal to the rate of transfer to the phase. ‘Thus, for V-phase (vapour phase) : Vdy = kg (yj-y) dS = Kg (y*-y) dS we (1.162) where dS is the interfacial transfer area associated with the differential column height dZ. dV = differential volume of packing in height dZ = AdZ dS = differential interfacial area for mass transfer = aAdZ in height dZ Vdy = kg (i-y) aA dZ=Ke (y"—y) aA dz Vady = kga(yi-y)AdZ =Kgaly*-y)AdZ +. (1,168) where (yj — y) is the driving force over the gas film (y" -y) is the overall driving force for the gas phase/vapour phase - (overall driving force in terms of vapour composition). Ke is the overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient in mol/(time)-(unit driving force) Kg «a is the volumetric overall mass transfer coefficient in mol/(volume) - (time) (unit driving force). In distillation operation, vapour and liquid compositions are expressed in terms of molefraction, so units of Kg-a will be mol/(volume) - (time) - (molefraction). Use of Kg - a requires the gas phase composition (y*) in equilibrium with the bulk liquid composition and use of kg * a requires the gas phase composition (y;) at the interface. It is possible only to measure the bulk composition and determination of interface composition is ordinarily impossible. : Vay = Kgaly"-y)AdZ ++ (1.164) (WA) dy = Kga(y*-y) dZ agi Hs ] -¥. Ke aly Integrating between limits, ‘ os WA (_4@: Je = | ae) : yb The molar flow rates (V and L) are assumed to be constant in enriching section. The overall mass transfer coefficient is a function of these phase flow rates. If the physical properties do not vary appreciable, Kg is also a constant. Fi wa 7 a wa=ee fo ‘ Ko di.s5 > yt z = WA { ay (1165) Koay y'-y In Equation (1.165), the integral term represents the integrated ratio of the change in vapour composition to the available driving force (in terms of vapour composition) tendingMass Transfer — Il 1.79 Distillation to bring this about. This term is defined by Chilton and Colburn as the number of transfer units (Np. In our present case, Ny is Nog yt a y Nioo = | aos .. (1.166) ‘on J y-7 Niog is the number of overall gas transfer units (i.e, number of transfer units based on gas phase). ‘The quantity outside the integral of Equation (1.165) is called the height of a transfer unit (Hp. In present case, Hy is Htgg- WA Hos = Kee va (1.167) Thus, Equation (1.165) can be written as Z = Hiog* Ntog v.- (1.168) |A similar series of equations can be written in terms of composition of more volatile component in liquid phase. The column height can be evaluated using changes in composition of A in liquid phase and corresponding rate. Vay = Kea(y’-y)AdZ=Ldx=Kya(x-x)AdZ (1.169) Ldx = Kpa(x-x)AdZ + (1.170) where x x" is the overall driving force in terms of liquid phase composition. Ky, ais the overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient for liquid phase in mol /( time) « (volume) « (unit driving force). Ky is the overall liquid phase mass transfer coefficient in mol/(time) « (area) - (unit driving force). So for liquid phase, we can write, dx x-x" Nto. = - (L171) Noy is the number of overall liquid phase transfer units (number of transfer units based on liquid phase). Hto. = i «.- (1.172) Hovis the height of an overall liquid transfer unit. Hog and Ho, are having dimension of length while Nto. and Ntos are dimension- less. Plate Efficiency : By using either the McCabe-Thiele method or the Ponchon-Savarit method, we obtain the number of ideal/theoretical/equilibrium stages required for achieving the desired degree of separation. In case of an ideal stage, the vapour leaving the plate is in equilibrium with the liquid which leaves it. In actual practice, complete equilibrium is never reached on any plate. This is due to short contact time and incomplete mixing on any plate, The