International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences V1(1)2010

Potential applications of Nanoparticles

Abhilash M

Department of Biotechnology,The Oxford college of Engineering,Bangalore,INDIA.

Corresponding Author abhibiotek@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Nanoparticles (NP) are defined as particles with a diameter smaller than 100 nm, are increasingly used
in different applications, including drug carrier systems and to pass organ barriers such as the blood-brain
barrier. Because of their unique properties Nanocrystals (quantum dots) and other nanoparticles (gold colloids,
nanobars, dendrimers and nanoshells) have been receiving a lot of attention for potential use in Therapeutics,
Bioengineering and therapeutics drug discovery. In this review potential use of these Nanocrystals and
Nanoparticles in various important areas has been discussed. Special properties of these nanoparticles may offer
new advancement in drug discovery.

KEYWORDS
Nanoparticles , types, applications.

INTRODUCTION size-related properties that differ significantly from

In nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a
small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of
its transport and properties. It is further classified
according to size: in terms of diameter, fine particles
cover a range between 100 and 2500 nanometers,
while ultrafine particles, on the other hand, are sized
between 1 and 100 nanometers. Similar to ultrafine
particles, nanoparticles are sized between 1 and 100
nanometers. Nanoparticles may or may not exhibit
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those observed in fine particles or bulk materials
[1][2]
. Although the size of most molecules would fit
into the above outline, individual molecules are
usually not referred to as nanoparticles.
Nanoclusters have at least one dimension
between 1 and 10 nanometers and a narrow size
distribution. Nanopowders[3] are agglomerates of
ultrafine particles, nanoparticles, or nanoclusters.
Nanometer-sized single crystals, or single-domain
ultrafine particles, are often referred to as
nanocrystals. Nanoparticle research is currently an
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Potential applications of Nanoparticles

area of intense scientific interest due to a wide
variety of potential applications in biomedical,
optical and electronic fields. The National
Nanotechnology Initiative has led to generous public
funding for nanoparticle research in the United
States.
Nanoparticles play an important role in a
number of these applications. “NPs,” which in
general terms are defined as engineered structures
with diameters of < 100 nm, are devices and systems
produced by chemical and/or physical processes
having specific properties(5). The reason why
nanoparticles (NP) are attractive for such purposes is
based on their important and unique features, such as
their surface to mass ratio, which is much larger than
that of other particles and materials, allowing for
catalytic promotion of reactions, as well as their
ability to adsorb and carry other compounds. The
reactivity of the surface originates from quantum
phenomena and can make NP unpredictable since,
immediately after generation, NP may have their
surface modified, depending on the presence of
reactants and adsorbing compounds, which may
instantaneously change with changing compounds
and thermodynamic conditions. Therefore, on one
hand, NP have a large (functional) surface which is
able to bind, adsorb and carry other compounds such
as drugs, probes and proteins. On the other hand, NP
has a surface that might be chemically more reactive
compared to their fine analogues (6).

TYPES OF NANOPARTICLES

Figure 1: Types of nanoparticles

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 International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences V1(1)2010

Potential applications of Nanoparticles

LIPOSOMES and no carrier is needed, eliminating potential toxicity
issues associated with the carrier molecule.
Liposomes are concentric bilayered vesicles in
Nanocrystal technology can be utilized for many
which an aqueous volume is entirely enclosed by a
dosage forms. Nanoparticles offer the potential for
membranous lipid bilayer mainly composed of natural
targeting the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract after
or synthetic phospholipids. Liposomes are
oral administration, and targeting the cells of the
characterized in terms of size, surface charge and
mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS) to treat
number of bilayers. It exhibits number of advantages
infections of the MPS such as fungal mycobacterial
in terms of amphiphilic character, biocompatibility,
infections and leishmaniasis, thus serving as a
and ease of surface modification rendering it a
favourable delivery system for drugs like
suitable candidate delivery system for biotech drugs.
amphotericin B, tacrolimus, etc. The size of
Liposomes have been used successfully in the field of
nanocrystals allows for safe and effective passage
biology, biochemistry and medicine since its origin.
through capillaries. Potential of nanocrystals can be
These alter the pharmacokinetic profile of loaded drug
inferred by the FDA approval of Rapamune®,
to a great extent especially in case of proteins and
containing sirolimus which is an immunosuppressant
peptides and can be easily modified by surface
drug to prevent graft rejection in children after liver
attachment of polyethylene glycol-units (PEG)
transplantation and Emend®, which contains
making it as stealth liposomes and thus increase its
aprepitant, MK 869, is used in the treatment of emesis
circulation half-life (8) .
associated with the cancer chemotherapy.

