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Energy Audits Instrumentation II: Pressure, air flow, water flow, combustion
testing, revolutions per minute (RPM), compressed air leak detection, and
general audit tools
Energy University Course Transcript
Slide 1
Welcome to Energy Audits Instrumentation II: Pressure, air flow, water flow, combustion testing, revolutions
per minute (RPM), compressed air leak detection, as well as the general audit tools used to take
measurements. This course is a continuation of Energy Audits Instrumentation I. If you have not already
done so, please participate in Energy Audits Instrumentation I, prior to proceeding with this course.
Slide 2
For best viewing results, we recommend that you maximize your browser window now. The screen controls
allow you to navigate through the eLearning experience. Using your browser controls may disrupt the
normal play of the course. Click the paperclip icon to download supplemental information for this course.
Click the Notes tab to read a transcript of the narration.
Slide 3
At the completion of this course, you will be able to:
 Identify the appropriate instruments for measuring the various systems included in an energy audit
 Describe specific requirements for using instruments, and you will be able to
 Employ the proper technique to obtain correct measurements
Slide 4
Energy audits are comprehensive evaluations of the actual performance of a plant’s energy using systems
and equipment compared against the designed performance level or the industry best practice. The
difference between observed performance and “best practice” is the potential for energy and cost savings.
The purpose of this course is to review the instruments typically used in energy audits in order to select and
employ an appropriate instrument for your auditing needs.
Slide 5 & 6
An energy audit will comprise taking measurements with a variety of instruments. These include measuring
devices for pressure, air flow, water flow, combustion testing, revolutions per minute (RPM), and
compressed air leak detection. We’ll also take a moment and review the general audit tools used in an audit.
Click on each icon to learn more.
Slide 7
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure. Let’s discuss the instruments
used to measure pressure.
The manometer, draft gauge and Bourdon* gauge are the instruments you will typically use to measure
pressure. Let’s discuss each one of these instruments in more detail.
*(In 1849 the Bourdon tube pressure gauge was patented in France by Eugene Bourdon.)
©2011 Schneider Electric. All rights reserved. All trademarks provided are the property of their respective owners.
Slide 8
A manometer is a device to measure pressure. A common, simple manometer consists of a U shaped tube
of glass filled with some liquid. Typically the liquid is mercury because of its high density and low vapor
pressure. Most manometers are designed to only work at a particular angle and orientation.
There are also digital manometers. These digital manometers provide readings that are far more accurate
than analog gauges, and are easier to use.
Slide 9
All process and space heating systems are engineered and designed by the manufacturers to operate with
very specific ranges of excess combustion air, carbon monoxide, draft, and stack temperature readings.
A draft reading only measures the difference in the pressure between the inside and outside of the vent. To
check a draft, a inclined manometer or (digital/mechanical) draft gauge is necessary.
Slide 10
While it is of utmost importance to follow the equipment manufacturer’s recommended draft readings, this
chart denotes the generally acceptable draft measurements in water column millimeters.
Slide 11
And this chart denotes the generally acceptable draft measurements in water column inches. To download
a copy of these charts, click the paperclip icon. (Located in the lower right hand corner of your toolbar.)
Slide 12
The third type of pressure measuring instrument we’ll be discussing is called a Bourdon gauge. The
Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which—as it expands due to pressure increases—cause a rotation of an
arm connected to the tube.
The pressure sensing element is a closed coiled tube connected to the chamber or pipe in which pressure is
to be sensed. As the gauge pressure increases, the tube will tend to uncoil, while a reduced gauge pressure
will cause the tube to coil more tightly. This motion is transferred through a linkage to a gear train—
connected to an indicating needle.
Slide 13
The needle is presented in front of a card face inscribed with the pressure indications associated with
particular needle deflections. In a barometer, the Bourdon tube is sealed at both ends and the absolute
pressure of the ambient atmosphere is sensed. Differential Bourdon gauges use two Bourdon tubes and a
mechanical linkage that compares the readings.