vapour leaving an actual plate is usually weaker in more volatile component than vapour in equilibrium with the liquid leaving it. Thus, for achieving desired degree of separation in actual practice, we require more number plates than idealMass Transfer — I 1.80 Distillation plates. To apply either of the methods to an actual case, it is necessary to convert the number of ideal plates to actual plates. The factor that is used for converting ideal plates into actual plate is the plate efficiency. The reboiler delivers vapour directly from the boiling liquid and is thus considered as a perfect plate. ‘Types of plate efficiency : (i) Overall efficiency/overall plate efficiency — pertains to the entire column. (ii) Murphree efficiency — pertains to any single plate. (iii) Murphree local/point efficiency - pertains to a specific location on a given plate. Overall efficiency is the ratio of number of ideal plates required to produce a given degree separation to the number of actual plates required to effect the same separation. theoretical/ideal plates required To = actual plates required *10 For example, if we need six theoretical plates to effect the desired separation and the overall efficiency is 60% then the number of actual plates required are 6/0.60 = 10. The overall efficiency may vary from 30 to 100 percent. ‘The Murphree plate efficiency : It is the efficiency of any single plate based on vapour phase composition. For the nt® plate in the column, the Murphree efficiency is given by Yn-Yau mM = oe Y_7Yne where, _Yp is the average composition of vapour leaving plate. Yne1is the average composition of vapour entering plate y,, is the composition of vapour in equilibrium with liquid leaving plate. It applies toa individual plate in a column and is defined as the actual change in average vapour composition achieved by a given plate divided by the change in average vapour composition if the vapour leaving the plate were in equilibrium with the liquid leaving the plate. This efficiency is less convenient to use as it involves plate to plate compositions rather than the terminal compositions. Point/Local efficiency : It pertains to a particular place on the plate surface (applies to single location on a given plate). It is defined by 1 _ Yn, local ~ Yn+1, local Yiocal ~ Yn+1. local where — Yn, local is the composition of vapour leaving specific location on plate n Yn ts local is the composition of vapour entering plate n at the same location. Yiocal 18 the composition of vapour in equilibrium with the liquid at the same location (i.e. in equilibrium with xIocal)- ‘To obtain satisfactory plate efficiencies, it is highly necessary that the plates must operate properly. Adequate and intimate contact between vapour and liquid is essential. Each of the unfavourable phenomena such as entrainment, excessive foaming, weeping, short-cireuiting and flooding lower the plate efficiency.Mass Transfer — II 1.81 Distillation SOLVED EXAMPLES Ex.1.1: A mixture containing benzene and toluene with 40% benzene and 60% toluene is to be separated in a fractionating column to give product containing 96% benzene and bottom product containing 95% toluene. Feed is a mixture of two-third vapour and one-third liquid, Find out the number of theoretical stages required if reflux ratio of 1.5 times the minimum is’ used. Data: Relative volatility ots = 2.5 Solution : Basis : Feed containing 40% benzene and 60% toluene by weight. Molecular weight of benzene (CsHs) = 6x12+6x1= 78 Molecular weight of toluene (CsHsCHs) = 7x12+8x1=92 In 100 kg of feed there are 40 kg of benzene and 60 kg of toluene. Molefraction of benzene in feed = xp = wets 044 ~ Distillate contains 96% benzene by weight. . cor 96/78 Molefraction of benzene in distillate = x» = 9g7g4 4 = 096 « Bottom product contains 95% toluene