NANOCRYSTALS AND
SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLES

NANOSUSPENSION Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were developed at
the beginning of the 1990s as an alternative carrier
Nanocrystals are aggregates of around hundreds or
system to emulsions, liposomes and polymeric
thousands of molecules that combine in a crystalline
nanoparticles as a colloidal carrier system for
form, composed of pure drug with only a thin coating
controlled drug delivery. Main reason for their
comprised of surfactant or combination of surfactants.
development is the combination of advantages from
Problems typical of poorly soluble drugs like reduced
different carriers systems like liposomes and polmeric
bioavailability, improper absorption pattern and
nanoparticles. SLN have been developed and
problems of preparing the parenteral dosage form may
investigated for parenteral , pulmonal and dermal
be resolved by formulation as nanocrystals. This has
application routes.
several benefits, unlike carrier-based nanoparticles in
Solid Lipid Nanoparticles consist of a solid lipid
which extent of loading may be low. Only a minimum
matrix, where the drug is normally incorporated, with
quantity of surfactants needs to be added in
an average diameter below 1 µm. To avoid
nanocrystals for steric and electrostatic surface
aggregation and to stabilize the dispersion, different
stabilization. Moreover, administration of high drug
surfactants are used that have an accepted GRAS
levels with depot release can be achieved if
(Generally Recognized as Safe) status. Nanoparticles
dissolution is sufficiently slow.. As pure drug is used
are also produced by high pressure homogenisation as
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 International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences
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described for nanosuspensions . SLN have been
considered as new transfection agents using cationic
lipids for the matrix lipid composition. Cationic solid
lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for gene transfer can be
formulated using the same cationic lipids as for
liposomal transfection agents. In comparison to
DOTAPliposomes tested cationic nanoparticles
liposomes showed the same transfection rate and gene
expression as liposomes. Cationic lipid composition
seems to be more dominant for in vitro transfection
performance than the kind of colloidal structure it is
arranged in. Hence, cationic SLN extend the range of
highly potent non-viral transfection agents by one
with favourable and distinct technological properties.

POLYMERIC NANOPARTICLES
In comparison to SLN or nanosuspensions
polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) consists of a
biodegradable polymer. Biocompatibility is an
essential feature for potential application as tissue
engineering, drug and gene delivery and new
vaccination strategies. Most biodegradable polymers
consists of synthetic polyesters like polycyanoacrylate
or poly(D, L-lactide) and related polymers like
poly(lactid acid) PLA or poly(lactide-co-glycolide) to
give a few examples. Latest developments also
include natural polymers like chitosan, gelatin, and
sodium alginate to overcome some toxicological
problems with the synthetic polymers. Polymeric
nanoparticles represent a significant improvement
over traditional oral and intravenous methods of
administration in terms of efficiency and
effectiveness.
The advantages of using PNPs in drug delivery are
many, being the most important that they generally
increase the stability of any volatile pharmaceutical
agents and that they are easily and cheaply fabricated
in large quantities by a multitude of methods. Also,
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polymeric nanoparticles may have engineered
specificity, allowing them to deliver a higher
concentration of pharmaceutical agent to a desired
location. Mostly under the term of nanoparticle,
nanospheres are understood. From its definition
nanospheres are considered as a matrix system in
which the matrix in uniformly dispersed. It should be
mentioned, that besides of these spheric vesicular
systems nanocapsules are also known, where a
polymeric membrane surrounds the drug in a matrix
core. The choice of polymer and the ability to modify
drug release from polymeric nanoparticles have made
them ideal candidates for cancer therapy, delivery of
vaccines, contraceptives and delivery of targeted
antibiotics. Moreover, polymeric nanoparticles can be
easily incorporated into other activities related to drug
delivery, such as tissue engineering, and into drug
delivery for species other than humans. From the
polymer chemistry viewpoint, there will be in the
future a challenging field to create new polymers
matching hydrophilic and lipophilic properties of
upcoming drugs for smart formulation (4).