Now let’s review air flow measuring instruments, or return to the main menu list to select another option.
Slide 14
Air measurements are a critical concern for a wide range of applications. Facility managers have long
recognized the value of air readings in ensuring the balance, efficiency, and effectiveness of a facility’s
heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. Air flow, temperature, and humidity affect occupant comfort,
productivity, and physical health in hospitals, schools, commercial, and industrial facilities. Indoor Air Quality
(IAQ) and thermal comfort have become increasingly important in promoting healthy and comfortable work
environments in today’s workplace.
Air flow measurements are typically captured with the help of:
Anemometers
 Velometers
 Pitot Tubes
 Flow Hoods
 Draft Gauges and/or
 Chemical Smoke
Let’s discuss each of these in more depth.
Slide 15
An anemometer is a device that is used for measuring wind speed. We’ll be discussing two types; vane-
oriented and thermo-anemometers.
Slide 16
A vane-oriented anemometer uses two to six propeller blades, which rotate about a horizontal shaft. The
primary application for these instruments is the measurement of grille velocities on heating, cooling, and
ventilating installations. Before using an anemometer, it is important to determine how it should be
positioned and what component of the total velocity its measurements represent. To determine this, consult
the device user manual.
Slide 17
Thermo-anemometers, also known as “hot wire anemometers,” operate on the principle of heat transfer. (A
sensor is heated above room temperature by passing current through an electrical resistance and the
energy is converted to heat). Hot wire anemometers use a very fine wire (on the order of several
micrometers) heated up to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire has a cooling
effect on the wire. A relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the flow velocity.
This is due to the fact that the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the
metal (with tungsten being a popular choice for hot-wires) which is then translated into an air flow
measurement.
Thermal anemometers accurately measure a wide range of velocities, anywhere from .05 to 51 meters per
second or 10 to 10,000 feet per minute. Their small probe diameters allow them to be placed in tight areas,
such as measuring air velocity in between circuit boards in a computer or in small ducts. Thermo-
anemometers have air temperature limitations. Most units have a maximum temperature of approximately
82 to 93°C or 180 to 200°F—which generally limits their use to ambient conditions.
Slide 18
While extremely delicate, hot-wire anemometers have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial
resolution compared to other measurement methods, and are such; almost universally employed for the
detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest.
They are commonly used to measure velocity in paint spray booths, laminar flow hoods, air flow system
balancing and duct traverses, pharmaceutical manufacturing areas, clean-room biological safety cabinets
and fume hood testing, as well as room air currents, and draft measurements.
Slide 19
A velometer is especially adaptable to audit work because of its portability, wide scale range, and
instantaneous reading features. Its accuracy is suitable for most air velocity and static pressure readings.
Since velometers are made by several manufacturers, the instruction sheets for any instrument should be
thoroughly understood before attempting to use it. A functional velometer set consists of the basic meter
with hoses and accessories as shown here.
Slide 20
Airflow in large ductwork can be estimated by measuring air velocity using a pitot tube with a differential
pressure gauge or an anemometer. A pitot tube is a small bent tube which measures velocity pressure by
means of the differential pressure between total and static pressure.
Pitot tubes are double-walled tubes typically fabricated from stainless steel. The inner tube senses the total
pressure—at the stagnation point, and the outer tube senses the static pressure. The difference between
the total pressure and the static pressure is referred to as the velocity pressure, which can be converted to
velocity in meters per second or feet per minute. Measuring velocity pressure using a pitot tube is
accomplished by connecting rubber hoses from the total and static pressure legs of the pitot tube, to the
positive and negative ports of the manometer, respectively.
Slide 21
The pitot tube is a simple, rugged probe and, if properly constructed, requires no calibration. However, it
must be properly maintained. A small buildup of dirt around the static holes can cause instrument errors in
both directions. Small leaks in the tubing connection or in the tube itself can also cause substantial errors.
The pitot tube is also subject to error due to the angle of attack and yaw, so its use is generally limited to
reading velocities inside ducts, where the direction of air flow is relatively well controlled.