and 5% benzene by weight. : . B78. Molefraction of benzene in bottom product =xw = g77g 4 gg/a = 0.058 Gap = 2.5 Generate x-y data with the help of equation : ¥ = T+@-Dx 1 and evaluate corresponding y value: Plot the equilibrium curve. Procedure to determine the minimum reflux ratio (Rm) : q is the fraction of the feed that is liquid. Feed is two-third vapour and one-third liquid, so 1 mole of feed results in 1/3°4 mole of saturated liquid in the stripping section. q=13 = 0.333 or q = 1~f, where fis fraction of feed that is vaporised = 1-28 =1-0.667 = 0.333 Slope of feed line = Slope = tan @ e Intercept on y-axis 0.44 / (1 - 0.333) = 0.66Mass Transfer — I! 1.82 Distillation Draw the feed line through the point Q (0.44, 0.44) on the diagonal with slope equal to — 0.5 (8 = — 26.569) or with intercept on y-axis equal to 0.66 to cut the equilibrium curve at point P. Read y' and x' as the coordinates of point P. From graph, y' = 0.51 and x' = 0.295. Minimum reflux ratio for feed partially vaporised is given by f= OY Rm = yg! 0.966 - 0.51 Rm = 051-0295 = 22 Operating reflux ratio= R = 1.5 Rm = 15x2.12 =3.18 Operating line of the rectification section : It has point (0.966, 0.966) on the diagonal and intercept on y-axis = xXp(R+.1) = 0.966/(3.18 + 1) = 0.231 Draw this line through M (0.966, 0.966) on the diagonal with intercept of 0.231 on y-axis, Draw the operating line of the stripping section through the point (xw, xw) N (0.058, 0.058) on the diagonal and passing through the point of intersection of q-line i.e. feed line and operating line of the rectification section. Do step-by-step construction between equilibrium curve and operating lines starting from the point M (0.966, 0.966) and reaching exactly or covering the point N (0.058, 0.058) and count the plates. Number of theoretical plates including reboiler =n = 11. Number of theoretical plates required in the column =n-1 = 11-1 = 10 ... Ans. 0.9 08 07 06 yo 0.5 onl Q.RS.O. line 03 x 02 5.8.0. line. 0.231 On Pit iat N (0.058, 0.058) tas 00°01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1.0 x— Fig. E 1.1: Graphical construction of ideal stagesMass Transfer — Il 1.83 Distillation Ex. 121A mixture of 35 mole % A and 65 mole % B is to be separated in distillation column. The concentration of A in the distillate is 93 mole % and 96 mole % of all A is in fistillate, The feed is half vapour and reflux ratio is 4: 1, The relative volatility (on) is 2.5. How many equilibrium stages are required in each section of column ? What could be the minimum reflux ratio for such operation ? Solution : Basis : 100 kmol of feed containing A and B. F = D+W 100 = D+W W =100-D xp = - = 0.35, Xp = * =0.93 Ain feed = 0.35x 100 = 35 kmol 96 mole % of A is in distillate Ain distillate = 0.96x35 = 33.6 kmol Distillate contains 93 mole % A. Ain distillate Mole %A = ~“Gistillate “10 A in distillate distillate = (foie % A/100) Amount of distillate = 228 = 36.13 kmol Bottom product = Feed — distillate 100 - 36.13 = 63.87 kmol 35 -— 33.6 =1.4kmol as x100 = 2.2 Bottom product = W Ain bottom product Mole % A in bottom product Chéck : Mole % B in bottom product 100- 2.2 = 97.8 B in distillate = Distillate — A in distillate 36.13 — 33.6 = 2.53 kmol u | Bin feed B in distillate + B in bottom product 0.65x100=65 = 2.53 + 0.978 x 63.87 = 64.995 ~65 D = 36.13 kmol, W = 63.87 kmol, xp = 0.35, xp = 0.93, xw = B = 0.022, on = 2.5. a Y= T¥G@-Dx Take x =0, 0.1, 0.2 ... 1.0 and evaluate y and tabulate the data. x]0 ] 01] 02 | 03 [ 04 [ 05 | 06 | 07 | 08 [ 09 | 10 y [0 | 0217 | 0385 | 0.517 | 0.625 | 0.714 [0.789 | 0.854 | 0.91 [0.957 | 1.0 G)_ Plot the equilibrium data and diagonal. (ii) Plot the q-line. Feed is half vapour (given), so feed is half liquid. fraction of feed that is liquid 0.5, (q =0.5/1 =0.5) q q slope of q-line = slope = Xp =