DENDRIMERS
Dendrimers, a unique class of polymers, are
highly branched macromolecules whose size and
shape can be precisely controlled. Dendrimers are
fabricated from monomers using either convergent or
divergent stepgrowth polymerization. Two
representations of polyamidoamine- based
dendrimers. The welldefined structure,
monodispersity of size, surface functionalization
capability, and stability are properties of dendrimers
that make them attractive drug carrier candidates.
Drug molecules can be incorporated into dendrimers
via either complexation or encapsulation. Dendrimers
are being investigated for both drug and gene
delivery, as carriers for penicillin, and for use in
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anticancer therapy. Dendrimers used in drug delivery
studies typically incorporate one or more of the
following polymers: polyamidoamine (PAMAM),
melamine, poly(L-glutamic acid) (PG) ,
CARBON STRUCTURES
polyethyleneimine (PEI) , poly(propyleneimine), and
poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) ,Chitin.

SILICON-BASED STRUCTURES
Silicon-based structures can be fabricated by
photolithography, etching, and deposition techniques
commonly used in the manufacture of semiconductors
and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The
most commonly investigated silicon-based materials
for drug delivery are porous silicon and silica, or
silicon dioxide. Architectures include calcified
nanopores, platinum-containing nanopores, porous
nanoparticles, and nanoneedles. The density and
diameter of the nanopores can be accurately
controlled to achieve a constant drug delivery rate
through the pores. Porous hollow silica nanoparticles
(PHSNP) are fabricated in a suspension containing
sacrificial nanoscale templates such as calcium
carbonate. Silica precursors, such as sodium silicate,
are added into the suspension, which is then dried and
calcinated creating a core of the template material
coated with a porous silica shell. The template
material is then dissolved in a wet etch bath, leaving
behind the porous silica shell. Creation of drug
carriers involves the mixing of the PHSNPs with the
drug molecule and subsequently drying the mixture to
coalesce the drug molecules to the surface of the silica
nanoparticles. As shown, the porous hollow
nanoparticles exhibit a much more desirable gradual
release. Examples of therapies being investigated for
use with silicon-based delivery systems include
porous silicon embedded with platinum as an
antitumor agent , calcified porous silicon designed as
an artificial growth factor , silicon nanopores for
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antibody delivery , and porous silica nanoparticles
containing antibiotics , enzymes , and DNA .
Two nanostructures,that have received much
attention in recent years are hollow, carbon-based,
cage-like architectures: nanotubes and fullerenes, also
known as buckyballs. Single-wall nanotubes
(SWNTs), multiwall nanotubes (MWNTs), and C60
fullerenes are common configurations. The size,
geometry, and surface characteristics of these
structures make them appealing for drug carrier usage.
SWNTs and C60 fullerenes have diameters on the
order of 1nm, about half the diameter of the average
DNA helix.
MWNTs have diameters ranging from several
nanometers to tens of nanometers depending on the
number of walls in the structure. Fullerenes and
carbon nanotubes are typically fabricated using
electric arc discharge (EAD), laser ablation (LA),
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), or combustion
processes. Surface-functionalized carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) can be internalized within mammalian cells,
and when linked to peptides may be used as vaccine
delivery structures. With use of molecular dynamics
(MD) simulations, the flow of water molecules
through CNTs has been modeled and implies their
potential use as small molecule transporters. Other
simulations have involved the transport of DNA
through CNTs, indicating potential use as a gene
delivery tool. For example, temperature-stabilized
hydrogels for drug delivery applications incorporate
CNTs. Fullerenes have also shown drug targeting
capability. Tissue-selective targeting and intracellular
targeting of mitochondria have been shown with use
of fullerene structures. Furthermore, experiments with
fullerenes have also shown that they exhibit
antioxidant and antimicrobial behavior.
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METAL STRUCTURES
Hollow metal nanoshells are being
investigated for drug delivery applications. Typical
fabrication methods involve templating of the thin
metal shell around a core material such as a silica
nanoparticle. Typical metals include gold, silver,