Slide 22
Flow hoods—also known as belometers or capture hoods—are used to measure the supply and return grille
airflows in HVAC systems. Depending on hood accuracy, these measurements can be used to determine if
individual rooms/spaces receive adequate airflow for heating and cooling. They are also used to identify
flow imbalances between different building spaces; to estimate total air handler flow and supply/return
imbalances; as well as to assess duct air leakage. Flow hoods measure airflow in cubic feet per minute or in
meters per second at a diffuser or grille.
Slide 23
Flow hoods are designed to measure airflow through an opening (for example: at supply air diffusers or
return air grilles, outdoor air intake) by placing the face of the flow hood over the opening and reading the
computed airflow volume.
Flow hoods contain an airspeed integrating manifold which averages the velocity across the opening and
reads out the airflow volume. These hoods are typically made of nylon fabric supported by an aluminum
frame. The instrument is lightweight and easy to hold up against an air vent. The lip of the hood must fit
snugly around the opening to assure that all the air volume is measured. The flow hood must completely
cover the opening. Both supply and exhaust airflow can be measured.
An advantage of employing a flow hood in your audit, is that it will show the airflow in an easier, quicker, and
more consistent manner than using a series of pitot tubes or anemometer readings.
Slide 24
As you will recall, we previously discussed how a draft gauge was used to measure pressure, it is also used
to measure air movement by measuring air pressure differences. Liquid draft gauges and magnetic dry draft
gauges are two types of these draft gauges. These instruments are typically used to measure the amount of
draft in a boiler.
Slide 25
Chemical smoke is useful in diagnosing mass airflow in large manufacturing settings to assess general air
movements, and can be helpful in evaluating HVAC systems, tracking air and pollutant movement, as well
as identifying pressure differentials. Chemical smoke moves from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower
pressure if there is an opening between them (e.g., door, utility penetration).
Because it is the same temperature as the surrounding air, chemical smoke is extremely sensitive to air
currents. Auditors can learn about airflow patterns by observing the direction and speed of smoke
movement.
Slide 26
For example, smoke released near outdoor air intakes will indicate whether air is being drawn into the intake.
Puffs of smoke released at the shell of the building (by doors, windows, or gaps) will indicate whether the
HVAC systems are maintaining interior spaces under positive pressure relative to the outdoors.
Rooms can be positively or negatively pressurized when compared to the spaces surrounding it. These
spaces include another room, a corridor, or the outdoors. To determine whether a room is positively or
negatively pressurized, or neutral, release puffs of smoke near the top and bottom of a slightly opened door
or window, and observe the direction of flow. For example: If the smoke flows inward at both the top and
bottom of a slightly opened door, the room is negatively pressurized when compared to the space on the
other side of the door.
This may be an issue necessary to address after the audit, because negative pressurization may cause
problems with natural draft combustion appliances, or cause outdoor pollutants such as pollens or vehicle
exhaust in loading docks to be drawn into the building through openings.
Slide 27
Chemical smoke is available with various dispensing mechanisms, including smoke "bottles”, "guns”,
“candles”, “pens”, "pencils”, or "tubes”. The dispenser allows smoke to be released in controlled quantities
and directed at specific locations. It is often more informative to use a number of small puffs of smoke as
you move along an air pathway rather than releasing a large amount in a single puff.
A note of caution: Chemical smoke devices use titanium tetrachloride to produce smoke. While the
chemicals forming the smoke normally are not hazardous in the small quantities produced during testing,
avoid inhaling smoke from smoke devices. Concentrated fumes from smoke devices are very corrosive.
Now let’s review water flow measuring instruments, or click on the arrow to return to the main menu list for
additional options.
Slide 28
Accurately tracking the flow of water is a critical need in many audits. The instruments commonly used
include: differential pressure flow meters, flow measuring valves, and single dial meters. Let’s discuss each
one in more depth.
Slide 29
The most common devices for measuring water flow in use today are called “differential pressure flow
meters”. More than fifty percent of all liquid flow measurement applications use this type of unit.