platinum, and palladium. When linked to or
embedded within polymeric drug carriers, metal
nanoparticles can be used as thermal release triggers
when irradiated with infrared light or excited by an
alternating magnetic field. Biomolecular conjugation
methods of metals include bifunctional linkages,
lipophilic interaction, silanization, electrostatic
attraction, and nanobead interactions (9) .
APPLICATIONS OF
NANOPARTICLES
Targeted Drug delivery
A key area in drug delivery is the accurately
targeting of the drug to cells or tissue of choice. Drug
targeting systems should be able to control the fate of
a drug entering the body. Today’s delivery
technologies are far away from the design of the so
called “magic bullet”, proposed by Paul Ehrlich at the
beginning of the 20th century, in which the drug is
precisely targeted to the exact side of action.
Nanotechnology offers here another challenge to
come to this goal a bit closer, to deliver the drug in
the right place at the right time (4). Nanotechnology is
expected to bring a fundamental change in
manufacturing in the next few years and will have an
enormous impact on Life Sciences, including drug
delivery, diagnostics, nutriceuticals and the
production of biomaterials.
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Targeting is the ability to direct the drug-loaded
system to the site of interest. Two major mechanisms
can be distinguished for addressing the desired sites
for drug release: (i) passive and (ii) active targeting.
An example of passive targeting is the preferential
accumulation of chemotherapeutic agents in solid
tumors as a result of the enhanced vascular
permeability of tumor tissues compared with healthy
tissue. A strategy that could allow active targeting
involves the surface functionalization of drug carriers
with ligands that are selectively recognized by
receptors on the surface of the cells of interest. Since
ligand–receptor interactions can be highly selective,
this could allow a more precise targeting of the site of
interest (10). Passive targeting with nanoparticles,
however, encounters multiple obstacles on the way to
their target; these include mucosal barriers, non-
specific uptake of the particle and non-specific
delivery of the drug (as a result of uncontrolled
release). Therefore, two most important aspects of
nanoparticle drug delivery must be:
• The specific targeting of the diseased tissue with
nanoparticles (appropriate size and
functionalization with antibodies—or other
means of selective binding—provides means of
enhanced delivery of drugs and reduced non-
specific toxicity); and
• The timed release of the drug (to prevent non-
specific toxicity the drug must not diffuse out of
the particle while it is still in the circulatory
system, and must remain encapsulated until the
particle binds to the target).
One way to overcome the first issue is to
functionalize the nanoparticles with recognition
elements on their surfaces towards receptors present
on the particular diseased tissue.The conjugated
antibodies or short chain variable fragments (scFvs)
will provide selective binding to the specific cell’s
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surface, and their endocytosis will be enhanced with
suitably adjusted binding affinities.
To address the second issue, multilayered
nanoparticles can be engineered, where each layer
will contain one drug from the cocktail, and their
release will be sequenced in accordance with the
appropriate timing of the delivery of each drug for
combination therapy. Currently a significant amount
of research shows that combination therapy is more
effective than traditional therapies (11).
Nanoparticles can be used in targeted drug
delivery at the site of disease to improve the uptake of
poorly soluble drugs the targeting of drugs to a
specific site, and drug bioavailability. A schematic
comparison of untargeted and targeted drug delivery
systems is shown below. Several anti-cancer drugs
including paclitaxel ,doxorubicin 5-fluorouracil and
dexamethasone have been successfully formulated
using nanomaterials. Polylactic/glycolic acid (PLGA)
and polylactic acid (PLA) based nanoparticles have
been formulatedto encapsulate dexamethasone, a
glucocorticoid with an intracellular site of action.
Dexamethasone is a chemotherapeutic agent that has
anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effects. The
drug binds to the cytoplasmic receptors and the
subsequent drug-receptor complex is transported to
the nucleus resulting in the expression of certain
genes that control cell proliferation (12)
Site-specific-targeted drug delivery is
important in the therapeutic modulation of effective
drug dose and disease control. Targeted encapsulated
drug delivery using NPs is more effective for
improved bioavailability, minimal side effects,
decreased toxicity to other organs, and is less costly.
NP-based drug delivery is feasible in hydrophobic and
hydrophilic states through variable routes of
administration, including oral, vascular, and
inhalation. In drug delivery, several approaches are
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currently being tested for better site-specific delivery
of an effective dose using liposomes, polymeric
micelles, dendrimeres, ceramic NPs, iron oxide,
proteins, covalent binding, adsorption,conjugation,
and encapsulation methods (13).
ADVANTAGES OF USING NANOPARTICLES
IN DRUG DISCOVERY:
• Particle size and surface characteristics of
nanoparticles can be easily manipulated to
achieve both passive and active drug targeting
after parenteral administration.
• They control and sustain release of the drug
during the transportation and at the site of
localization, altering organ distribution of the
drug and subsequent clearance of the drug so as
to achieve increase in drug therapeutic efficacy
and reduction in side effects.
• Site-specific targeting can be achieved by
attaching targeting ligands to surface of
particles or use of magnetic guidance.
• The system can be used for various routes of
administration including oral, nasal, parenteral,
intra-ocular etc (7).
• Nanoparticles can better deliver drugs to tiny
areas within the body.
• Engineering on this scale enables researchers to
exercise exquisite and previously unthinkable
control over the physical attributes of polymers
and other biomaterials.
• Nanoparticles overcome the resistance offered
by the physiological barriers in the body
because efficient delivery of drug to various
parts of the body is directly affected by particle
size.
• Nanoparticles aid in efficient drug delivery to
improve aqueous solubility of poorly soluble
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drugs that enhance Bioavailability for timed
release of drug molecules, and precise drug
targeting.
• The surface properties of nanoparticles can be
modified for targeted drug delivery for e.g.
small molecules, proteins, peptides, and nucleic
acids loaded nanoparticles are not recognized by
immune system and efficiently targeted to
particular tissue types.
• Targeted nano drug carriers reduce drug toxicity
and provide more efficient drug distribution.
• Nanocarriers holds promise to deliver biotech
drugs over various anatomic extremities of body
such as blood brain barrier (8).
Gold nanoparticles detect cancer
Chinese scientists have used gold nanoparticles as
ultrasensitive fluorescent probes to detect cancer
biomarkers in human blood. The approach is so
sensitive, according to researchers, that it outstrips
current methods by several orders of magnitude and
could also be employed in direct detection of viral or
bacterial DNA. Gold nanoparticles are promising
probes for biomedical applications because they can
be easily prepared and, unlike other fluorescent
probes such as quantum dots or organic dyes, don't
burn out after long exposure to light.In the new study,
Jicun Ren and colleagues
at Shanghai Jiaotong University in China apply the
particles to detect carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)
and alpha foetal protein (AFP) - two important
biomarkers in the diagnosis of various cancers,
including liver, lung and breast cancer.To measure
biomarker levels, the researchers conjugated their
gold nanoparticles to antibodies. For CEA, for
example, they made two different types of
nanoparticles, each one bearing a different antibody.
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When mixed together in a sample containing CEA,
the biomarker bound both types at once, forming a
dimer and decreasing the total number of
nanoparticles in the sample. The change was detected
by measuring the decrease in the number of photon
bursts from the gold nanoparticles when they passed
under a focused laser beam - the more CEA was
present, the greater the decrease.A similar
experimental set-up has been used for over a decade
for single-molecule fluorescence detection, notes
Shuming Nie, who studies cancer nanotechnology
at Emory University in the US. But an exciting
finding is that bioconjugated colloidal gold
nanoparticles can be counted with such a set-up, with
signals that are dramatically more intense than organic
dyes or quantum dots.
Nanoparticles target ovarian cancer
Tiny particles carrying a killer gene can
effectively suppress ovarian tumor growth in mice,
according to a team of researchers from MIT and the
Lankenau Institute.The findings could lead to a new
treatment for ovarian cancer, which now causes more
than 15,000 deaths each year in the United States.