Differential pressure flow meters have two main elements. The primary element causes a change in kinetic
energy that causes the differential pressure in the conduit. The secondary element measures the differential
pressure and provides the signal or read-out that is converted to the actual flow value.
Slide 30
Differential pressure flow meters use Bernoulli's equation* to measure the flow of fluid in a pipe. Differential
pressure flow meters introduce a constriction in the pipe that creates a pressure drop. When the flow
increases, more pressure drop is created.
(*Bernoulli's equation states that the pressure drop across the constriction is proportional to the square of
the flow rate.)
Slide 31
Depending on the different measurements needed, differential pressure flow meters employ different
geometries. These include: orifice plates, flow nozzles, venturi tubes, pitot tubes and flow valves.
Slide 32
A flow measuring valve may also be used during your energy audit. If you have input into the selection, be
sure to choose flow-sensing devices that provide precise, repeatable measurements. Flow measurement
options run the gamut from simple, economical paddle wheels to sophisticated high-accuracy devices.
Slide 33
Here is an example of a flow measuring valve placed on a chilled water loop. Proper installation is critical to
ensure accurate readings, so the audit should verify proper installation. For example, if the manufacturer
states that a minimum of 5 pipe diameters of uninterrupted flow are required both upstream and
downstream of the sensing device, then make sure that the piping layout complies. Regardless of where the
bypass line is situated, the control valve must react quickly to changes in the system flow, a flow measuring
valve will verify this is happening.
Slide 34
Many older factories and buildings will have single dial meters to measure the water flow. Single dial meters
are also used for sub-metering, for example, in a managed property situation. If your audit requires you to
address a single dial meter situation, it is a fairly straightforward method to measurement.
First find the meter itself (it may be located adjacent to the property—in a concrete box—or in the
basement/subbasement of the building). The first thing you will notice is that there are numbers in boxes,
similar to a car odometer. You will read and record these numbers from left to right. The last number, “0,” is
fixed and not in a box. To find this number, read and record the number that the needle is on (as shown just
beyond the number 8 in this example). If the needle is between two numbers, record the lower number.
Some dials have a small triangle. This is your leak detector. This triangle will move at the slightest
movement of water through the meter. If you have every source of running water (faucets, toilets, water
fountains, hoses) turned off (and you have verified there is no water running) and this triangle is still moving,
you have a leak. Denote the leak on your audit report and encourage repair as soon as possible to avoid
high water usage and cost.
Slide 35
To perform the audit measurement:
 Record the meter reading
 Read and record the meter readings again one week later—and be sure it’s at the same time
 Subtract the first reading from the second reading. This gives you the total amount of water (in
gallons or liters) you used during that week
 Divide the number by seven and you will have your average daily consumption
Now let’s review the combustion testing instruments, or click on the arrow to return to the main menu list for
additional options.
Slide 36
Combustion testing is yet another part of the audit you will need to complete. The measurement of oxygen,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitric oxides and sulfur oxides round out the dynamics of assuring
efficient combustion. Controlling fuel, flame temperature, excess air and draft are essential to maximize
efficiency without sacrificing safety.
Slide 37
The combustion testing instruments typically include a flue gas analyzer, stack thermometer, oxygen
reading gauge, and a quarter inch/6mm draft gauge, let’s discuss these in more depth.
Slide 38
A flue gas analyzer is an electronic instrument for measuring the levels of pollutants in the chimney or stack
from a burning process. Generally, the flue gas analyzer will be fitted with electrochemical sensors or
possibly infrared sensors to measure the concentration of a number of pollutant gases.
There are many general types in use, but there will be a pump for extraction of the sample from the stack
and a bank of sensors in the flue gas analyzer to measure the necessary components. Measurement of gas
and ambient temperature are also needed to calculate the combustion parameters in the flue gas analyzer.
Slide 39
Checking stack temperature is one of the simplest and least expensive methods to use to verify whether the
boiler/burner unit is operating efficiently and within its rated capacity. To employ a stack thermometer, just
place it in the small hole—usually present in the stack—and take the reading.