Because it is usually diagnosed at a relatively late
stage, ovarian cancer is one of the most deadly forms
of the disease.The new treatment, reported in the Aug.
1 issue of the journal Cancer Research, delivers a
gene that produces the diphtheria toxin, which kills
cells by disrupting their ability to manufacture
proteins. The toxin is normally produced by the
bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae.Human
clinical trials could start, after some additional
preclinical studies, in about a year or two, says Daniel
Anderson, research associate in the David H. Koch
Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT and a
senior author of the paper.Currently ovarian cancer
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patients undergo surgery followed by chemotherapy.
In many cases, the cancer returns after treatment, and
there are no good therapies for recurring and
advanced-stage tumors.Anderson and others from
MIT, including Institute Professor Robert Langer,
along with researchers from the Lankenau Institute,
led by Professor Janet Sawicki, found that the gene-
therapy treatment was equally as effective, and in
some cases more effective, than the traditional
chemotherapy combination of cisplatin and paclitaxel.
Furthermore, it did not have the toxic side effects of
chemotherapy because the gene is engineered to be
overexpressed in ovarian cells but is inactive in other
cell types.
To further ensure tumor-focused effects, the
nanoparticles were administered by injection into the
peritoneal cavity, which encases abdominal organs
such as the stomach, liver, spleen, ovaries and uterus.
Ovarian cancer is known to initially spread
throughout the peritoneal cavity, and current
therapeutic approaches in humans include direct
injection into the peritoneal space, thereby targeting
the therapy to the ovaries and nearby tissues where
tumors may have spread.The new nanoparticles are
made with positively charged, biodegradable
polymers known as poly(beta-amino esters). When
mixed together, these polymers can spontaneously
assemble with DNA to form nanoparticles. The
polymer-DNA nanoparticle can deliver functional
DNA when injected into or near the targeted tissue.
For several years, the MIT-Lankenau team has been
developing these nanoparticles as an alternative to
viruses, which are associated with safety risks. In
addition to ovarian cancer, these nanoparticles have
demonstrated potential for treatment of a variety of
diseases, including prostate cancer and viral infection.
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Stem cell therapy
Nanoparticles may prove effective tools for
improving stem cell therapy, new research suggests.
Chemical engineers have successfully used
nanoparticles to enhance stem cells' ability to
stimulate regeneration of damaged vascular tissue and
reduce muscle degeneration in mice, they report in a
study published online on October 5 in Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences.
Researchers studying the role of stem cells in
stimulating new blood vessel formation have
suggested that after implantation into a living
organism, cells may not continue to renew tissue
effectively enough to keep the tissue alive long-term.
The cells can therefore benefit from help with
performance-enhancing genes, which promote growth
in the target tissue. Researchers generally rely on viral
vectors to deliver these therapeutic genes to stem
cells.
Chemistry researchers at the University of
Warwick have found that tiny nanoparticles could be
twice as likely to stick to the interface of two non
mixing liquids than previously believed.
This opens up a range of new possibilities for
the uses of nanoparticles in living cells, polymer
composites, and high-tech foams, gels, and paints.
The researchers are also working on ways of further
artificially enhancing this new found sticking
power.In a paper entitled "Interaction of nanoparticles
with ideal liquid-liquid interfaces" published in
Physical Review Letters the University of Warwick
researchers reviewed molecular simulations of the
interaction between a non-charged nanoparticle and
an "ideal" liquid-liquid interface. They were surprised
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to find that very small nanoparticles (of around 1 to 2
nanometres) varied considerably in their simulated
ability to stick to such interfaces from what was
expected in the standard model.The researchers found
that it took up to 50 percent more energy to dislodge
the particles from the liquid-liquid interface for the
smallest particle sizes. However as the radius of the
particles increased this deviation from the standard
model gradually faded out.The researchers, Dr ir
Stefan A. F. Bon and Dr David L. Cheung, believe
that previous models failed to take into account the
action of "capillary waves" in their depiction of the
nanoparticles behaviour at the liquid to liquid
interfaces.
Container uses nanoparticles to extend shelf life
A plastic container that uses silver
nanoparticles to keep foods fresher longer, points the
way forward for processors looking to incorporate the
technology into their packaging. The technology is
attractive to the food industry as it promises to yield
new solutions to key challenges. Research and
development underway includes the development of
functional food, nutrient delivery systems and
methods for optimizing food appearance, such as
colour, flavour and consistency.In the food-packaging
arena, nanomaterials are being developed with
enhanced mechanical and thermal properties to ensure
better protection of foods from exterior mechanical,
thermal, chemical or microbiological effects. The new
containers, being marketed to consumers by Sharper
Image (a specialty retailer in the US) are infused with
naturally antibacterial silver nanoparticles. This keeps
foods fresher three or even four times longer than
normal, Sharper Image claims. The containers can be
used to store fruits, vegetables, herbs, breads, cheeses,
soups, sauces and meats while maintaining color,
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flavor and nutritional values much longer. Silver is
naturally anti-germ, anti-mold and anti-fungus. In
tests comparing FresherLonger to conventional
containers, the 24-hour growth of bacteria inside
Fresher Longer containers was reduced by over 98
percent because of the silver nanoparticles, the
company claimed. To further preserve flavor and
nutrients - and to delay and reduce spoiling - the
FresherLonger containers have an airtight silicone-
gasket locking system. The containers are made of air-
and odor-impermeable polypropylene. The silver
nanoparticles average about 25nm (nanometers) in
diameter, or about 200 thousandth of a human hair.
Their natural color gives FresherLonger Miracle Food
Storage containers a distinctive golden hue. A variety
of other companies are also pioneering developments
in food packaging, including techniques to improve
food safety and supply chain tracking. Some nanotech
products, such as anti-microbial films, have already
entered the market.
Anthrax Vaccine Uses Nanoparticles To Produce
Immunity
A vaccine against anthrax that is more
effective and easier to administer than the present
vaccine has proved highly effective in tests in mice
and guinea pigs, report University of Michigan
Medical School scientists in the August issue of
Infection and Immunity.The scientists were able to
trigger a strong immune response by treating the
inside of the animals' noses with a "nanoemulsion" a
suspension of water, soybean oil, alcohol and
surfactant emulsified to create droplets of only 200 to
300 nanometers in size. It would take about 265 of the
droplets lined up side by side to equal the width of a
human hair.The oil particles are small enough to ferry
a key anthrax protein inside the nasal membranes,
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allowing immune-system cells to react to the protein
and initiate a protective immune response. That
primes the immune system to promptly fight off
infection when it encounters the whole
microbe.Besides eliminating the need for needles, the
nanoemulsion anthrax vaccine has another advantage,
the researchers say: It is easy to store and use in
places where refrigeration is not available.An
effective and easy-to-administer vaccine would be a
valuable tool for health authorities dealing with any
future attack in which a terrorist might spread anthrax
microbes. The researchers say a nasal nanoemulsion-
based anthrax vaccine, if it proves effective in
humans, could be given easily to people even after
they are exposed in an anthrax attack, along with
antibiotics. With some diseases, vaccines given after
exposure are used to boost the speed of the immune
response.
Conclusion
Nanoparticles have been used extensively for
applications in drug discovery, drug delivery delivery,
diagnostics and for many others in medical field.
Nanoparticles can also contribute to stronger, lighter,
cleaner and “smarter” surfaces and systems. They are
already being used in the manufacture of scratchproof
eyeglasses, crack-resistant paints, anti-graffiti
coatings for walls, transparent sunscreens, stain-
repellent fabrics, self-cleaning windows and ceramic
coatings for solar cells.
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Bioinformatics
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Potential applications of Nanoparticles

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