Slide 40
An oxygen reading gauge is essentially an oxygen analyzer intended for use in measuring the residual
oxygen remaining in the flue gases from any combustion process including:
 Boilers
 Process Heaters
 Recovery Boilers
 Reheat Furnaces and/or
 Kilns
The probe inserts directly into a flue gas duct to measure the oxygen in the combustion processes. The
oxygen measurement will help us to know the percentage of excess air and hence, optimize the combustion
efficiency.
Slide 41
Once again, we see the versatile audit instrument; the draft gauge. The draft gauge is basically a
manometer used for checking the differential pressure between the flue gas pressure and the ambient
pressure. The probe inserts directly into a flue gas duct to measure the pressure differential.
Now let’s review RPM measuring instruments, or click on the arrow to return to the main menu list for
additional options.
Slide 42
 RPM (revolutions per minute) reading instruments include:
 Direct/non contact mechanical counters
 Manual counters, and the
 Photo electric tachometer
Let’s investigate each one in more depth beginning with the direct/non contact mechanical counter.
Slide 43
A direct/non contact mechanical counter may already be installed on the equipment you are auditing, or you
may decide to install one as a part of your audit process. These type of counters are typically employed to
track production in a manufacturing process.
Most have a "zeroing" out mechanism to reset the count to zero. If your audit requires you to record how
many units are being produced in say a shift, reset the counter (or record the number if the counter is not
able to be reset) at the beginning of the shift and check it again at the end of the shift to record your findings.
Slide 44
A manual counter is just as it sounds, a device that you operate manually—usually by pressing a button to
signal input into the device. This type of counter may be used when you want to track the number of
personnel entering or exiting a specific location—to correlate temperature swings/drops in pressure for a
given location.
A photo electric tachometer is used to measure rotating equipment such as motor shafts, engines, and
gears and will alert you to over speed or under-speed conditions in these items. Be sure to follow the
device instructions to obtain precise measurements.
Now let’s review compressed air leak detector instruments, or click on the arrow to return to the main menu
list for additional options.
Slide 45
Compressed air is one of the most costly utilities in a facility today. To effectively detect compressed air
leaks, you will need to employ an ultrasonic detector.
Before you perform this audit, try to determine the best route for inspection. If possible, take a print of the
compressed air piping system, or make a simple sketch. These graphics will help you identify the leaks and
make it easier to find them for repair. Use an ultrasonic detector to scan for leaks. For increased accuracy,
be sure to wear your headphones. If you have difficulty determining direction, reduce your sensitivity. Follow
the sound to the loudest point. For consistency, start at the compressor/supply side and work your way to
the use side. When you begin your inspection, create a series of inspection "zones".
This will help organize your approach and prevent the possibility of overlooking a section and missing some
leaks. Move from one "zone" to the next in a planned, organized manner. Tag all leaks.
The tag will make it easy to spot the leaks for repair. Test all leaks after they have been repaired, as
sometimes leaks can be repaired and a new one may be inadvertently created.
Now let’s review general audit tools, or click on the arrow to return to the main menu list for additional
options.
Slide 46
You’ll also want to have on hand the following items throughout your audit:
 Hand tools—such as screw drivers, pliers, wrenches, etcetera
 Flashlight
 Calculator
 Watch
 Tape measure
 Camera, and a
 Tape recorder
Now that we’ve reviewed the energy audit instruments, let’s conclude with a brief summary, or click the
arrow to return to the main menu list for additional options.
Slide 47
Today, we discussed the appropriate energy audit instruments for measuring pressure, air flow, water flow,
combustion testing, revolutions per minute, and compressed air leak detection, as well as the general audit
tools used in an audit. We also reviewed the specific requirements for using instruments to obtain correct
measurements. By selecting and employing the appropriate instrument for your auditing needs you will be
able to successfully participate in the energy audit process—and bring a greater amount of energy efficiency
to your organization.
Slide 48
Thank you for participating in this course.

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